Chapter One

An Overview of Research
Concepts of Scientific Research
What is science?
The word science came from the Latin word “Scientia” that means knowledge.
Hence, science is an enterprise of systematic knowledge. It is sometimes
characterized as logic-empirical that is, rationality and observation of empirical
facts. In other words, scientific understanding of a concept must “make sense”
and correspond with what you observe.
What is Research?
The term research has been used in so many contexts and with such a variety
of meanings. For instance, if your project analysis and management lecturer
asks you to conduct a research on “project risk analysis” you may go to the
library and select some books on project management and you may take notes
selectively on the topic assigned. Is this research? To be frank, you have taken
notes but you did not do research! Similarly, assume that the department of
Accounting and Finance requires you to do a research paper as a pre-requisite
for your graduation.
If you select a senior essay topic “internal auditing in Smara University” and
you simply describe the auditing system by taking notes from auditing manual
of Smara University. Is this research? This is not research rather it is
information gathering. In short, research is not just information gathering
neither it is rearranging facts. However, some writes such as Emory and
Cooper (1991: p14) consider information gathering as research.

What is research then? Research is a quest driven by a specific question that

needs an answer. Research can be defined in terms of the component parts
that can be decomposed into following:

It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems

through objective and systematic analysis. Research is an organized and
systematic way of finding answers to questions. Research is a systematic,
controlled empirical and critical method consisting of enumerating the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions toward
the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.

Alternatively: research can be encompasses establishing a research question,

Finding background information, Formulating a research design, Data
collection, Analyzing the data, Establishing conclusion, Looking for areas of
further research, Stating the values associated with the research knowledge,
and Publishing the research work for others to view.

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Characteristics of Research
Research is organized; in that there is a structure or method in going about
doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused
and limited to a specific scope.
Good Research is Systematic; because there is a definite set of procedures and
steps which you will follow. There are certain things in the research process
which are always done in order to get the most accurate results.
Research is Difficult; the research procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Research is Critical; The methods employed and procedures used should be
critically examined. The process of investigation must be guaranteed and free
from any drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be
able to withstand critical study.
Research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value
in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to
the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to
a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning
makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
Research is Valid and verifiable; this concept implies that whatever you
conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and
others. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement,
keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
Research is controlled; in exploring the causality relation to two variables, the
study must be set in way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting
relationship. In social science research, however, since controlling is almost
impossible, the effect of the other variable must be quantified rather
controlling.
Research is Empirical; This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon
hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or
observations
Goals of Research
The purpose of scientific research is problem solving –practical or theoretical
nature. Seeking solutions to practical or theoretical problems involves:
Describing phenomena/pictorial account of the phenomena
Explaining phenomena/cause -and -effect relationships
Predicting phenomena/predicting what will happen in the future.
Comparing phenomena/comparing 2 or more groups on a certain
behavior or even within the same group

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Motivations in Doing Research
That is question what makes people to undertake research is of
fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing researches may
either one or more of the following.
Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problem, i.e. concern
over practical problems initiates’ research.
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
Desire to be service to society
Desire to get respectability
This is by no means as exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake
research studies. Other factors that may compel people to perform research
operations include:
 Directives of the government
 Employment condition (employed as a researcher )
 Curiosity about now things
 Desire to understand casual relationships
 Social thinking and awakening, etc…

Criteria for a good business research

Good research uses the scientific method discussed in earlier parts of this unit.
The following is a list of several criteria that could be used in assessing
research projects.
1) Purpose clearly defined: the purpose of the research, or the problem
involved, should be clearly defined and sharply delineated in terms of
unambiguous as possible. The statement of the research problem should
included analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and limitations and
precise specifications of the meanings of all words significant to the
research. Failure of the researcher to do this adequately may raise
legitimate doubts in the minds of readers as to whether the researcher has
sufficient understanding of the problem to make a sound attack upon it.
This criterion calls for specifying what will be done, but in many
exploratory studies, it is not possible to be that precise. It is important,
however, to state the nature of the research problem clearly and
unambiguously.
2) Research process detailed: the research procedures used should be
described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the
research. Excepting when secrecy is imposed in the national interest,
research reports should reveal with candor the sources of data and the
means by which they were obtained omission of significant procedural
details makes it difficult or impossible to estimate the validity and
reliability of the data and justifiably weakness the confidence of the reader
in research. This criterion calls for complete disclosure of methods and
procedures used in the research study. This also is highly desirable. It
enables others to test the findings through replication. Such openness to

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 scrutiny has a positive effect on the quality of research. Sometimes even
the acknowledgement of the study’s existence would be considered unwise.
3) Research design thoroughly planned: the procedural design of the research
should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible. When a sampling of population is involved, the report should
include evidence concerning the degree of representativeness of the sample.
A questionnaire ought not to be used when more reliable evidence is
available from documentary source or by direct observation. Bibliographic
search should be as thorough and complete as possible. Experiments
should have satisfactory controls. Direct observations should be recorded
in writing as soon as possible after the event. Efforts should be made to
minimize the influence of personal bias in selecting and recording data. The
business research often knows from the beginning what results the
sponsor would like to have. To combat this potentially biasing influence, it
may be necessary to secure an understanding before you start that the
objective is to uncover reality – whatever that may be.
4) Limitations frankly revealed: the researcher should report, with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effect up on
findings. There are very few perfect research designs. Some of the
imperfections may have little effect up on the validity and reliability of the
data; others may invalidate them entirely. A component research should be
sensitive to the effects of imperfect design and his/her experience in
analyzing the data should give him/her a bias for estimating their
influence.
5) High ethical standards applied: ethics is another criterion that should be
added to the list. Ethical issues in research reflect important moral
concerns about the practice of responsible behavior in society. Researchers
frequently find themselves precariously balancing the rights of their objects
against the scientific dictates of their chosen method. When this occurs,
they have a responsibility to guard the welfare of the participants in their
studies, and also the organizations to which they belong, their clients,
colleagues, and themselves.
6) Adequate analysis for decision makers need: The analysis of the data
should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance, and the methods
of analysis used should be appropriate. The extent to which this criterion is
met is frequently a good measure of the competence of the researcher.
Adequate analysis of the data is the most difficult phase of research
for the novice. The validity and reliability of data should be checked
carefully. The data should be classified in ways that assist the researcher
to reach pertinent conclusions. When statistical methods are used, the
probability of error should be estimated and the criteria of statistical
significance applied.
7) Conclusions justified: conclusions should be confined to these justified by
the data of the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis. Researchers are often tempted to broaden the basis of

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 inductions by including personal experiences not subject to the controls
under which the research data were gathered. This tends to decrease the
objectivity of the research and weakness confidence in the findings. Equally
undesirable is the all-too-frequent practice of drawing conclusions from a
study of a limited population and applying them usually. Good researchers
specify the conditions under which their conclusions seem to be valid.
Failure to do so justifiably threatens research validity and weakness
confidence in the research.
8) Researcher experience reflected: greater confidence in the research is
warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research, and is a person of integrity were is possible for the readers of a
research report to obtain sufficient information about the researcher, this
criterion perhaps would be one of the best bases for judging the degree of
confidence a piece of research warrants. For this reason, the research
report should be accompanied by more information about the qualification
of the researcher than is the usual practice. Some evidence pertinent to
estimate of the competence and integrity of the researcher may be found in
the report itself. Language that is restrained, clear, and precise: assertions
that are carefully drawn and hedged with appropriate reservations; and an
apparent effort to achieve maximum objectives tend to leave a favorable
impression of the researcher. On the other hand, generalizations that
outrun the evidence up on which they are based, exaggerations, and
unnecessary verbiage tend to leave an unfavorable impression.

Significance of research
The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the
following points:
 To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research
may mean careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social
structure;
 To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source
of livelihood;
 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new
ideas and insights;
 To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work;
 To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of
new theories. Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and an important source of providing guidelines for solving
different business, governmental and social problems. It is a sort of
formal training which enables one to understand the new developments
in one’s field in a better way.
The Difference between Research Method and Research Methodology
A method is a particular research technique or way to gather evidence
about a phenomenon.

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 Methods are the specific tools to gather data such as surveys, interviews,
participant observations.
Methodology describes ―the theory of how inquiry should proceed‖
Methodology encompasses our entire approach to research – how we
design and implement research studies;
The purpose and value of research

The very purpose of research to have information helpful for resolving

managerial dilemma (a problem or an opportunity) involving decision making.
Decision making here refers to a choice made from available alternatives and
decision making is the process of identifying problems and opportunities and
then resolving them. In each business problem or decision-making situation
the information required for informed decision making might be possessed
altogether or no clue at all. Based on our extent of certainty to absolute
ambiguity.

Certainty: all the information the decision maker needs is fully available: goes
along with programmed decisions, very rarely occur in real world. If the
manager is so completely certain about both the problem/opportunity and
future outcomes, then research may not be needed as all.

Risk: a decision has clear – out goals and good information is available, but the
future out comes, associated with each alternative are subject to chance.
Enough information is known to estimate the outcome.

Uncertainty: mangers known what goal they wish to achieve, but information
about alternatives and future events is incomplete. Managers must take
assumptions about critical information; they must find creative ways to cope.

Ambiguity: the goals to be achieved or the problem to be solved is clear,

alternatives are difficult to define, and information about outcome is
unavailable. And these the value of the business research in variety of decision
making situations can be viewed as reducing the uncertainty element involved
in the decision making process. Under conditions of complete certainty when
future outcomes are predictable, business research may a west of time.
However under conditions of uncertainty or ambiguity, business research
becomes more attractive to the decision maker as the situation moves farther
along the scale towards ambiguity, the need to spent additional time on
business research become more compelling.

Types of Research

Basis of Classification
1. Goal of research
Basic research
Applied research
2. Specific Objectives of Research

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 Descriptive
Explanatory
Exploratory
3. Approaches of research
Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Mixed research
4. Designs
Experimental
Quasi-experimental
Non-experimental
1. Pure or Basic Research
Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) has as its primary
objective of the advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding
of the relations among variables.

It is basically concerned with the formulation of a theory or a contribution to

the existing body of knowledge. Basic research is designed to add to an
organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce
results of immediate practical value.

Basic research;
 represents a rigorous and structured type of analysis;
 employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings
beyond the group or situation;
 Basic research lays down the foundation for the applied research that
follows; and
 Has little concern for the application of the findings or social usefulness
of the findings.
The major aims of basic research include:
 Obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, expand, or evaluate
theory; and
 Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.
Forms of Basic Research
 Discovery: where a totally new idea or explanation emerges from
empirical research which may revolutionize thinking on that particular
topic.
 Invention: where a new technique or method is created.
 Reflection: where an existing theory, technique or group of ideas is re-
examined possibly in a different organizational or social context.
2. Applied Research
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world,
rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. The goal of the applied
scientist is to improve the human condition. It is undertaken to solve
immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to the scientific knowledge

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is secondary. The primary purpose for applied research is Discovering,
interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for solving practical
problems. Applied research is conducted in relation to actual problems and
under the conditions in which they are found in practice. It employs
methodology that is not as rigorous as that of basic research. It yields findings
that can be evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in terms of
universal validity.
Comparison of basic and applied research
Basic Specific
Objectives Knowledge expressed in Information for immediate decision
general laws and theories and action.
Source of Unresolved theoretical Need to take action or make a
research questions; issues raised decision related to needs and
topics by previous research; goals.
unexplained
phenomenon.
Who does the Academics Governments; organizations;
research? consultancy, research institution
Sources of Governments; Governments; social agencies,
funds foundations public and private organizations.
Research Based on the specific Vary widely from very rigorous to
methods model of rigorous quick-and- dirty
hypothesis testing.
Determinant Topics and research Topics and research problems;
s of choice of problem; resources and resources and constraints;
methods constraints; theoretical importance of problem.
and research paradigm
Major Validity, universality Validity, relevance, cost benefit
concerns ratio.

3. Descriptive research
It sets out to describe and to interpret what is. It looks at individuals, groups,
institutions, methods and materials in order to describe, compare, contrast,
classify, analyze and interpret the entities and the events that constitute the
various fields of inquiry. It aims to describe the state of affairs as it exists. The
goal of descriptive research is to describe some aspect of a phenomenon, i.e.,
the status of a given phenomenon.

4. Explanatory Research
Explanatory research, aims at establishing the cause and effect relationship
between variables.
The researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze
and explain why or how something is happening. Explanatory or analytical
research aims to understand phenomena by discovering and measuring causal

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relations among them. Explanatory research builds on both exploratory and
descriptive researches.
It involves:
 Explaining things not just reporting.
 Determining which of several explanations is best.
 Determining the accuracy of the theory; test a theory's predictions or
principle.
 Providing evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
 Testing a theory's predictions or principles.
5. Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to
which references can be made for information. It provides insights into and
comprehension of an issue or situation for more rigorous investigation later.
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has
not been clearly defined. Its purpose is to gain background information and
better understand and clarify a problem.

Exploratory research helps to: determine the best research design, develop
hypotheses, and develop questions to be answered, understand how to
measure a variable, determine data collection method, and determine selection
of subjects.
Exploratory research often relies on:
– Secondary research
– Qualitative approaches (informal discussions)
– and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups,
projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making
by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation.

An exploratory research is conducted when researcher’s lack clear idea

of the problems they will meet during the study, it is not meant to
provide a conclusive evidence to determine a particular course of
action.

Degree of problem definition

Exploratory ( unaware of Descriptive research Causal research
problem) ( aware of problem) (problem clearly defined
“Our sales are declining and “What kinds of people are “Will buyers purchase
we do not know why.” buying our product? Who more of our products in a
“Would people be interested buys our competitor’s new package?”
in our new product idea?” product?” “Which of the two
“What features do buyers advertising campaigns is

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 prefer in our product?” more effective?”

6. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their
results through statistical summary or analysis. Qualitative research seeks to
describe various aspects about behavior and other factors studied in the social
sciences and humanities. In qualitative research data are often in the form of
descriptions, not numbers. Qualitative research is a type of empirical enquiry
that entails purposive sampling for gathering data.
It involves:
In-depth interviews, group discussions, projective techniques,
Observations without formal measurement. A case study, which is an
in-depth examination of one person, is a form of qualitative research.

7. Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is the systematic and scientific investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective
of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models,
theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena. The process of
measurement is central to quantitative research. Quantitative research involves
surveys and experiments. Quantitative approach typically concentrates on
measuring or counting and involves collecting and analyzing numerical data
and applying statistical tests.
In short:
Quantitative Research: - Most closely allied with the positivist tradition.
 Words of: - how many, test, verify, how often or how satisfied, etc…
Qualitative Research: most often associated with naturalistic inquiry
 Words of: - discover, motivation, experiences, think/thoughts, problems, or
behave/behavior

Definition by Questions Raised

quantitative Qualitative
How much? Why?
How different? How?
What causes variation in…? What are the reasons?
Often based on initial hypothesis that Directed towards understanding
is confirmed or rejected after analysis
of data
(unidirectional) Not unidirectional, works in circles,
looks for processes

Steps of Qualitative Study

1. Identify the general area of inquiry.
2. Specify the purpose of the research.

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3. Define the research problem.
-Literatures Review.
4. Develop the larger conceptual framework.
5. Phrase questions that will address the research problem.
6. Select methods that will best address the research questions
Basic Difference: Qualitative Vs. Quantitative
Quali Quantitative
tative
Purpose To describe a situation, gain To measure prevalence–how
insight into a particular widespread is a practice, belief,
practice, belief, etc. etc.
Format No predetermined response Standardized measures, response
categories categories predetermined and
pre- Supplied
Data In-depth explanatory data Wide breadth of data from a large
from a small sample statistically representative sample
Analysis Draws out patterns from Tests hypothesis, uses data to
concepts and insights (logical support conclusion. May use
reasoning/analytical control group (Statistical
generalization) generalization)
Result Illustrative explanation and Numerical aggregation in the
individual responses form of percentages, tables, etc.
Responses are clustered.
Sampling Theoretical Statistical
method
8. Mixed approach
Can we mix Qualitative and Quantitative Methods?
Purist view: methods are incompatible to each other and should not be
mixed to maintain scientific rigors
Situationalist view: appreciate the complimentarily of the two methods
but refrain from mixing the methods
Pragmatist view: argue using method mix as appropriate while
addressing the concerns of the methods.

9. Experimental
True experiment the following conditions must be met:
 The experimenter must be able to manipulate the occurrence and
nonoccurrence of the independent variable through his or her direct
intervention (e.g. the intake of mineral supplements)
 The experimenter must be able to identify and measure any subsequent
Changes in the dependent variable (e.g. variation in educational achievement)
 The experimenter must be able to control the effects of any extraneous
variables upon the dependent variable (e.g. age, IQ, etc.).
An experimental group is composed of subjects who experience the effects of
the independent variable (often called the ‘experimental treatment’). Any

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changes in the designated dependent variable are then monitored and
measured. A control group is composed of subjects who have not undergone
the experimental treatment and who are compared with those who have been
subjected to that independent variable.
10. Non-experimental

11. Quasi-experimental

As in the case of the true experiment, the prime aim of the quasi-experiment is
to analyze causal relationships between independent and dependent variables.
However, in a quasi-experiment, since it does not take place in a laboratory
and since its focus is on real-life, naturally occurring events, subjects cannot
be randomly or systematically allocated to experimental and control groups.
This does not mean that control and experimental groups are not used; rather,
control and experimental groups are identified in the field in terms of whether
or not they have experienced the notional experimental treatment(s) or
independent variable(s).

To summarize, a quasi-experimental approach is often adopted because it

1. avoids the artificiality of the context in which a true experiment takes place;
2. Allows research to be conducted in the actual settings to which any research
findings must be extrapolated; and
3. Is often adopted by researchers when they wish to investigate causal
relationships in situations where manipulation of the independent variable
and/or the systematic assignation of subjects to control and experimental
groups are not ethically or practically feasible. Given these characteristics,
quasi-experimentation seems to be a particularly useful approach to research
designs aimed at evaluating various types of social policy innovations or
reforms.
The systematic Process of Research
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps. These activities
indeed overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence. A brief description of these activities is as follows:
1. Formulating the Research Problem
Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the
research process. Formulation of the problem means defining the problem
precisely. Formulation of problem is essential because when the problem is
formulated, an appropriate technique can easily be applied to generate
alternative solutions. In other words, a problem defined is half solved.
Formulation of a problem involves the following steps:
i. Statement of the problem in a general way
ii. Understanding the nature of the problem
iii. Surveying the available literature
iv. Developing the idea through discussion

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 v. Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.
2. Extensive Literature Review
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down.
Literature review has three functions:
i. Bringing clarity and focus to the research problem
ii. Improving the methodology
iii. Broadening the researcher knowledge in the research area.
3. Development of Working Hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis. Working hypotheses is tentative assumption made in order
to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. Hypotheses should
be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to
be tested. The role of hypotheses is to guide the researcher by delineating the
area of research and keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and
focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also indicates
the type of data and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

4. Preparing the Research Design

Research design is defined as a blueprint or detailed plan for how researches
study is to be completed, operationalzing variables so they can be measured,
selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis for
testing hypothesis and analyzing the results. It is the complete scheme or
programmed of the research. A research design should include the following:
i. The study design
ii. The logistical arrangements that you purpose to undertake
iii. The measurement procedures
iv. The sampling strategy
v. The frame of analysis
vi. Time frame
5. Determining Sampling Design
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe
or population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is
known as a census inquiry. Because of the difficulty, relative inaccuracy and
biasness related to census study determining sample, few elements from the
population, becomes mandatory. In such cases, the researcher must decide the
way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In
other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can
be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability
samples each element has unknown probability of being included in the
sample but in the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to
determine this probability.

6. Collecting the Data

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There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money (costs), time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiments or through survey. In
the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one of the following specific
ways:
 Observation
 Interview
 Questionnaire
 Schedule
7. Analysis of Data
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as:
Establishment of categories, Coding, Tabulation, and Drawing statistical
values
8. Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis,
if any, he/she had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or
they happen to be contrary? Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-
test may be applied.
9. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld
Several times, it may be Possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization,
i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis
to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite
often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
10. Preparation of the Research Report
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him
following the appropriate formats and appropriate language.

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