Process and Food Engineering Lab Manual

Food Process Engineering Lab 2

Experiment 2 : Boiling Heat Transfer

Boiling is the formation of vapor bubbles at the heating surface. These bubbles form at nucleation
sites whose number and location depend upon the surface roughness or cavities, fluid properties
and operating conditions. The boiling heat transfer coefficient is very sensitive to the temperature
difference between the surface and the liquid. In addition, the heat transfer coefficient is affected
by the local vapor-liquid mixture ratios and velocities, which are a function of the vaporizer design
and operating conditions. The complex interaction of all these variables makes the accurate
prediction of a boiling coefficient virtually impossible, but in large commercial vaporizers the two-
phase flow heat transfer becomes controlling and reduces the number of variables.

In this section these variables will be discussed and some references given with the aim of
providing the engineer an understanding of these factors that affect design of vaporizers. Also
some design principles to allow him to produce a vaporizer design will be given. In general, the
philosophy of design is that of designer of process vaporizers.

Pool Boiling Curve

If a heating surface is immersed in a pool of liquid that is at the boiling point and the surface
temperature is slowly increased, then a plot of the heat flux and the derived heat transfer coefficient
versus the temperature difference between the heating surface and the liquid boiling point results
in a curve as shown in Figure 1-1.

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Food Process Engineering Lab 2

Figure5-1: Typical Pool Boiling Curve for Single Component Liquids.

For the present we are considering a single component liquid. When the heating surface
temperature is slightly hotter than the saturation temperature of the liquid, the excess vapour
pressure is unlikely to produce bubbles. Up to the point A or A’, heat transfer occurs by natural
convection. The locally warmed liquid expands and convection currents carry it to the liquid-
vapour interface where evaporation takes place and the thermal equilibrium is restored.
Evaporation takes place at small temperature differences and no bubbles are seen. At point A or
A’, the local superheat is sufficient to activate nucleation sites on the heating surface and vapor
bubbles are formed.

The very rapid, almost explosive, formation of the bubbles causes a very strong local velocity
within the liquid film and increases heat transfer. In the region from A to B (A’ to B’) more bubble
nucleation sites are activated and this is the region of nucleate boiling. In nucleate boiling, steam
bubbles form at the heat transfer surface and then break away and are carried into the main stream
of the fluid. Such movement enhances heat transfer because the heat generated at the surface is
carried directly into the fluid stream. Once in the main fluid stream, the bubbles collapse because
the bulk temperature of the fluid is not as high as the heat transfer surface temperature where the
bubbles were created. This heat transfer process is sometimes desirable because the energy created
at the heat transfer surface is quickly and efficiently "carried" away.

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At point B on the heat flux curve (defined as the critical temperature difference also called the
departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) or the bum-out point) the heat flux decreases with a further
increase of the surface temperature. Note that point B does not correspond to point B’ on the
coefficient curve but is at the T where the slope of the h vs. T curve is –1. Several phenomena
are occurring as one approaches point B and passes it into the B to C region. The numerous nuclei
and the rapid evolution of vapor prevents the liquid from approaching the surface and thus starves
the surface of liquid which was defined by Zuber (1959) as hydrodynamic crisis phenomenon.
However, just beyond B after a short transition zone, film boiling occurs. Happel & Stephen
(1974) have also observed and reported the formation of continuous vapor films well before the
minimum heat flux, point C.

In film boiling a continuous layer of vapor covers the heating surface and keeps the liquid from
contacting the surface. The insulating effect of the vapor reduces the rate of heat transfer and the
coefficient. As the temperature difference increases, the vapor film becomes thicker and
eventually reaches a maximum thickness somewhere near point C’ and then the coefficient slowly
increases due to the effect of radiation and perhaps further convection effects within the vapor
film. The transition from nucleate to film boiling involves a zone where the rapid vapor evolution
blankets the tube with a rough vapor-liquid interface that pulsates and occasionally collapses thus
wetting the tube.

However, as the T is further increased this film becomes smooth and stable but the heat flux is
less. The extent of this transition seems to depend upon its definition. Many references define the
transition to be between the maximum, B, and the minimum heat flux, C, points as shown by the
upper arrows in Figure 1-1. However, some experiments (Happel & Stephen, 1974; Drew &
Mueller,1937) have seen stable films well before the minimum flux, C, is reached.

Film boiling appears to be closely related to the Leidenfrost effect. This phenomenon was first
described by Leidenfrost in 1756 and bears his name. He noted that when liquids were spilled or
placed on very hot surfaces, drops were formed which did not contact the surface but floated above
the surface and slowly evaporated. However, when the surface temperature was reduced below a
certain temperature the drops contacted the surface and rapidly evaporated. The Leidenfrost
phenomenon has undergone several periods of intense experimentation and neglect but references
to the early literature are found. As noted by Drew & Mueller (1937) the temperature differences
for the Leidenfrost effect and the boiling critical temperature difference seemed to be closely
related. Hence, the actual maximum heat flux, point B, may be governed by both the
hydrodynamic and the film boiling effects. However, film boiling can occur without ever entering
the nucleate boiling region as for example in the quenching of metals.

From a practical standpoint only the A-B portion of the curve is of interest as operation in the B-
C region results in excessive surface temperatures. However, these are occasions when film
boiling is unavoidable as in vaporization of low boiling liquids or in cryogenics vaporizers. The
deliberate use of film boiling in attempting to reduce fouling or corrosion has been suggested but
is impractical due to variation of operating conditions during start up or shut down and the
fluctuations of the fin in the transition region.

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Food Process Engineering Lab 2

The start-up procedure of a vaporizer can affect its subsequent operation whenever the temperature
of the heating medium would correspond to a temperature difference greater than the critical T
or point B. If the heating source is applied before any liquid is in the vaporizer, then the tube
surface temperature, Tw, will reach the medium (steam) temperature, Ts, since no heat transfer is
occurring. Then when the liquid is fed to the vaporizer, boiling would begin in the film or B-C
region; i.e., (Tw – Tsat) > Tc. However, if the vaporizer is full of liquid when the steam is turned
on, then the wall temperature starts at the liquid temperature and rises on the A-B portion of the
curve until at equilibrium the wall temperature, Tw, corresponds to a temperature less than point B
and the temperature difference, T – Tw, results from the heating medium resistance, fouling
resistance, and the tube wall resistance. Hence, whenever Ts > (Tsat + Tc) then the liquid should
be in the vaporizer for a cold start up. In normal operation the wall temperature, Tw, would be less
than Tsat + Tc due to other resistances.

Film Heat Transfer Coefficients

For many convective heat transfer processes, it is found that the local heat flux is approximately
proportional to the temperature difference between the wall and the bulk of the fluid, i.e.,

which causes us to define a constant of proportionality, called the “film coefficient of heat
transfer”, usually denoted by h:

The value of h depends upon the geometry of the system, the physical properties and flow velocity
of the fluid.

Significance of the Lab

Boiling and condensating heat transfer are indispensable links in the production of power, all types
of refining and chemical processes, refrigeration, heating systems, etc. There is a constant pressure
for more compact heat transfer units with high heat transfer rates and a clear understanding of the
boiling and condensing processes is essential for every mechanical and chemical engineer. The
Hilton Boiling Heat Transfer Unit has been designed to improve the understanding of boiling and
condensing heat transfer and enables both a visual and analytical study of these processes.

INSTRUCTION:
1. YOU MUST READ & UNDERSTAND THE EQUIPMENT MANUAL
BEFORE PERFORMING ANY EXPERIMENT !!!
2. PLAN YOUR EXPERIMENT WISELY, READ THE THEORY FIRST !!!

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Food Process Engineering Lab 2
EXPERIMENT 2A: FINDING THE THREE MODES OF BOILING

1. Suggest the range of setting for the electrical (in Watts) and water supplies for obtaining
 convective boiling,
 nucleate boiling and
 film boiling

2. Report your procedure for obtaining those boiling modes.

EXPERIMENT 2B: DETERMINATION OF HEAT FLUX AND SURFACE HEAT

TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

Adjust the heat input to about 50 Watts and adjust the condenser water flow rate until the desired
condenser pressure is reached. Note the watts, vapour pressure, liquid temperature, t2 and metal
temperature, t1. Increase the heat input to say 100 Watts, adjust the condenser water flow rate to
give the desired pressure and when steady, wait 5 minutes then repeat the observation.

Repeat in similar increments until the transition from nucleate to film boiling is reached. By careful
adjustment of heat input near this condition it is possible to make an accurate assessment of critical
conditions. When film boiling is established the heat input should be reduced and the readings
continued until the heater temperature reaches 160ºC.
Note: the effective area (A) of the heat transfer surface of the heater is 1.8 × 10-3m2
1. Plot a boiling curve (heat flux and film heat transfer coefficient curves in one graph) and
label the region for those boiling modes.

EXPERIMENT 2C: OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR FILMWISE

CONDENSATION

HINT:
The overall heat transfer coefficient between the condensing vapour and the water may be found
as follows:
Adjust the heat input, Q and condenser water flow rate until the desired condenser pressure
and condensing rate is established. When conditions are stable, note the condenser water
flow rate, m, water inlet temperature, t1 and water outlet temperature, t0 and the saturation
temperature of the liquid, t2.

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REFERENCES:
Frank, M. W., 1984. Heat Transfer, Addison_Wesley Publishing Company, London.
Lahey, R. T., Jr., 1992. Boiling Heat Transfer Modern Development and Advances, Elsevier
Science Publishers.
Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill, Inc.
Zuber, N., 1959. Hydrodynamic Aspects of Boiling Heat Transfer. Doctoral Dissertation, Univ.
of California, Los Angeles.
Happel, O. & Stephan, K., 1974. Heat Transfer from Nucleate to the Beginning of Film Boiling in
Binary Mixtures. Paper B7.8 Heat Transfer, proc. 5th int. heat Transfer Conf., Vol. IV, 340-344.
Drew, T. B. & Mueller, A. C., 1937. Boiling. Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs. 33.

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Process and Food Engineering Lab Manual
Food Process Engineering Lab 2