i

A Comparative Study between the Efficiency of Natural & Artificial (LED) Light as

Primary Energy Sources of an Algae-powered Biological Photovoltaic Cell

Based on Their Electrical Output

Daclan, John Rafael L., Grade 10 - Galilei

Delos Santos, Genalyn G., Grade 10 - Joule

Elamparo, Jochelle G., Grade 10 - Galilei

Guab, Michelia Alba T., Grade 10 - Joule

Mariano Floyd Renzo S., Grade 10 - Newton

Researchers

Mrs. Corazon Trinidad Bautista

Research Adviser
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our appreciation to everyone who contributed to this study.

Mrs. Corazon Trinidad A. Bautista, our research adviser, who assisted, directed, and inspired us

throughout the study process. Members of our panel, Mr. Lyle Gavien L. Alcomendras, and Mr.

Leomar Devero, for their work, suggestions, and support in making this study feasible. We'd also

want to thank them for commending our work, which motivates us to further improve our

research. And to Sir Rex Mendel Capili for offering solutions to our inquiries about the study’s

pre-experimental approach.

We would also like to recognize the link that has strengthened our friendship. Throughout

the research, our relationship has helped us get through the restless nights and distraught

moments. It also assisted us in learning about many aspects of our output.

Furthermore, we want to thank our friends and family for their support while we gather

data and write our paper. These individuals supported us in surviving financially, physically, and

emotionally. Our research would be meaningless without them.

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 ABSTRACT

This study aims to compare the efficacy of two different light sources - natural and

artificial light (conventional LED) - in powering an algae-based BPV cell. Specifically, to assess

whether an algae-based BPV dependent on natural light would show greater efficiency compared

to that under conventional artificial light or vice versa, this study will primarily utilize the

magnitude of the electrical output produced by the BPVs.

The results from a study by Ng, et al., wherein Chlorella-based BPVs were exposed to

Programmable LED Arrays (PLA) and standard white LED light, indicate that greater electricity

can be generated by a BPV when subjected to a light source that emits wavelengths optimal for

photosynthesis. The BPVs under Programmable LED Arrays (PLA) had yielded maximum

power outputs of 0.581 mW m-2 (for immobilized culture) and 0.502 mW m−2 (for suspended

culture). These numbers are relatively higher than the peak power outputs produced by the BPVs

subjected to conventional LED lights: 0.202 mW m−2 and 0.156 mW m−2 for immobilized and

suspended cultures, respectively.

Based on the context that wavelengths of light within the optimum absorption spectrum

of pigments (400-700 nm) in the photosynthetic cells yield greater electrical output, which

sunlight possesses along with the fact that it provides a full light spectrum and significantly high

amounts of energy, we can infer that natural light will be more efficient than a standard LED.

Keywords: Algae, Algae-based Biophotovoltaic Cell, Light Source, Electrical Output,

Sunlight, LED Light, Biobattery, Natural Light

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page …………………………………………………………………………………… i

Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………………….. ii

Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………... iii

Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………………….. iv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study ………………………...…………...………………….. 1

B. Problem Statement ……………………………………………………………….. 2

C. Hypothesis ……. ………...……………………………………………………….. 3

D. Scope and Delimitation..………………………………………….……...……….. 3

E. Significance of the Study …………..…………………………….……………….. 3

F. Definition of Terms ……………….…………………………………………….... 5

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. General Structure & Mechanism of Biobatteries …………………..……………... 10

B. Classification of Biobatteries ……………………………………...……............... 10

C. Algae as Source of Energy ………………………………………...…….……….. 11

D. Photosynthetic Activity of Algae ……………………………………….…........... 11

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 E. Algae under an Artificial Light Source ………………………………..…………. 12

F. Sunlight to Electricity …………………………………………………..………… 13

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

A. Research Design ………………………………………………………………..... 14

B. Subject Selection …………………………………………………………............. 15

C. Methods of Data Collection ………………………………………………………. 16

 Pre-experimental Procedures………………………………………………... 16

 Experimental Procedures……………………………………………………. 17

 Data Gathering………………………………………………………………. 17

D. Methods and Data Analysis ……………………….……………………..………. 18

 Electrical Output…………………………………………………………….. 18

 Electrical Sustainability……………………………………………………... 18

 Luminous Flux………………………………………………………………. 18

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results ……………………………………………………………………….……… 19

 Electrical Output ………………………………………………….………… 19

 Algal Growth …………………………………….………………………….. 20

 Electrical Output in Absence of Light ……………………………………….. 22

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 Discussion …………………………………………………………………………... 23

CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary…………………………………………………………………………….. 25

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..………. 26

Recommendation……………………………………………………………………. 26

BIBLIOGRAHY………………………………………………………………..…………… 28

APPENDICES………………………………………………………..……………………... 32

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 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Over the past years, there has been an increasing demand for alternative renewable sources

of energy, preferably sustainable ones, with very little environmental footprint. This stems from

the ever-going global issues related to energy production and consumption, such as the emission

of greenhouse gasses, depletion of fossil fuel reserves, different forms of pollution, solid waste

disposal issues, global warming, etc.

Biobatteries are defined as energy-storing devices that use biological matter as their

principal fuel for electrical energy production. On that note, biobatteries are cost-effective and are

ecologically sound alternative solutions to the demand for energy sources. According to Janodi

(2014), as cited by Hussain et al (2021), these biological batteries can be classified into three.

There are (1) batteries that use biochemical agents (or enzymes) to break down a substrate during

redox reactions, (2) batteries that operate by coupling oxidizable and reducible organic

compounds, and (3) batteries that utilize microorganisms to generate electric current. This study

will employ the third classification mentioned above, in the form of a biological photovoltaic

system (BPV).

To provide context, a photovoltaic (PV) system is a type of technology that converts

sunlight into usable electrical energy. These systems work by means of the photovoltaic effect: the

generation of voltage and current in an apparatus upon its exposure to a light source (i.e., the Sun).

Biological photovoltaic systems work under the same principles as PVs, utilizing light to generate

electricity. But instead of using photovoltaics–composed of semiconducting materials like silicon–

1
to convert light, BPVs harness the photosynthetic abilities of photoautotrophic microorganisms.

For instance, photosynthetic algae.

Such classification of algae utilizes light energy to catalyze a series of intracellular

reactions, in order to produce organic compounds or biomolecules. When they photosynthesize,

energy from the light source is absorbed by the organisms. Said energy will stimulate the oxidation

of water, leading to the separation of hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen molecules (O2), and the

release of free electrons. Some of those electrons, that have made it out of the cells, would be the

source of electric current.

B. Problem Statement (Objectives)

The study is focused on simulating an algae-fueled biophotovoltaic (BPV) cell. It aims to

evaluate the efficiency of the BPV cells under artificial and natural light.

Specifically, it is designed to:

1. Construct a biobattery that utilizes algae as an effective source of bioenergy.

2. Determine the effects of manipulating light sources on the electrical output of algae-based

BPV cells.

3. Support the introduction of a sustainable source of renewable energy to secluded and local

communities.

4. Mitigate current global environmental issues such as global warming and depletion of

fossil fuels.

2
C. Hypothesis

There will be an observable difference between algae-based biophotovoltaic (BPV) cells

powered under natural light and artificial light. Our study hypothesizes that an algae-based BPV

cell dependent on sunlight would show greater efficiency in terms of generating energy compared

to a BPV cell using artificial lighting.

D. Scope and Delimitation

The study utilizes algae as an energy provider for a biobattery through photosynthetic

activity. The energy is transferred to the biophotovoltaic device (BPV) and is measured by a

voltmeter to be lent by Caloocan National Science and Technology High School. It is accumulated

from the cathode and will serve as storage for later use.

The locale of this study will occur in one of the researchers’ residency. The algae-based

BPV cell will solely rely on a conventional white LED light as artificial light, and only power

devices of small wattage during the experiment proper. A single algal species will be exclusively

used during the pre-experimental period, and two phases of the assessment. High-end equipment

required for a more structured experiment will not be accessible and economical for the study’s

benefit.

E. Significance of the Study

The focus of this research is to prove that sunlight is sufficient to power an algae-based

biobattery. It also intends to compare the power generation efficiency of algae-powered biological

photovoltaic (BPV) cells under different sources of light.

3
 Furthermore, the results of the study will be significant for the following:

Students. The study's findings will be critical in raising learners’ understanding and awareness

about the use of organic materials that are easier to manufacture for the production of renewable

energy sources.

Agriculturists. Algae producers will gain from farming several varieties of algae that can

provide bioenergy. The study institutes the utilization of algae to harness its photosynthetic power,

which could be more cost-effective and practical to use.

Local Populace. The result of this study aims to produce an alternative source of energy for

marginalized communities. This energy source is more cost-effective, accessible, and safe.

Global Issues. The findings of this study will benefit the looming challenge of global warming.

Algae-dependent biobatteries can offer energy without the adverse effects of burning fossil fuels.

Renewable energy is frequently at the top of the list of adjustments the world can make to mitigate

the worst effects of rising temperatures involving climate change.

Future Researchers. Future researchers will benefit from the findings of this study since it

will serve as a guide for manipulating and adding more variables to future research. This could be

a useful source for them as they explore more about algae-based research.

4
 Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

F. Definition of Terms

Ammeter. An instrument for measuring either direct or alternating electric current, in amperes

Anaerobic. It means 'without air' and refers to the object producing energy without oxygen.

Anode. An electrode through which the conventional current enters into a polarized electrical

device.

Anodic Chamber. In anode chamber, microorganisms act as electrochemically active bacteria to

oxidize the substrates through PEM. From: Refining Biomass Residues for Sustainable Energy

and Bioproducts, 2020.

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ATP. Adenosine triphosphate, also known as ATP, is a molecule that carries energy within cells.

It is the main energy currency of the cell, and it is an end product of the processes of

photophosphorylation (adding a phosphate group to a molecule using energy from light), cellular

respiration, and fermentation.

Biochemical Reactions. The transformation of one molecule to a different molecule inside a cell

Bioethanol. A high octane biofuel which is produced from fermentation of corn, potatoes, grain

(wheat, barley and rye), sugar beet, sugar cane and vegetable residues.

Biofilm. A complex structure of microbiome having different bacterial colonies or single type of

cells in a group; adhere to the surface. These cells are embedded in extracellular polymeric

substances, a matrix which is generally composed of eDNA, proteins and polysaccharides,

showing high resistance to antibiotics.

Biological Batteries. A bio-battery is an energy storing device that is powered by organic

compounds, usually being glucose, such as the glucose in human blood.

Biological Electrochemical Systems. Revolutionary new bioengineering technologies which

integrate microorganisms or enzymes with the electrochemical method to improve the reducing or

oxidizing metabolism.

Biological Photovoltaic System. A clean energy-generating technology that uses biological

photosynthetic material to capture solar energy and directly produce electrical power.

Biomethanol. It is considered an alternative energy source because of its high octane number.

Biomolecules. A chemical compound found in living organisms.

6
Carbon Fixation. The process wherein photosynthetic organisms (such as plants) turn inorganic

carbon into organic compounds (carbohydrates).

Catalysis. The process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known

as a catalyst.

Cathode. A negative terminal or electrode through which electrons enter a direct current load,

such as an electrolytic cell or an electron tube, and the positive terminal of a battery or other source

of electrical energy through which they return.

Cathode Catalysts. Electrochemical reduction of molecular O2 at the cathode surface is an

important reaction for the power generation in different types of fuel cells including MFC (Khilari

et al. 2014).

Cathodic Chamber. Are placed adjutants to either side of each desalination chamber where CEMs

are used.

Cellular Respiration. A set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of

organisms to convert chemical energy from oxygen molecules or nutrients into adenosine

triphosphate, and then release waste products.

Chlorophyll. The natural compound present in green plants, that gives them their color.

Current. The rate at which electrons flow past a point in a complete electrical circuit.

Electrolytes. A medium containing ions that is electrically conducting through the movement of

ions, but not conducting electrons.

7
Electronic Mediators. A confidential mediation is used for the purpose of resolving disputes

arising from electronically stored information or e-discovery.

Environmental Footprint. These are quantitative measures showing the appropriation of natural

resources by humans (Hoekstra, 2008).

Enzymatic Bio Batteries. A sugar-digesting enzyme is immobilized on the anode, and oxygen-

reducing enzymes are immobilized on the cathode.

Enzymes. Proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies

Exogenous Artificial Electron Mediators. These are artificial carriers that facilitate the transport

of electrons from the photosynthetic cell to the anode.

Extracellular Electron Transport. The process by which some microorganisms exchange

intracellular electrons with an extracellular electron donor/acceptor, including naturally occurring

metal compounds and artificial electrodes, across the cell membrane (Lovley, 2008; Kato, 2015).

Intracellular Processes. It includes the genetic regulatory architecture of the cell.

Intracellular Reactions. Cellular reaction wherein biological processes occur inside the cell.

Ionic Bridges. A strong non-covalent attraction between 2 charged molecules (ions), a negatively

charged ion (anion), and a positively-charged one (cation).

Ions. An atom or molecule with a net electrical charge.

Light waves. An electromagnetic wave that travels through the vacuum of outer space.

8
Marginalized Communities. Those excluded from mainstream social, economic, educational,

and/or cultural life.

Microbes. Organisms that are too small to be seen without using a microscope, so they include

things like bacteria, archaea, and single cell eukaryotes — cells that have a nucleus, like an amoeba

or a paramecium.

NADPH. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate is an essential electron donor in all

organisms, and provides the reducing power for anabolic reactions and redox balance.

Non-Arable. Not suitable for the growing of crops.

Organic Compounds. These are generally any chemical compounds that contain carbon-

hydrogen bonds.

Oxidation. The loss of electrons during a reaction by a molecule, atom or ion.

Oxygen-Reducing Enzymes. Enzymes that aid in the process of Oxygen reduction.

PETC. Converts free and abundant solar energy into reducing power and chemical energy for

producing biomass and biofuels through transferring electrons sequentially from H2O through

Photosystem II and then Photosystem I to NADP+ in chloroplasts of higher plants and

photosynthetic algae.

Photoautotrophs. Organisms that use light energy and inorganic carbon to produce organic

materials.

Reduction. Any process in which electrons are gained by an atom or an ion. Always occurs

accompanied by oxidation of the reducing agent.

9
 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. General Structure & Mechanism of Biobatteries

A biobattery has three components stacked onto each other that work relative to each other.

Those are cathode, anode, and separator. The separator has an organic fluid known as electrolytes.

It is advisable to use aluminum foils or cellophane to divide sections of the components. The

energy flow starts from the anode where we put our principal fuel (algae). Current will travel to

the cathode until it releases its by-product, water, and oxygen. The separator has electrolytes found

in the middle of the two terminals that prevent any short circuit. Common sources of energy for a

biobattery to work are organic (sugar, starch) or inorganic (metals). Bio-battery is not the same as

a traditional battery. Anode and cathode catalysts are biological enzymes in this case. On both the

cathode and anode terminals, enzymes and electronic mediators are placed.

B. Classifications of Biobatteries

Biobatteries can be identified into three different types. They are classified with accords to

the nature of electrode and biochemical reactions (Janodi, 2014). (1) Enzymatic biobatteries make

use of redox reactions similar to the process of cellular respiration. Enzymes immobilized on the

anode break down sugar and release energy. The energy travels to the cathode with oxygen-

reducing enzymes, producing oxygen and water as byproducts. (2) Microbial-based biobatteries

are batteries that utilize microbes such as cyanobacteria, Escherichia coli, etc. to generate electrical

power. Biocatalysts in the anode will break glucose down, releasing electrons that will flow to the

cathode. (3) Other forms of bio batteries integrate oxidizable and reducible biomolecules or

organic compounds to generate bioenergy similar to the processes that the former two underwent.

10
C. Algae as Source of Energy

Algae is a good source of renewable energy, such as biodiesel, bioethanol, and biomethanol

(Najafi et al., 2011). It shows significant potential as a biofuel due to its rapid growth rate and

cultivation in non-arable areas, which helps it not compete for food production. Oils that algae

store as energy are extracted to fuel modern vehicles (cars, planes, trucks, etc.). Algae biomass is

anaerobically digested or burned like wood to yield heat and electricity (Wen et al., 2019). It serves

substantially in sustainable energy development and environment conservation due to factors such

as the harmful effects of fossil fuels, the instability of energy prices, and the dependence on energy

from foreign nations.

D. Photosynthetic Activity of Algae

Most algae are considered photoautotrophs, organisms that synthesize organic material by

using light energy. They do not greatly contrast plants despite their lack of a vascular system for

nutrient mobility, roots, stems, and leaves. Algae like cyanobacteria have chlorophyll A

responsible for photosynthesis, the natural method of converting light energy to chemical energy

in the form of sugars. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gains electrons (reduction) to transform into glucose,

while water (H2O) loses electrons (oxidation) and releases oxygen as a byproduct. Relatively,

marine algae produce 70% of oxygen in our atmosphere (Nelson, 2015).

Photosynthesis has two phases, the light-dependent or light reaction and the light-

independent or dark reaction. Under light reaction, chlorophyll absorbs light waves from any light

source—typically solar energy from sunlight—and converts them into chemical energy as energy-

11
rich molecules, namely ATP and NADPH. Consequently, carbohydrate molecules (glucose) are

produced in the dark reaction using the energy stored as ATP and NADPH molecules which serve

as food. Underwater, where algae widely thrive, photosynthetic activity can occur as long as

enough light is available for the chlorophyll to absorb.

E. Algae under an Artificial Light Source

Algae-organisms are unicellular or simple multicellular body plants that can manufacture

+their food material by photosynthesis. Algae can be cultivated under certain conditions of

temperature, light, and sufficient nutrients to produce biodiesel. Algae show higher efficiency in

converting solar energy to produce biodiesel than other crops. That's because algae need less area

for cultivation in the case of indoor or outdoor systems in comparison with crops. To produce a

certain amount of biodiesel in an indoor system, algae need 1000 times less water than crops.

In an experiment prepared in a flask volume of 1 L, it was reported that it has an excellent

condition for the growth of C. Vulgaris under red LED illumination. It was revealed that the

intensity of light influences algae development and the type of light source has a significant impact

on algae growth. They also discovered that algae cultivated under LED light had a different

development rate than algae cultivated under fluorescent light. Growing microalgae under red

wavelengths have a higher growth rate than growing microalgae under white, yellow, purple, blue,

and green wavelengths, according to a prior study. C. Vulgaris grows best when exposed to red

light.

12
2.6. Sunlight to Electricity

First introduced in industrial applications in 1954, a photovoltaic system is a technology

that can directly convert light into electrical energy. This type of system employs the concept of

the photovoltaic effect, which is defined as the generation of electric current and potential

difference in an electrical system when exposed to a light source. Likewise, biological

photovoltaics (BPVs) utilize light to perform the same function. However, BPVs are biological

electrochemical systems that use photoautotrophic microorganisms, such as cyanobacteria (blue-

green algae), to convert light into electricity (Zhu et al., 2019), rather than the toxic and barely

recyclable semiconducting materials that are commonly found in PV systems.

Photoautotrophic microorganisms are capable of performing the process of photosynthesis,

hence the name. In an article by Howe & Bombelli (2020), they explained how electricity is

produced during intracellular processes of the said type of organisms. During photosynthesis,

energy from the sun (or other light sources) is absorbed by photosynthetic organisms. Within the

cell, the light stimulates the oxidation of water, resulting in the release of hydrogen ions (H+),

oxygen molecules (O2), and electrons (e-). Some of those electrons would make it out of the cell

through a process called extracellular electron transport (EET), and would then be attracted to an

anode (positively charged electrode). Those electrons would then flow from the anode, through an

external circuit, and towards the cathode (negatively charged electrode). Meanwhile, other

electrons would follow the photosynthetic electron transport chain (PETC). They are needed to

produce NADPH and ATP, which are, in turn, crucial for the process of carbon fixation or the

process where inorganic carbons are converted into organic compounds (carbohydrates) during

photosynthesis.

13
 It is important to note that BPV systems produce energy with zero net carbon dioxide

emission. Rather, carbon dioxide from the environment is converted into oxygen and biomass

during the process of photosynthesis. Zhu et al (2019) also emphasized in their study that BPV

systems can potentially continuously supply electricity throughout the day and night, even in

absence of light. This is a significant advantage over PVs and possibly other forms of bio batteries.

Howe & Bombelli (2020) explained that this electric current produced in the absence of a light

source is a result of the metabolism of organic compounds that are produced and stored during

photosynthesis; this occurs in a process called cellular respiration.

Additionally, in conventional BPV systems, a culture of certain photosynthetic

microorganism biofilm is immobilized on the anodes for a direct EET (Tschortner et al., 2019).

Or, exogenous artificial electron mediators that can penetrate cell walls and/or membranes (e.g.,

ferricyanide, cytochrome, 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone, etc.) are used for an indirect EET

(Saper, et al., 2018). However, according to Zhu et al. (2019), the weak EET function of

cyanobacteria – which are widely used in BPV systems – may hinder the exchange of electrons

between the cell and electrodes.

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

A. Research Design

This study aims to identify the more efficient source of light for an algae-based

biobattery—artificial or natural. The researchers will consider the time exposure, volume of water,

14
and amount of energy source (algae) to produce an objective result. These variables will be utilized

in conducting an experiment and creating an algal-based biobattery wherein two certain sets of

algae are involved. One is subjected to a natural source of light or sunlight and the other one is

exposed to an LED light source.

The researchers will conduct the study using a quantitative design to find answers to the

preceding problem, meet the research objectives, and produce a logical and compelling conclusion

concerning the hypothesis. Quantitative research, according to R. Watson (2014), can be seen as a

way of making sense of the world. This particular research design covers and encompasses an

entire spectrum of measurement and perception.

Because of its unique feature, the capacity to test theories explicitly by developing

hypotheses and conducting statistical analysis, a quantitative research approach was chosen. The

researchers will also use an experimental quantitative research approach to compare, contrast, and

determine the most efficient light source for an algal-based biological photovoltaic cell.

B. Subject Selection

Algae that are chosen as subjects must have the ability to perform a photosynthetic activity.

Gathered samples are expected to show signs of growth inside small containers with adequate

moisture. Important factors to consider are the accessibility, survivability, and growth speed of the

specimen.

15
C. Methods of Data Collection

Pre-experimental procedures. Algae, transparent containers, electrodes, circuit wires,

ionic bridges, LED lights, and water sources are the materials and components needed to assemble

a prototype of the biological photovoltaic (BPV) and to set up the experiment. The inside of the

transparent container, which will act as the main body of the BPV, will be separated into two parts:

the anodic and cathodic chamber. The algae specimens will be suspended inside the anodic

chamber, which is filled with water that contains optimal amounts of nutrients needed by the

microorganism to thrive. The cathodic chamber, on the other hand, will be filled with

uncontaminated water (H2O). Both chambers would be connected by an ionic bridge, to allow the

hydrogen ions to cross towards the cathodic chamber.

Figure 2. A sample diagram of how the BPV would be constructed.

Experimental procedures. The researchers would conduct two sets of experiments – one

being the exposure of the BPV under natural light, and the other being under artificial light – each

consisting of two phases. During the first phase of each experiment, the BPV would be subjectedto

the light source for 7 hours. And in the second phase, the BPV would be deprived of light. Other

16
conditions, such as the volume of water in the two chambers and the number of algae placed, will

be kept constant in both sets of experiments and will therefore be labeled as the controlled variables

of the study.

Figure 3. A visualization of the two sets of experiments

Data gathering. To measure the electrical output of the two BPVs when subjected to the

light of different types, the researchers would use an instrument called a voltmeter. The voltmeter

will be used to measure the voltage (V) or the potential difference between the anode and cathode

of the BPV. The measurement shall be recorded every passing hour of phase I (while the BPV is

still exposed to the light source). And if the availability of resources permits, an ammeter will be

connected to the external circuit to measure the electron flow or current (I) generated. Moreover,

given the capacity of BPVs to generate electrical activity even in the absence of a light source as

a result of a process called cellular respiration, the electrical output will also be measured during

the phase II of the experiments. However, this time, we will be monitoring how long the generation

17
of electricity lasts when there is a lack of light sources. In addition, the intensity of light emitted

by the attached light bulbs will be evaluated using a lux meter or light meter.

3.4. Methods and Data Analysis

Numerous methods shall be used to measure the power supply and voltage output of an

algae-based biophotovoltaic (BPV) cell under exposure to natural and artificial lighting. This study

would employ the following criteria to analyze and compare the data (electrical output):

Electrical Output. The intensity of the potential difference will be used to indicate how

high or low the energy is generated from the light source. The voltage output of the BPV will be

recorded and observed every hour for seven hours. The results will help reflect the most efficient

light source between natural and artificial.

Electrical Sustainability. During the second phase of the experiment, the BPV will no

longer be exposed to a light source. It will be set-up to power and sustain a 3-watt light bulb. The

time it takes for the lightbulb to dim will be observed as an indicator of the energy stored in the

biobattery from the two different given light sources.

Luminous Flux. In phase II, the measurement of how bright or the amount of visible light

from the two light bulbs set up will be assessed, denoted as lumen (lm). The data gathered will

reflect the amount of energy (wattage, watts) used to power each light bulb. Hence, high wattage

exhibits a brighter light.

18
 CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Due to the lack of means to conduct the actual experiment and the said methods of data

collection, the following information to be presented are based on previous studies concerning

algal-based biological photovoltaic (BPV) systems.

Results

Before proceeding to the presentation of results, it is important to note that those studies

were conducted with varying conditions and treatments. Additionally, those RRL-based data may

not use the same units of measurement as specified in this paper’s methodology section. For

instance, instead of voltage as a way to measure the electrical output, it will be based on their

power density. The luminous flux will also not be presented in this section for the previous studies

that we reviewed do not have such set-up. And, instead of the length of time that it takes to power

a light bulb, the BPV’s ability to operate in the absence of light will now be based on its electrical

output during the dark. Nevertheless, the proceeding data and information will be used to form a

hypothetical conclusion whether artificial or natural light is more efficient.

Electrical Output. In a study by Ng et al (2020), the algal-based BPV devices are

subjected under two types of artificial light – Programmable LED arrays (PLA) and conventional

white LED light. The algae used in this study was Chlorella, a microalga that contains chlorophyll-

a (the primary pigment of photosynthetic organisms that absorbs blue and red spectrum of light).

The Chlorella-based BPV device has performed better under PLA, with a maximum power output

of 0.581 mW m−2 from immobilized culture, whereas a maximum of 0.502 mW m−2 from
19
suspended algae. On the other hand, under the conventional white LED light, the maximum power

outputs that are recorded are significantly lower, with the values 0.202 mW m −2 in immobilized

algae biofilm and 0.156 mW m−2 in a suspended one.

Table 1

Maximum Power Output (in span of 12 days) of a Chlorella-fueled BPV during Light Conditions

Note. Adapted from Table 3 in “Optimised spectral effects of programmable LED arrays (PLA)s

on bioelectricity generation from algal-biophotovoltaic devices” by F.L. Ng, S.M. Phang, B.L.

Lan, V. Kalavally, C. H. Thong, K. T. Chong, V. Periasamy, K. Chandrasekaran, G. Gnana kumar,

K. Yunus & A. Fisher. 2020, Sci Rep 10, 16105 (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-72823-9).

CC BY-NC.

Algal growth. Ng et al. (2020), in the same paper, also evaluated the cell density of the

Chlorella under the PLA and white LED light. Under the PLA, the highest cell density is 53.3

× 107 cells mL−1 for suspended cultures of Chlorella and 223 × 107 cells mL−1 for the immobilized

20
microalgae. Meanwhile, when exposed to conventional white LED light, the highest cell density

recorded for suspended algae is 50 × 107 cells mL−1, and for immobilized culture is 145 × 107 cells

mL−1. The chlorophyll-a concentration was also monitored for both treatments, with the data

gathered during day 8 being the highest, due to the exponential growth phase of the cultures which

happens within days 4-8. Under PLA, the highest recorded was 7.54 mg L−1 for suspended culture,

and 16.42 mg L−1 for the immobilized. Concurrently, when the BPV was exposed to conventional

LED light, 4.53 mg L−1 and 13.23 mg L−1 were recorded for suspended and immobilized cultures,

respectively.

Table 2

Algal Growth of Chlorella When Exposed to PLA and Conventional LED

Note. Adapted from Table 1 in “Optimised spectral effects of programmable LED arrays (PLA)s

on bioelectricity generation from algal-biophotovoltaic devices” by F.L. Ng, S.M. Phang, B.L.

Lan, V. Kalavally, C. H. Thong, K. T. Chong, V. Periasamy, K. Chandrasekaran, G. Gnana kumar,

21
K. Yunus & A. Fisher. 2020, Sci Rep 10, 16105 (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-72823-9).

CC BY-NC.

Electrical Output in Absence of Light. The aforementioned authors, in their study have

taken the power output measurements during dark conditions, as well. Such an approach was done

in order to discern whether current can also be generated in the absence of a light source. Indeed

so, the maximum power density of a BPV under PLA is equivalent to 0.334 mW m−2 when the

algae are suspended, and 0.451 mW m−2 when the culture is immobilized. Furthermore, under the

exposure to the conventional white LED light, the BPV that utilized suspended algae culture

produces up to 0.102 mW m−2, while the device with immobilized culture reaches 0.133 mW m−2

for the maximum power output.

Table 3

Maximum Power Output (in span of 12 days) of a Chlorella-fueled BPV during Dark Conditions

22
Note. Adapted from Table 3 in “Optimised spectral effects of programmable LED arrays (PLA)s

on bioelectricity generation from algal-biophotovoltaic devices” by F.L. Ng, S.M. Phang, B.L.

Lan, V. Kalavally, C. H. Thong, K. T. Chong, V. Periasamy, K. Chandrasekaran, G. Gnana kumar,

K. Yunus & A. Fisher. 2020, Sci Rep 10, 16105 (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-72823-9).

CC BY-NC.

Discussion

The photosynthetic activity of the algae affects the efficiency of the Biophotovoltaic cell’s

output of electricity. Plants like algae has a photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) of visible

light (ranging from 400 to 700 nm) which can support the photosynthetic process of our fuel. Blue-

light wavelength (420–450 nm) and red-light wavelength (660–700 nm) are known to be as

efficient for photosynthesis as the full spectrum. It is also proven that the said light wavelength

have the best effects on plants for photosynthesis.

A study of Lee et. al. uses a programable LED array (PLA) to study the algae growth that

relates to the bioelectricity output of the BPV. It is conditioned and optimized to a setting where it

is set between wavelengths of 370, 410, 435 and 660 nm that can suffice the energy needed for the

algae to grow.

BPV cells are then put under a PLA and a standard LED light, and it is seen that the cell

under PLA performed better than the other one. According to the figure above, the algal cell under

PLA has given a higher electrical output, a peak power output of 0.581 mW m−2 for immobilized

BPV device which is 188% higher than the standard LED light.

23
 The context behind the greater electrical output of the PLA is that the higher the power

output, the higher the photosynthetic performance. And the light provided by the PLA was overall

compatible with the absorption spectrum of the algae. The growth of the algae depends on the

characteristic of the wavelength. Therefore, the wavelength of the light source is needed to be

considered and the PLA has it at higher energy levels, given red and blue wavelengths.

As it generates higher electricity due to photosynthesis it is said that it also produces more

glucose during the phase of cellular respiration that can help to still produce electricity for the

night with the absence of light. This is most likely since higher photosynthetic activity yields more

organic products (carbohydrates), which means there are more amounts of glucose to be

metabolized after photosynthesis. The amount of glucose made varies to different conditions based

on what light source the algae was on. Different concentration levels of algae affect the process of

cellular respiration that makes it crucial to monitor the light capacity of a light source. Both oxygen

and glucose are needed for the effectivity of the energy transfer without light and if there are low

levels of glucose, then there would be just minimal amount of ATPs produced.

Depending on the time of the day, the sun has its peak wavelengths. By these in mind, the

changes of natural light affect plant growth more as it is more significant compared to the other

colored wavelength. In relation to this, the sun has a high proportion of wavelengths in the red and

blue spectrum similar to that of a PLA as used by Ng et al. The mentioned researchers programmed

the LED to emit light at a certain spectrum that is optimal for photosynthesis to take place. And

optimal spectrum for photosynthesis is within the blue range (425–450 nm) and red range (600–
24
700 nm) that for a larger scale, the sun possesses these wavelengths optimal for the algae to

photosynthesize accordingly.

The adaptation of these colors made the chlorophyll absorb more red and blue lights, which

are useful for photosynthesis to make sugar. As the algae gets limited light - that is, from

conventional white LED light - photosynthesis slows down and will not make sufficient glucose

for energy to be created. Both sources can be used for the activation of photosynthesis, but from

the preceding information, we can infer that BPV exposed to sunlight will have higher

photosynthetic activity, higher growth rate of algae, higher metabolic rate needed for dark

conditions, and most importantly, higher electrical output.

CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The study was conducted in order to compare the efficiency of algae-based biobattery under

artificial and natural sources of light and also to support the effectiveness of algae-based

biobatteries powered by sunlight. Data regarding electrical output, algal growth, and electrical

output in absence of light were gathered throughout different studies. Electrical output of the algae,

Chlorella, was seen to perform better under PLA with a maximum power output of 0.581 mW m-

² from immobilized culture and a maximum of 0.502 mW m-² in suspended algae compared to

algae under LED light with a maximum of 0.202 mW m-² from immobilized culture and 0.156

mW-² from a suspended one. Algal growth also tested in the same study showed that PLA resulted

25
in a higher cell density of 53.3 × 10⁷ cells mL−1 for suspended cultures and 223 × 10⁷ cells mL−1

for the immobilized microalgae compared to LED light suspended algae is 50 × 10⁷ cells mL−¹,

and for immobilized culture is 145 × 10⁷ cells mL−¹. Electrical output in absence of light also

showed that PLA resulted in higher electrical output garnering a maximum power output of 0.334

mW m−² when the algae are suspended, and 0.451 mW m−² when the culture is immobilized

compared to LED light with a maximum power output of 0.102 mW m-² when the algae are

suspended, and 0.133 mW m-² for immobilized culture.

Because photosynthetic activity also contributes to electrical output, the PLA was used in order

to simulate different conditions optimal for the photosynthesis of algae to take place. It was

programmed to emit light within the red and blue spectrum which the sun possess. The adaptation

of these colors made chlorophyll A absorb more light useful for photosynthesis to make organic

molecules, which can also allow photosynthetic activity when there is no light.

Conclusion

Based on the gathered results from related papers on our study, it can be concluded that natural

light will be an efficient light source for an algal-based biophotovoltaic (BPV) cell in generating

electricity or bioenergy in comparison to artificial (LED) light. These results infer that sunlight is

an great source of red and blue light wavelengths optimal for a higher rate of algae photosynthesis,

which reflects a high electrical output.

26
 Recommendation

Primarily, the supposed findings of this study are derived from a set-up of an algal-based

biophotovoltaic cell that can utilize both wavelengths of sunlight and conventional LED lights.

The said experiment poses high chances of proving the formed hypothesis.

1. Future studies should utilize Programmable LED arrays (PLA) in place of conventional

LED lights to further assess natural light in comparison to artificial light that closely shares

its characteristics.

2. It is recommended for other algae species, particularly, Cyanobacteria as a microalga

counterpart of Chlorella to be used as biofuel for algae-powered BPV cells to expand the

scope of future experiments.

3. This study has algae suspended on the anodic chamber during the experimental procedure.

Hence, the use of a biofilm or immobilized culture of algae is encouraged.

4. The algal-based BPV cells involved in the experiment is restricted to only power a 3-watt

lightbulb. Different bulb types, wattage, and respective devices should be explored to

produce a wider extent of results and information.

5. Further research should utilize greater daytime duration in comparison to the hours shown

in this study to generate more accurate information with regards the first phase (charging)

phase of the algal-based BPV cells.

27
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APPENDICES

32
I. Appendix A. Minute Meetings Documentation

33
34
II. Appendix B. Photo Documentations

1. 9:37 P.M. , February 16, 2022

Appendix B Figure 1.1: Changing the Research topic

2. 10:48 P.M. , April 26, 2022

Appendix B Figure 2.1: Distributing tasks for journal readings and chapter 1 writing

35
3. 11:41 P.M. , May 4, 2022

Appendix B Figure 3.1: Finalizing the first chapter; Introduction

Appendix B Figure 3.2: Reviewing the related literatures that were read

36
4. 04:29 P.M. , May 21, 2022

Appendix B Figure 4.1: Distributing RRLs to write; Chapter 2 Review of Related

Literature

5. 04:55 P.M. , May 23, 2022

Appendix B Figure 5.1: Writing of Chapter 3 based on the RRLs; Chapter 3 Method and

Procedures

37
6. 5:51 P.M. , May 24, 2022

Appendix B Figure 6.1: Finalizing Chapters 1-3

Appendix B Figure 6.2: Creating a shared presentation to work for the Research defense

38
7. 11:32 P.M. , May 28, 2022

Appendix B Figure 7.1: Discussing the contents of the Canva Presentation

Appendix B Figure 7.1: Rehearsing the flow of the Research Defense

39
8. 06:11 P.M. , June 03, 2022

Appendix B Figure 8.1: Day of Research Defense

40