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    Harris (Ed) 1980

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    Alejandro Bernal

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    HUMAN ECOLOGY IN SAVANNA ENVIRONMENTS Ealted by DAVID R. HARRIS Institute of Archaeology Unversity ot London and Department of Geogr urbe clogs teach 1980 ‘ACADEMIC PRESS Based onthe proceedings of aks rad the Wenner Cron ‘itn ene each A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers London New York Toronto Sydney San Francisco Tropical Savanna Environments: Definition, Distribution, Diversity, ond Development DAVID R. HARRIS Ira ofArcharloy, Overy of into td Depo of Sa, {fave ate Codon San ‘Between the enustria un frets andthe prem dy deserts ofthe sub- Topical highpresure belt the world ssnaaaa lands They occ) [hoot one fourth of te works land urface,aupport vated pant and ania Sinmun, and encompass the geste sume and ivesty of human sett ae toi ety Pca othe egal and ‘octal very they ae seldom Perceived ss eouopical en. That ey, Fe labled te Intemmedite Tropical or Suranna Zone, is best define ‘tilly fn term of the duration ofthe dry season, deste the fact Ghat {he tadliona connotation of svsana” imps a type of testation rather ‘an a type of cimate, Because savaaa plant sommes vary retly sed {ue inot uniformly described, vetaton Isls appropeas and spriable ‘rnin enteron tan nat ‘A opal savanna eonstems are adapted to a winter dry season which ‘hocks plant growth. For ths reson, and because climate parameters we fnow scaly Sandardied snd ested thn veetatonal ones, both Flstic and feat to. dene and deigeate the dsinbution of vans “Svionments interme ofthe length ofthe dry season. Thus te Intermediate ‘fopical or Savanna Zone an be defined a tat part ofthe tropieal works thal expenenees dry sein of 0.75 month Guraton; and the tropial ‘Svanna environments that re the subject ofthis bok can be uated witht, ‘Mrentennons in Afseaand India into parts of the seman tone of 7510 0 month dy scaon (Fig and ont endpape. Svan Definitions and Distbutons Savane esa Concert “The word sivanna is had an ambiguous carer since i entered the Engl LUnggs tthe acon conury. It eres fom the Spanish word sana (Gxpnly abana), which was tsi adapted from the nguage of the Arawak Indians whom Colombes and hs successors fund Giving on the Caribbean ep ne emonmen) § ‘suns ofthe Grater Anies* The Dominican fat, Burtlom de las Css, Ws one of the fist Spankh obser to aot the Custene of sas tacts ‘sans in he fret of Ca, He was inpreced bythe extent of these Shaman, which: were sted. with plate and soured on smooth plans ‘Baned by woodlands (Sauer 1966" 183) From fr eaiext sane Spanish {he won! tsbinaconnoted not en 4 sland bat sso an open-caopy 9 ociton of gases and tesa parle lance ith mature toes catered ‘Coming from the lacy teres landuapes of Spain, the early congue dover pak parchar attention to the sustence Ol sy openings tm Me ferestel lany of the Caean unde and rnand Eat writen acount ff the Now World peak equenly and approringy of such gps the forest lover and clear that they were at resrited tote fowlands but oct 'inty different sation though eulyon the mre level surfaces. The ‘lvanna were catacterzedcleryhere by 2 more o ks coatinoous ground {Sper of pms, but the ssoclted tes, such a pals, pes, ad ever ea tiered fn such an obvious way ato impr observers fom the Sat with Ihe dveraty of savanna landscapes to which the presence or absence of subs ‘Mist snothr vibe vars. Ta ts wa amg, or atleast male ‘meaning efcred erly into the tse of the fom sana Ht dsesed hot 8 {Inge saci catego of veetation bot a range of ype om pure Bas land to dene woodland. with the presnce of = mae ot Is continous ipound layer of pases beneath or between he tes 36 the one eommon enomator Tes Inappropriate here to trace in deta the subsequent carer in the ‘esl langoge of the fem vanaf was apple! fo rarely of BOSS} landscape nthe topics ofthe OL Wot, pot fist West tien Bowdnh 1819" 445) Occasional It ha even heen extended to mud com Ionics of tes, subs, and gases in temperate ates poleward of the ‘Toomer However, the most Senet semante sf tok’ pce when the oncopt of 8 topcal sienna cimate gradual Gecame estabised during the nimetenth century, lrety ars veut of te Work plant geoeaphy tnd ‘lmstlogy of De Candee (188, 1875), Drude (1890), Grsebach (366) snd Keppen 1884, 1900. “The climate Gasieation that Koppen devised rested on the assumption that ce growth was related pinay fo femperatre and precipitation, and that wor! ciate tons could e defined by selecting those nde of empwrtur and precipitation shit het ited the obseree boundaries be tween the plantgeopaphie epons that De Candote had otal devised (Thorns 142" 24). Thur thre of Koppens major categories were Sec dinates” (opie, mesothermal and mlctotermal respective) 20d, Fg. oppor) Te Itrmdinte Til ane nd jr eso (sons honing Platonian ow note om nae ct 193" Mop to laced tres hace conditions were aed 10 be either 10 dry oF 109 (Sh foc ros promt (th ry and pot cinates). The Wop clint, which Sere bounded by tbe other of 18 forthe coest month, were she at ny reference tothe seasonal ditbutlon of precipitation. Two sogranhi- filly extense types were ths fecognized: te hud or tropia ranforest ‘Shmate with ria at all seasons (AD an the wintery or tropical san ‘hmate with define dy season (Aw), ‘The topclsevanna ciate Was ‘Sted to extend over 11% ofthe work’ land surface, a compared with ‘Siefor the rp anforest imate. ‘Althugh Koppe'scsaieton was based on oversipled assumptions haut the reatonaips between temperature, precptaon and pes Of Ve ‘Entons wich encouaped crear festning. slp and pptey ‘na world sale give gat dacs ape. wen large mesure eon Shi for exabsting ths Sonopt of ropa savanna vestaion ss mac ‘iat forationsomparal tothe morpholoially though not bata) ‘nore unfm toil infor formation concept that was eat expressed ‘By Sehnper (1898, 1903) and ner pity relorced by Clement work Clot@) om plant succesion A lng seuatlc and conceptual road was hus travelled rom te sxtemthcetury sabngs of Cuba to the eat twenet ‘entry Hea of pantoplcimatially conta savanna formation, Sevonna Vegetation and Savana Envrnments ‘A retogpective plane at the historia cater of the term savanna demon: fates the dichotomy that arose betwee is we B62 eptational and a3 lati concept, In common usage stl tans is ogna connotation at 2 am for desrbing however snpecsly~ distinct types of veetaton Itcan be aged thats shuld be sipped of he climatic meaning at has tcgued and rected tote orginal we a3 ters of vestauonal descraption, In‘ricpe His both logs! and dourabe to define and’ map types of ver lao i fers of thei ow piysopnomi oie form characteris andor {hci oti ompostion, rater than y meno he cmt surrogates for ‘eettion that are often wed in textbooks and atlas. Indeed “roped ‘ruant™ ithe prime example of elmatal” defined unit tat commonly ‘ujuerades on word Sveetaton” maps aa unary formation “Athouph man ltempte ave bach mae to cay vepetton by reference to the shaacieratcs of the plane theese rather unto sh ciate Indies ts mean annl and) monthly temperature and. precipitation, the ‘tompts fo do so at wold and continental wales have sullered fom ack of ‘Mequte dats and have tended to yell orerumesous and rater abeary Steps Tae mot deta phystognomic casifation ata word scale "Git deed by Kocher (1963, 1961), wich bas been reproduced or xampe by Poknin (1960) and in acceve eons of Goode Word Als (Bspensade 1987) in olan’ serson of KUcher' map, sven sobdivsions of Grantand sre Iupeled in parentheses as types of savanna, Dot tsi dtuton divers tuiy fon commonly accepted ews of te word diatbaion of top Sivannas Tis dvergeae i ipeciiy obvious i Alten and South Ameria, ‘where the extenanessvannar to north and south of the Congo and Amazon Tei mn nmin: 7 tier systems are exchned Goon the savanna catgait om the snap and are ite nc tea nthe ters of Beat deco deer (pore) tees and grasses. This aparently anomalous fest 2 lel conse {uence of the suck appeation of Koehler’ bast phystognome vison of Sepetton into woody and herbaceous categories. I necessary outcome fe claatcstory eter adopted, and it ent he icy of Seve Stet piotiopronic Ghmteston of sana tepeation which encom fess le plant communities tat sre commonly teptded tof sana Type Taverns ot Kochlrs map published in Gaode’s World Ata, Nowere, the datnbution of herbaceous and woody communities ‘within te topics {cords more clomly with conventional expectation of where sannat osu Figure 2 demonsratc thie by conabatingthowe commanitin into THe [enerived sneer whichtroaly comespod to topical rai ors se ‘Srecensssonl forest, deciduous seasonal forest, vans, ad dese S15 ‘option ao font endpaper. namiation of some of the ecules raised by «nc physioenomie sppoach fo the casfietion and mapping of vegetation at word and cont ‘Ea sealer magget that i he term smvana ro be rained 8 neal Concept» and its too deeply embedded in sent and pope wet be Slimnated ~ then it dehnidon wil ontawe to incorparte some simatic {tea Throughout the opis the cimaie variable that most compreten ‘Shey affects pant row the length of the dy season, Temperatres ow noubh to prevent senaton and prot do not normally oct excep at Het eleatios, but the sesonal aalalty of mostue does hae a dect, Eruting effect. The tana st rom predominant evergreen broadest forests tirouph predominantly deciduous broads forest, woodlands, rd [putas to dere sub weaation, which sur between he Eat ed fhe Tropes, elects» Somesponding icra inthe Garton and sve of “Te variations in length of dy season shown a igre 1 carespond more oily than do other cmatc variables to he atta distibtion ofthese {ive major categories or formation types o topical veetation. Ths the zon atweigh In ecological siaicance fegional edaphic tation. Throughout be wetter pats of the Intemedute Tropical Zoe, there iva tendency for ‘nefextured, clayey sols of low inftrauon eapucty, which commonly deror low-lying teas and ate sharscteratically undein by « hardpan, ‘become waterogued inthe we season und toy out i the dy season, Shas accentuating the seasonal exreres ofthe aaa eine. Ths tendency ‘especialy event in northern South Ameri, whete seasonal hooded (or ‘tusted) hydromorphc sos occupy about hall the savanna region of ‘eacacn at Colombe. Where coaedextued, andy sol osc van cevirnments, inflation i more rapid so that wetseason wateroging his oceus although such us sale Irom descaton tn the ty Tnfeite soils Jow ia mineral ntrentsoecur widely in savanna environ ment Differences i pata material ge se to sgifient cl variations Inet, bot te mens aching hat cient wet eon whe ail lune caecalyshallreroting specie, Leathe, ac sos of low pH are ‘ahve purtcury with sandy paren mates and ae extensively deve. ‘pet in South American svann environments. Indeed,» major contest ‘Shap contest eats tstmorn South American savannas which have deep interte sols of tow pit and Aftcan savanna sols which tend (0 be shallower 8 Pre Deyseason fie, started natrally by Uphtning and somstines by Sultns, oft by an, over nal vane evionments The equeney anes with rand piary production, andthe tnclence of hgh Tiehtnin probably our with suficent tequency in most savannas {0 Te ntuma! brning without the intervention of aa, but 5 vegetation s ‘Ttentey bummed ty sano huntergatherers, pesos and cltiator, $A Sitncul to gmeraoeacexrately about the vl Importance of nit Say analy sued rs, The main way shih man nterention Ne reat fie egies har pobubly bean fo vary the ine of urn rato inde i in years when the standing crop of fel would otherwise have ic isnt to sun ate The ore esl Hy to have Deen am Ipereas in the equcney and extent of burning which a many ares, noth ‘os afi, hi fed the vegetational talunce fom wooly to bebaceous Plunts and facreaed the extent of ss Savannas athe expense of sana ‘Moodie “Ther are few demonsrible reponal dferencs in the frequency and csteee of svann fies. Annu baring expel characterate of the Sponty popiatd lowland svannas of Austra (Fi. 3) and South America Ls Noles Fags few ua nthe more densely peopled Gerona o nda and Southeast Ass a wll 0 the dest sana of ‘Since Sout Amertan gas summa, whee primary production Is ‘MSt bt ine autrent content of the ges stow annua! Drnng neces ‘erprovoke new growth oder of sficent mute quality Tossa ends (St Domestic cate. his fishing effect" on raring potential sone ofthe mee er huni thts doable om the pont of ew f lvetock mana ‘Sant? Anotter the over meen infer hat sully results from the ‘hceking snd uma of woody growth andthe coresponing nee inthe ibaccbus component of te topetstion If, however es are 100 hot, 00 Fequent of folly ned they my Bil the penn asses and evcrely ‘eae the amount tonne mater ite and tums) ata just blow the ‘ifn ofthe sll They may even destioy the herbaceous cover completly nt indoe si eos, 3a sn al meee updated as nnd ‘Serta, Lattudina, and Reetonat Variation n Savanna Vegetation Byestationay, svenas cn be defined we tropical plant commits with Dot pe Sah sc hat th rut nd fen nd Mi cloed-cinopy foes Mina: this voi). Psonic Usual dominate savannss, but ana pels cease wih sy and with this gradient the mic of perennial and tinal pate very varie cl. “The proportion of gram biomass below ground often eases that NOW {oun pec ony se Tee wondy component of ewan wepaion Aare from al to sos closed frst, th ilermedint combinations at fees, sas and gases of varying owt and hai scan verareon ad Meson eam. A seer evr rat of dane it a fen maces by real direc ote proerion of tee te ttl Yegeatne cover Ths gradient dost, netertsle, sere wan orang cine on which to fuse bet account of the sructual Gwen of the more humid savanna environments marina to the equstoi al fore, which sproximatelyconeapond to thos ates tht experience 425 1050 ont ry son, ve and won sr wich cer So Stone The fonmer pe canbe used wi he emerepen sole ts category of Beards (1985) ation of top Amecaa vacation, = = | deck i EX x ae ax rire le i at aes 6 DR tas woodiands of South-Central Africa (Walker: this volume, Fig. 1, aod ti reste tp strctre and sompoution reflects np at Test, moa. pee oe lan cove of opal Afric, che by ie, trough the many ‘en oF human occupation of the continent (Crk: thi volume, th alent south Amin fy contrast, grasands most dvoid of wee owt rere diy im he vos hid sana enonmens (Meda this volume. EST hanes of Venenus and Colombia occuny a are pat of the 3300. MeSqoded Onno bain, and hun ss savannas abo occur mortar a fordet ern Colombia, casesn Venera, and across the frontier of acters Bez nd southern Gaya Parsons: tis vom, ee i humid pars ofthe Intermediate Topi! Zone, where the setts at rom 3.6 f0 7.5 month, forests and woodlands ae normaly SEBLatd oy ectnows toes and shuts. They inci Bac (1955) toms American eatogons of "ecsiuos seasonal forest” and "thor sort ay wll ar the savanna woodlands of topical Ate, the det BRREEE onson fort” in IndoMalaysin (Eyre 1963 221-8), and the 2 Merona forte of norhernAusinabs (Pie 5). 19 the deciduous rae ants mature tees seaoh 1018 mip Reg an often have ‘eee Toes and subs have tik bak, smal leaves, and exter Beat ystemo. These ate few hanes und epiphytes, Mest woody specs ae Ha et ad ihe perennial piesa expe of renewed arowth ae = ‘Sin two tec nyse bare often fecopuzabie but ether conamwoxs ‘a eee amy openinr wocunied by Tow shrubs, prises, and forts. geerstypartculy of ter apc, tends tobe fower than the Fmd sna enronments aed singe Sece 8 of cain Aca eel this volume, Fig. 2, sometimes dominate the dscotinuous canopy bayer. Ye the dey seston Rengtens to more than 7.5 monte and the pera Ane he mtr hgipressre bes are approached, desduous Tey eolands mere into variou pes of desert sab veptation. {eee Sb mcelenswithextenie root systems tend (0 te the most co Suit cMdonatuents of te septation, but gies and forts, epee reed cahemeas thi pas rap hough thei ie ec flowing Fon olsen comprte more than half the specks in desert ora, ESSE pancgly sonal speci, se relatively abundant in the zone of 7.5 cy Pe iy sans wish ie mont extensively devloned sm Afi, ee eae Rontaa iD ndeed tea, i tems ofthe foo dominance tot. 20 id the prevaling practice of pastoation, be read pat of {he opie sana environents of thow continent “A Chet review of the pokward vegetational gradient that ext within ‘te itemedite Tropeal Zone ge some empresion of the eeu ive [BS dion tha carcterize swaneacoironments,Vepetationa savanna Saree pe plant communis in which pass and frbe form an ‘eine Sestnccous yer her soge or benenth a dacontinoows yer of Havows thre, ocafaoughou the Zone and even hee and there beyond FES Ghc rin forest and along th mara of the deserts Tey ca be 1G te Tour stctuat types along continuum fom dominance by eee ‘eeiinance by eases (Pg tof) savanna woodland, which ier (rom ep a ronments 17 scakemsgtn md ew ft ed wood ety i moon ‘Sve ands betterdolopd hetacsous Lyra igh 8 mo ener {Sein nen where comerpods tothe “igh palo te” ses eh {sowth ot the ain fore (Shane and Mabe 103) te wk Scinedyte Aen haces mss ee ‘which occuts locally in forests and woodlands but is only extensively devel (ped as "acacedesert ps savanna” Afton arus where the dey ‘Shoe este 73 10100 mons sd gsr ray wich eso srs SS pay ids med eh oe Guesanns ofnoriem Ausland the inden Deans it flows om the peat smal des of ernavgtaton tat seatry rosin sv vats iday tn ene eta pected Tis ‘between the verge anual et pny above an elon oad) grate onal og ead oc ae yet (975° 834) thatthe forme! eae 240 gi {ary et er au etre ea ine te 20 ‘omy tonal yearn, al of wAlc fal wii the tage of sree eaten ‘Sto t chapter Toe the xegres me sesoal ange) frst sha mean sa NPP of 60 gly tna tied vinci some {es lor sr) with an sees of 190 pared ees) and srs te eco of O80 gimp tho thw sxiats ane temas Trg cn Set NP of 137 prs bane forthe mpraton ai ate cron Ti ge hte an aan, bulicanreponal und lal usar n pinay producti, The de Smmates cneltion teens high NPF and hgh tana al! Ory Isis: 224°5), bor maximum war of NPP inti Item opel ne a te hen Node lod nm ee inShuth Ames whee for eran 2 gt ince of 2500 Cte fot ‘orc eee coe fon seal tse ‘Sonos guuland (dia: Biswas) egal Cans tn Net Fa of Sa rents ‘arety of stanna plant communities matched by the diversity of {Dien stinal ie that xie aoa trent, Te Bows ‘imais —"mammnals and diesetransniting insects ve mest dee ‘Meet he expottion ofthe evtronments by an. Atong the mus iC the lng Berroa ungsae,td,t a leser eitent lr Foents nd tusupals that have payed the most seificnt roi in he Maman ot of vans ets ong the es or ic tach us, mous, ets fies ad he Mack iy Simul damnosum ‘Wi herbivorous ungulsts are wey tnveny stout in the Ine mediate Trp Zone They a on dene nd vumerow my Alfon moder ely well epreseted in Asi, 2 minor element nly in American piel fans, sd entirely absent fon AustallNew Guin. The svann envio mens of Als support the pestet wet ad let populations of wd M8 DR tors nguatss inthe tops nd they have probably done s since Pesocene ama tgs te concerted inthe svar repons of Fak nd ‘SG, Covet Ata, bu nthe pat they mee aso abundant in West Afi SUC clue, Louthld 1977, Witkin Aen tere i stone poste Gein tern afl an ape-englte tomas. Thus nthe Bu arpa othe Congo rai orn s Fst Ac ara ans nga ‘toma marnen 12.000 to 40,000 ken, some 75% of whieh contested [Po crtonly lange spese elephant and hippopotamus, wheres in Pee Gnr seman Eat and South-Central Aficn savas anna uur sama range from about 6000 to 1000 glk, and are made Upttargcly of move dere snd stall species Boorre and Hadey 1970 he. ae : = "Phe erat unglte populations of the Aftcan savannas, especially the neo sll game an 0 abudant inthe die svn, offered a realy sc food eoure to ary human hunting groups (Clark hi SSRN thir bution has nce Seen severely reduced by the spread Peeaare and pstran, The tad unplate populations of India snd waited Southeast As une so been rately depleted trough, the mainland Sjumen cccpation of Asan savanna emironments, Ind, 50 Palen Soe of the ier. Avan fina tha st iit to extnate the {omer dsb and sundance of the pina groups, such as elephants fame en, tas i dec and varus bovis inclading wi cate, Thar, and niles. The sana emoronments ofthe Ameican topics never supported sch sich ungulte fa ae da Afton and Sta though more diverse an ret ‘Shite that ene thee today wee present Middle and South America petite pisatcene. The evncton of these Pestocee forms, which tas atodons tnd Heresy ha bon isbate both to cima change seeing impact of erly hanes (ina hs volume, Vullearser 1971) 1 the ony hebiorous ungulates nae tothe Ameren stan repos TEARS sou'South Amos are the opr which survives im ama mbes tytn vein an swampy habitat, several species of et, ad {Wo SRE gf pecan, Small herovoross an insectivorous mara, princi ‘cats bat abo anteaters and armadls, ye 2 distinctive component of relents Pet anna enifonmets Some ofthe rodents such as the coy anid ‘Re nt of al rodent, the capybar, ae sermraquie; others, sch a the ee pacts, oocuyy der vanna batts Avail ats om te iO- Moat Paine animals inthe American topic are insficent tallow ‘asst eneazations to be mave, but thee 6 n0 doubt that Much {ear tamton bomaues exe i Americ than a Affe svanns erin Test ans count fo te obered correlation in Afric etween igh ‘TE and lrpesngalte tomate because hum savannas are particu ‘Exkenee in South America (Fig 1) Posibly. the rearely ow ungulate Tes Ste ammaan) biomes kn South Averia felt f the Tow levels or eit and plant-tave qua tat characterize Sot Arenicat Ora edi” ths voune).On he oer hand these savannas can and TE"Spon very. lars towns of domestic cattle, althoush as Parons seit rin this Book sent ners in umbers of bvestock are pally opens omnes dependent on the introduction and spend of hih-utriet deze iahtret fodder sass The Atstalansaanna repon i unigue i having a placental marnsin asinave fount only mid rodents and ts Bathe endemic manu ‘ammats occupy muy eologesl nich eaulnt to thow occupied by ocrtl amas entre The here eound ting tates nd Sfatsbirs re the ecolopa eqtaens of the giving an browsing ungtes fines ree ht hey tl i aia with Arce, mim Asta there b foal eience forthe exten In {he Plstocene of much larger forms, sch athe spin Dipotodons wich ‘teameextinct inthe late Petosie ata ret climate chan andlor edition by cay hunters (Canby. th volume) However, the Fate all body sizeof moder savanna apes, sch asthe anlopeKangstoo an {Rae Waly mae ha rrr aout wt Aan nd probably ako American manne envionment, aough no quate Site vate wth ic et treet, Oe al un nis unt ie and mis ad he ch ‘Day anova add conde tothe dvesty ut ently hte fo the {Bom biomas ofthe mammalian fauna of the Autraln stvanna feo: ‘on wich toner with South Area, hen the oppo eno th {Basen of mammalian Biomass and pec Gey frome sans of Ef an Sutera Ae, whe those of West ia Asa 38 ont nat tthe conor re of compton a ko den caat in lation fo the dstonuton of Gus rananiting nsec This ‘Sey exemplied ty Desowites study in ths book ofthe eoogy oft ‘fhe aloe human sod anal duster of svn enone en fnchocerss, and anal and uma leypanoemis A he sows i {ext and’ maps (Fis 73), tose disses are paricalsely characteristic Of, {st in te cue of typenoronise most tly eetsted to, Alc ‘ran envtenmens, The smocation of the met vectors ~ msors, Wicks, and eta Ges with Yetiely well watted es ices saci ie Sit! of te durant Sana postions Ci Sake eee ee Seed oar ca alo sure moe than any ot other pat of the Intent Tropic “Zone fom the destruction of crops and wl easton by lcs Seana fu interanmal Mctatons inthe populations of heroros tse & itera prt ofall svanaeconystoms, bt th satan emonment oF ‘oss ofthe Congo van foes parity sce fo dr oho tea ht edi ounin ih Sa Tels ‘exten fe wiped at a el pon pee tt ste een in ae of prone ston Ganon 197952, ho onmfte serous hz fo secure and prin Ott tes notes examples ofthe Jamagsinfcted on wectaton by ict an berated om Aon south ofthe Saar (Walker: ths volume) ‘geste runt sy cya el ce taka ‘otsatid in suk pubic thos ofAndeson ano eroker 973, Carte Eft ose sc wae a Sea ceyoee ag he tgaene pce pe ce ‘Ritu ology. There iy howeer, one evlatonary pct ‘f savanna soe Se ca ac cher te meenanarorent oa tae ee aaa ime ca ie chet ea aera nia tia repay ttm sie compan tmracgie dcata ge smc St Acero + -oedopen ene wn anton bh fran op sana ener 2 Vegetationa History of Savanna: Swann enveonments, defined ematical, have no doubt existed though fnow ofthe groloal pas, and even sana defined estatonally have Probably been fextures of pial plant communities sine the evluonary Fe and spread ofthe Gramineae in the Pacene period THs mot ty that ‘Aterants ave "nur" and that none owes itsexitene tothe moiestion ‘t wopla verstation by man, but it Jos smpy tat they have xed pleat formations for milion df years Whe we cannot expect, for lick oF [iclenty deta eidene, to determine theultimate ongins we cn sk ‘wth some prompect of a leit» prt answer emerging from cuenta Fowceable esearch where and at what timer inthe move foot selogeat ‘pat atanas can Be Shown that exe Paynoloy capa of proving the most dec evssnse that bears on th question, and despite the rately rent apption of pollen analyse to he study of tpl ors it has akendy yee + siicnt boy of data ‘From te prspectie of human ecology, the ne period over which evidence forte enstene of savannas in any pica ernment takes on sgificance {Ste sme ar the penog of human ocapution of tat environmen Thar ‘Aca and Asa, where evidence for te exstene Of hominem opal ‘vironments goer tack several millon yeas, Plynolopal date teaching ‘ok through the whole ofthe Quatemay. period of interest whereas tropical America and. Austral, where the anit of man ds not, ot ‘rset evidence cxseed about 8,000 yeu, Jats extending theater pat [tthe Plasto are of pinary concern Unfortenatly he dat tat ae ‘resey avaiable rom the IntemedateTeopl Zone come from 3 ery Stal ruber of sites (Fig). Any seeraeatons bse on thm are neces [tentative bt te Gta Go show t ugmative dep of consistency Polen ‘eos, some of which reach deo info the estocee, have now boun by fined nd interpreted from present-day stan enonments fm case aad Souther Africa (Kenda 1999, Livingstone 1971; Morison apd Huston 1974, Tomlinson 1979), souther Inia (Gupta 1971, Vahow Mite and Gupta 1970), norheasternAuseaia (Kershaw 1974, 1975, 1978), norte Sout America (Van der Mammen 1963, 1972, 1574, Wms’ end. Van der Hammen 1960), and Mie Arsen (Deere) 1978, Toukada 1966) ‘The former existence of Sanna vepstion har ako Been demonstrated falyaotogcally in Sumatra within the sone of rain fore chimte Cen Too: 94-6), and in the nghlands of Papua New Gunes (Hope 1976, Powel, ‘and Hope 1946, Walker and Flenly 197) "The evidence Yom Aten an South Amica demonstrates the existence thee of pasty communities though the Holoene and into th Pletosene For exampk, Kenda’ pollen sagam ftom southeusem Uganda shows that Sanna (daduced from peaks in absolute gispoen production) wet deovinant atthe st pir to 12000 bp." (whch imps Wat dr ruber {han “pli condstion coined wth ne lal condition ater Hort), the sagan abo shows tat, folowing subasquentseahment of fret, savanna expanded ain ding the lst 3000 year, posbly aa et of he rt eESpion of opncalture andlor pastoral n East Ais (Crk 1976, Bee Listone’scagrm from northern Zambia remarkable in that 28 Line etjange in repetation trough the ast 22,000 years, uns tow ne thc ume rent commonics sma tthe grsent anna te rte tea appear fo ve existed. One of Tomson diasane Joma imbabwe Rhodes ls inates that ava his Been pest from er prbubly the st 11/000 years. On the other Band, Morison in Mos Geom te Rakin tga of eouthoestern Usa show a Ham ete nay to pasty vegetation about 1000 probably 3 nl of eran ad ursing by ma we ce ln srquences ar value from West fica, but seomorio- ono) 2k Rnmotopeal evidence, sspecially ofthe changing levels of Lake (Ee ors he neenoe thay period occured atu es Cr. Pee to 00 to 13400 bp.) dure which the ltt vestaton {feo a te retin the s-fornt lt to coastal rapes and eX nese Sadan and sachan tones of ope sony fre, woos, Banding ss thee ako evidence, maily om the Sara and party and (ors long hunid “wt gaval™ pesiod (rom about 12,400 to eae rich probly reversed the former trend and cased com Aare and savanna vanes of West and Cental Afi to expand ttt FEU seri to north, cast a south (Van Zinder Bakker 1976: 3) i Bouth America, pollen diagrams from the Nanos of Colombia an the Fatt Mea ovuther Cajun show tat savanna has exit i he ‘upununl arnt snce 00 bp. ands the fae ince the ed of the met Sf goog the rato of ter to pees has varied sufficiently £0 Pleo ations between savaana woodland and gas savanna (Van der Fe Nghe: aT 3). The pollen recod vom coustl Soria and Guyana Haan ind Van det Haven 1966, Van er Hummen 1963) reaches ack Mime scatoene (au dost the rear from the norther. Andes in ao Hammes 1974. 4-30) which not inched in hi Clam ental record indicates that Byrsonina Carls savannas ‘evi EN gre tine of lowered sa level, thos enforcing the erence SENSU Wom the Afacan eden that dry iather than phval conditions se ot pets ef Baiatson, Whether seasonal forests, woodlands, and ine pded i South Arma tera during the Fesfocne at he esa Spe ta ores av they apparently Si in Mfc, uncer a Saree tere ate dations tht hs probably doer. alyolopcal sree teman sea in ester Beal now under ra fret iat the et ae etn thee of pass svanna Gang the Pestoene (Van der Hamme sa ees he presence of typical savanna species of trees and grass in Teint Elan of savanow in fe rin forest of southern Vencaula may Fee Gnat thee sds ae rect communies suing from a prevousty pe ea) santa formation and now mantained by fie (Ede 1974: 105 Fo eam chaning una datbutons and speciation in te Sout ‘erica rainfore formation aso sugests at was fapmented at ncrvals ‘Bar hay have boon Sachronous with paciations afer 1969, Valeur op ssa eons 23, 1971. There as yet ely Ue paolo evece vali om he Soon es 0 td ha: Fe ies fom Ines in northern Coate- fl Hue by Takada (1960, Dey C970 and ter dno wach ‘a sui frn in prove snc oo agian (Of dry conditions coinoent with periods of glaaion, such a i indies by tpl fom cnt Sag nd apa frsinjorpeakm pra poen sost 3000p wich Deey (978: 120-4) Imac rsp of yn ng Huon here even le rly rece that be on the Bison of cer S "Bi ea i ae 3EoODb pand spin ater Shout'15000%, (Gop 1971.Vishnde {nd Gupia 1970), bu the evidence incomplete snd thi contaion resins fentatie. Other Asan sts underivestigntion Fenly 1979 94 -6)are located Inia ee penn Saw ey a last lest than 2-5 months. Tay most ofthe are prs and shrubrcovered fae tan frst, ut se logs or Smonstrtes that foes ar dominant poe to abou al bp nthe Kern iy pollen (Base and fy me tmoced th fret enon ae earns Ie 1000 sie wal drstn sing oe sala oscgutin fie as Hose one Toba patente ese Rak E00 Sa yt many tes wee or ‘tothe nti anal ae, tes nterupon the est of las thangs, human disturbance of the vegetation, or even volcanic actly, at present unknown, aed rays inestnton that hve be "se so undertaken in the gan ag Pip Kew Gain (Goon 197 Hoe TP, Fowl nl Hope jaar snd Fly 1979) Iewse ne oa ion whew tty season Us forth 2 nth, bt the ste eat ovations of 1500 toner car lca ate Westen than and Engr Ream et Sooo yeas, andthe her ones tm NU Wabi record 22000 yas of ‘egstaional story: Chants athe relative importance of montane rstand Seem ad med Tet me ein wh te Tecperatre ‘ha tcompanid the Isl gion of New Cas ah sane Sipe Tob Bepon SOW and 30 howe oss ha ta sie ed ffowing Secon Sa bt oes at Softer nto oer ncn WW snag oy byman for agricultural purposes, ee Cale cer rom ralefoae or fom sienna commenter, bt ort SY Kensaw (197s, 1976, 1978) a our ses onthe Aiberton placa of noe faserr Guentiand ht own fveig ight othe Ratny af noes Sndaranns vegetation i hat pt of tetera Tropa Zone Toes fF he es provi records of pets hang hough the rt 00 To 11,000 years, while the fourth ste dates buck some 120,00 yeas, This kong ASF aces tha unt He ewance thie century ~ rin fort (oth a pl” and “notoyi™types) had been extatshed oF the ‘iteton pte fr pprosimstly 10,000 year, but Wats was preceded iteron Diop slrorbylons woodland of savanna type between about 080 sa 36000, Altwough human hunter populations ray tere bcm een in he aren before 10,000 bp Hari 1978) and may NOUNS soe moc! on te sepettion though the us of fe Sigh ef a oman‘ pes) te slrophiouroodlna phase before 10000 bp. 1s retina Stoney witha latepncal penod of reatiely dy ciate Saat sgapercan be dann fom ths view of Se hited ply noosa cridence that presaty tumimates the vepetationa sory of opis = seins at aut content mith the ew thst opencanoy comments iit trge component of grasesoceor nary under dryseasonal con Tu irate of te presence or sbuence of tan altbough there fs Do Ger fe human mosieaon of tropa! forests, especialy throw cleat se eta, has ete i the extension of san communis a Aer forest: The ssond and more speci, thou stl tentate, tte ign is mat deysesonal stanna emeonmentsoecured mote exten sree tatealstosene than ia cary postPestocene times, The evidence ROE Maca afte, Sout America, and ortheastern Astral strona) ter hatin te tropics, and rater an puval conditions occured ‘RREY'nc tse ehca pha an that plat communities of svanna type Gen Ser nto aca hat odeysopprt an forest. Whster this abo Oued srtenet in? A cannot Yet be demoneated, and there the question Here more dificl fo soe tesnine Hie pos Petocene Hoole are ec gat has drowned tense sess of former lownd where aX Semi induced iematon between santa and rainforest vestation ‘foul nave Yeon 0s pronounce, Sevan Human History Peale toa Theme Vaowing the histor’ of savanna vegetation throug the Smite but sharply NeEREidns of palyeoloy sete the seane Torte enty of man 1 reminds ‘Batceanns ae aot ste stapes for human action but changing exon ‘Sone in wis plan, animal, and Numan populations have continu intr ‘mene pe paters of mtericion hve, however, eifered sgiieenty fom SBE Worle Inemedate Tropa Zane to another. The marked ronal ors aus veaeaton and endemic anal he tat exst within the Zone Son Sheady bee stewed. Human societies in tropcl evan enonment tikes delay est divert. Bat they abo reve reaulanies i heir odes UE Mdaplton to aad exploaton of thee environments. When saan Selec ate examined in Ristori and present-day perspective 9 they a ‘Bose hat part ot tas Books impenive Commie resource oe 8 ell 12 trensfoning changes, become apparent, Those contintis and change re explored 1th cape: that flow In which some ofthe ma Wsorcal Br J2Rtonmental pathways that svanna sobs have fllowed im the ine ‘hanna rons ofthe wood ae charted. “opens onommets 25 wre eee A ne PEE cate en creer B ‘soa oe Seats 125-32 cae 2 cae ee ema nema ta vn net rterae oe Ri eset pe tree ee SEE anes eng e and Steenmler,A.B.L eds. The Hague: Mouton, - ini ton of Monten, anon 2a Se Reo a re Te eS Ct nee de yea, Yam to: ee ears PT ae en ce cee eco aera SE ear neners ttm nents aR cepa oem So en ne Salata meer ieer eee a eae Eee Pence apartiea el a eS ae aera ty Pe ere a a ee eee a ae aon or eeeesue geeeeneneeser ee aera a ee ran oc mina Mtceinges 12,4833 : " a ti ey es om sal Ratton a Rate Comer, ecbotmtr 214-9. mee Se APS Prorat ct an SE eer soearaercmemrss ee Tons N-and Reals Ved Londo Tore Fence = eg, 5.1975: ty fH, i, New Ga Jaa tei he Tropics, Lonton: Arnold. Eee an Soop lo of the ake Veo Bi Repeat Mons ersiaw, ai 4, eng como ‘pollen sequence from orth-eastern Australia, “Kenuw, AP_1976, A Late estocese snd Holocene pollen diagrams from Lynch's Center, Ar a tea seat hela Oe eae Wirasocn dev, ch de Date er ein mse nd Se en en te cava se ee ett se cmp mh Be a, a Capepne fac al sash et psig in stein bo ein 1 SI Na nnd pis ween tri Gane! Ror se : rine ctl con ep nn meg 9-22 Tei IS en tin Au eb Me emer ars te tlt 9, eae Ke ehttls WEE Ai Unmes A Compusie Review of The Bt and tN fe rade EEE Ns anil mend fm te to ein "He dea 3 st TR Eve cee a ew of rt ot Bt A aa a me net a eels tee pt S00 ye Jao urn, 1973 Ht pracy product in wok eet nye 21738 a ‘Primary Prec of ae Boer, "Lieth, H. and Whitaker, RH. eds. Bertin, AS nol tcp non Rete See ant Pot Hope GS, 1978. Vertinn Mor, 11—4a Hew le etn SETS rc me rac vat ee cea te ene ‘nF Cn hewn S, settle tee me Sp ete aco he rane ae meas un conten eal ‘Se ate Sere eta see, 66, The “Far Spanish Main. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Ses. meng bth nr, 2 Trp ne eommens 27 sph um eae ort ti eae ate te "Ameen Geographical Sooty shee SS ie oe rey mere a SU srg Make of ec, ee ea a Sr a ey min wee ee ie me Rien petro of ppd Beier 565-8 nes eh aire et noe on te Iya Monin, ‘rea S06 The pan gos 66 sry of apna de een al iit hortucn Ga Comp, UM. tnd Maton, Cea Connect! esto of ti and Snes Memo ‘es de Hen 19534 pall stay of he Qatar of Bh Gin, “ete Goh Meet 39,1350. ‘es de Hanmen, 1972, Carer eta adc in he Anson bain sd ron iP Cae 8. ‘eer aman, T1914 The Peace cage of spin ol mae a pic ~ VSS es faa ‘ander oer EM, 1996 Reesor tahgnd in cetoe wth he “eof rin Alc 43-30 Oe of fen Pa Boer Hata, area rae AB ele Now ee ‘ited Cpa P1970. Te ogo lan he Ng Sot di "ans, 110-4 = 7 elem 88.197. toes change i then and Af Sth Anat Yeon 0 ke. an Fly, 1979 Late Gute spent ot Provan af pend apes New Ge: Popham Of he Ral oe Sor dine Saad oer Wm, TA nd Van eae, 1966 Plata on tir “Gana nsoner South nn, Le Grp Meta 38 790 Commentary: Human Occupation ‘ond Exploitation of Savanna Environments DAVID R. HARRIS In the nie chapters that make up Part One, ogc anthropological. Gh rcheclopealpenpestnes sre brought to beat on tu Wert and guy of Maman fe inthe Intermediate Topi Zone. The purpose of is Inroductory a specalive commeatay i to ela sote ofthe major lnteceponal and intercontinental continues aad contrasts that undeic ‘chin af man's osupuion a explana stvana environments” undaental tan uadertandig ot ealy human vation of anes nvonmonts i the ft that even the more apperenty nform sane ‘Huon contain vegetational mosses mage up of varying combinations of {ees subs, gases, and forts, Esotons betwee savanna and lssd- {Sirtion of peninaat and aide oven timer af lowered sea. eve, sega habitat ay have been realy more important. Teter humat ‘Shtstence i ly to have teen onented more foward marine anima and ‘hes pnt evutces, withthe added pombaty at sedentary he ay Sire bevome stashed tore ear han in AUN. Inde, the erst nll evince for the ve of marine resources in Affe somes frm well Sete the present svanna ne, the northern (Mediterranean coast) and Rather (Cape cost) extrem ofthe cofinent lst ta 200,000 Yeas ‘goittsco tot t we aot unt te end ofthe Ptstocee,12—10,000 Year. 1S tat exten ad Coninlag vse wat made of agua (reshwater and ‘Moe foods eel Aft, There ee yet very hte det evidence of [Rly systems of fool procurement nthe staan fens of Soutbeast A 1 tad alfouph the prstene of ne Pestocne "Hoabinhan™ sites 0 Seas Asa tany” of which ae coat, ny inply the existence of ‘etna hurian population threat this ie. "The sugested contrast Ely aman cooly betweon Afr and Souteast Asa also gin support ifom the fren effect In the two fepons of the Ita ext Pon Petocoe nse of sa level vie Mat reduced the land aca of Alien ony Shgity wie flooded the Sunda se reduced the tnd area of Southeast ‘Ase crstcly, sod agian Inctesed the overall length of coming ‘fete also widened the channel hat form Wallace's tne, which, Rowere, hited obo mney turer betwoon Soutear Ava apd New Gane Asta (er "Greater Austral see Jonew thi volume, Fig 6) throushout the Msooee “The city of man ito Austra was tha delayed by te iis of rosing the penser channels that dred the Sunda fom the Sal sei ‘itane ine Pestocone (ids 1977: 212-30). "That te crossing vas mae, trap pete isla rm archeological eridence (White and O'Conns Toray whlch now demonnrsts the presence of man in Atta at last by 40,0 yeas ago, andthe existence of fig and selfing soups inthe tout of the continent by 38.000 year go; indeed, as Bower (1977) i poststed, the tl clonztion of Auta may wel have been coastal tnd"rvoin, with ater penetration nto the aid tropical and ebtropical IMtesor The patty of fg terest mammals in Austra (Clay 6 lume), compared ith the direaty and sbunaance a the Afian, sd to ‘eser extent the Asan fausas, may he costabuted tothe imporiance of uni resources in Australia abou ts sugeson may prove unfounded Pi chow dependence of ety Abongial populations on the “ant” ma Sols of Peatocene Aural eeventaly demonstrated, Meanie, ome revatio othe ch exoures bate thatthe coast ofthe Greater Austalan ‘Shtonton would have offered to acomiag migrant goupe inthe Plesto- ne ca be gned fom Joner™ aaa in hs book of te present conony of the Gin people of cesta Armerand, ven tough low nce mist te made for pont esocene enronenta changes such 28 the ‘modern ntoduction of the now fea but. Mao appa to tv clonsnd the Amesias een ink than Ausra ‘Tues oven ha ccipaon pr fo 3000 ys ge an any Ircaclgi i Jou te wit fae cme toe ae tan 200 {amy towers, th ban” ofthe onence mess unan pee at Xora tnd Sous Ame ay song te west oles, Gang he at estore ce mon oie wep ine il appear ahve Ben clone rete stem ebay ‘ay ofthe aor et ys whch ne n'a tte fu of ea eral thee tienen ay ocean ofthc exten lwnd ‘Sanna of Sout Aneren Te eae ew bar ppton sd te feral soos of ge poss [n te Ametcarsftnir laa pos Fosocne es may have mle apt ety tuna clones Tet he terval seus and pla Swe tema es. Hao ‘ean prota focie oy para a org peas wtp ad Ser" and fang es poy 2 major sossent sei. Te a and csi pontine ioe else fo he had ted a Giecon cay semen an attnce ak ie m Soutent As ad ‘veal, bot fe and ano opal Amer at eed re on at ora an i ptape tsa at Me cadence of cay en fronton been ound. "Tu bythe lov of the Peisocene, when te eat i fs eel ssooad with rgacaon ha oi ih wos cones peony iets promt conigaton,popuatons of hance sc wee tna in he intermedi Trpeat Zone Aen, Aa, ha th ‘mers, tn no doubt alow popaaton deans Bt ing eof tron act of wd pun anil roc hat mine as of SHoruge ad mansion in thew Rly arabe ses evonmets Sitios we ave no ect ence of te dena at his tay ost Fmotne hunger may have Indy at fam pratt day egg {nd fing pours ght Sens of 9S pent prKloa a aa Srrerarh my ready have een manned Yous compu dete, cou he bey staned amon buns fhe anna nc feud tas a the ast Aen fay bu sony rome cnt ert kes, tnd beds the human poplin eth ns probably Ped ey Tren othe qveion of when, whee, ani ow op hunterathere: onus fat ited om depen on fod oa sl {iLe us dope contuie empire nd tert dso ane ibte, Hin 197 19a) Te Iteredae Trp Zones hae ot the wl acess of mat the sap fot ta ead sr 9 total at cared it ly tha asteresthererpopaons a he conn nd bun to mips thes pas at dgend sean pon hem for oc ttre he enol Pesce. Buttes oa epee on catraon and th emergcce of act agin spac oy Sect ch tee remy in mow! pr Of te lneoneate Tope “ne, whee ining Meter! mance sep woul ae tenes be peed To progestin naming pcan echt ‘Stine ged at closed pane sors more wound pele Occipeon and expiton of mat 35 food suply than wil plants, but in te top hey tnd tobe more sep {ie to evronmental pertrbations. The tendency of topical ealtators fevert to hunting and gathering hey sl Rave the Knowledge and means {Sido sy when such cums st drought, flood or uct stack Sevasate thei efope iste te pint thatthe bebelits of apealtare may be offset by te pratr nk svobed Is ikl, thetefoe that e tong and ssid Incstive fo gbtais more food a prereguste fra sting shim economic fegendonce rom foros to acl Boch incntves may have been aenerated by vay of fstrs, including increned popuston, demunds for tbte, or the desire to pata ta hangs hetwork, bit the general absence of evidence foe eat alll ‘Stonomce inthe shorter deysemon (2.51078 mond) and Hurd topes Sees that sich insntves operated ony aay with sullent perience {erinduce populations thee 1 tocome dependent on acre. Inde it nay be thatthe adoption of apeltre as subsistence system of production [thos ares owes tnoe to Bigatin, thd othe forms of mul Sch tial, fom the lng dryseeson (7.9 to 100 month) aod subtopic lands than it does to ndgenour prosewss of soioecnome change. We can tt ‘emmge mixed sconomies tweed on wisfood.procaremeat and mited fending of refered plants (specially feraps tropic oot and ter) as vag been the “norm inte shorter dy sesom ahd humid opis ous ow of te prehistoric ped, with ss to full dependence om aeeultare ‘Sccuring lately late se Msi and northern South Amer, ental Afi, South and Southetst Asa in suction withthe adopton there of sera Screed respectively on mul, on sorghum and other ils, ‘nrice but not occuring at la Aust, "At preentarchaeolopeal and palneoecsiogl evidence ftom the Ite ‘motif Tropical Zone fo equ fo low gener statements to be made ‘Tout the relative analy of src in these continental aes, at Sach ‘Pidence as we have suerte that tray have been established considerably ‘nner in "Md and. South Americ, Southeant Asa and probably Tala, than a Aca. IF this is conrec, te Inte emergenceof aclu as oppoed to plant manipulation in ropa Arcs mayen part due fo the exceptional ‘cleat in platood and expecially smal roouces of the savanna Feions South ofthe Saba (fJewel thi vom). As Cask agus in his com Briton, it may aot have eon unl migrant herders with eal, sheep, and [oats mowed tom the Saas into the lowe dyseason Suoanic tone tat fopslaton growth and other presures caused local huntergsthere Pop tions to str cultivating on s comaigebie sale such Indigenous gases soph, Afian rc, and males of the genera Pomierum. Hewne ‘pr Dig, or wth gins rae, ys 28 ter “Another factor of uncertain significance that may have checked the marpance of pncuture in tropical Aen i the perlenee thee of more ‘ult snd more numerous homan apd animal sas than occur eewhere Inthe Intermediate Tropieal Zone (ct. Desowit ths volume). In partials, ronotcsuenes tat Gepend on Herbivore fr thei maitenanee, sch the te y bore animal typanasomiass which causes "Seeping Sickness” a humans, may have prevented erly moves into dependence on arcu, ‘The pret of deepng sickness unknown, but sone tie the post {he “oan” omiealen osu, Prspanatom brut was elaed by te ‘ulet form, Trades, which has ban sesponabe forte epier of Seping schnes that have ravaged Aca actual popastion Thi ‘ther potently lets daca sch ae mats ae deny dependent and ate Unley to have had more tan marginal effects oa the pase population oF ‘fic hunter gatherers euete nthe Hops human and animal diseases hve probably been rch les effective ab 3 factor miting the development of agile, but the modincaion of clesel-canopy forests y shifting or siden cultion {Gf Condominar: this volume) his by incesing forested fait and ‘rovding cliated foods which aitact mil animal ined the pope {atom of disease vector and brought them into lor contact with hula For example, inthe Amerian topes yellow fever whichis angited ‘man is moneys and mosytoes, ha pad with sifting culation whch tus provided fod for the monkeys and forse haitat for them und te ‘moms Whatever the reason forthe apparently ate ad nied etabishment of ssicultue in wopleal Alc, there and in many oor parte of te Iter ‘mediate Tropa! Zone there’ i ite sedene fot the surly cnergence of IMgescale, lnintnsve systems of permanent api supporting dese Populations and complex soe. the Ameren sic developments took ace manly Inthe upland ase of Meares, sltho¥ph Inthe lowland ‘Seenna and rainforest environment of southeast Menico and ance Scand system fiona an! exten ager, lading es eat dematated fields, traces, ad Tased els, superted Mays cei. So, and fm th low sovannes of South Amen uaedield easton twas gute widely pracised In pearopean times (Hammond: thi volume, Parsons this volume, Fig. 7, Denean 1970, Haron and Turner 1998), [a tera, howorer, the lowland sana environments of ttopieal Ateica were hot the locale of earl and sustained commitments topes itesie Sprculre, the mos widespread pe of domestic ceonomy nthe tine OF Etropean contact tenga combination offing, uotngetherig, nd he fulton of Rouse gardens and swidn plate rps Anes evince for prehito,lrgescle, ntensve systems of apices even tore sant, Jhouph there te aunerous examples of los small ys, each 2 fe nil teraces of the Mandars mountains nd the Jos pats in West Attica {Guna ths volume) and he crue and dere systems of Hodvatet farming tasitialy practised ang msjor ver systems, sch the “inland

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