Ic 02 2018 en

INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATIONS
COURSE no. 2
Assoc.Prof. Luminiţa SCRIPCARIU
10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 1

FROM THE PREVIOUS COURSE
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
INFORMATION SOURCES
ASCII. PARITY CHECK
VOICE CHARACTERISTICS
ELECTROACOUSTIC TRANSDUCERS

QUESTION 1
Which of the following blocks are
components of the communication
system?
 Signal Source
 Transmitter
 Communication Channel
 Receiver

QUESTION 1
Which of the following blocks are
components of the communication
system?
 Signal Source
 Transmitter
 Communication Channel
 Receiver

QUESTION 2
Which of the following signal sources use
the narrowest bandwidth?
 voice
 audio
 video
 TV

QUESTION 2
Which of the following signal sources use
the narrowest bandwidth?
 voice
 audio
 video
 TV

QUESTION 3
Which of the following communication
ways are wireless?
 Optical Communication
 IR Communication
 Radiocommunication
 TV Cable Broadcasting

QUESTION 3
Which of the following communication
types are wireless?
 Optical Communication
 IR Communication
 Radiocommunication
 TV Cable Broadcasting

QUESTION 4
Which is the voice channel bandwidth for
a classical phone system?
 1 kHz
 4 kHz
 7 kHz
 12 kHz

QUESTION 4
Which is the voice channel bandwidth for
a classical phone system?
 1 kHz
 4 kHz
 7 kHz
 12 kHz

QUESTION 5
Choose the correct value of the bandwidth
for HD Voice:
 1 kHz
 4 kHz
 7 kHz
 12 kHz

QUESTION 5
Choose the correct value of the bandwidth
for HD Voice:
 1 kHz
 4 kHz
 7 kHz
 12 kHz

What is the meaning of the
following acronyms?
• ASCII
• CRC
• fps

COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
(CC)

CLASSIFICATION
• Phone channel
• Radio channel
• Television channel
• Data channel.

Physical Medium
Wired Medium
• Metalic Cables (coaxial, twisted) –
electrical signals
• Optical Cables (containing one or more
optical fibers) – light waves
Wireless Medium
• Radio waves or infrared (IR).

Ways of Transmission
• Simplex
• Full-Duplex
• Half-Duplex
• Multiple Access
Duplexing – separation between UL – Up Link and

DL – Down Link.
E.g.: FDD – Frequency-Division Duplexing
TDD - Time-Division Duplexing

Halfduplex

Transmission Ways
• ANALOGICAL
– Electrical signals
– Electromagnetic waves
– Optical signals
– Infrared radiation
• DIGITAL
– Binary or serial mode (bit-by-bit)
– Parallel mode (8, 16, 32, 64 bits).

Digital Transmission Ways
• Serial Mode (bps)
10001011100001011110…
• Parallel mode (Bps)
0x 21 A3 C9 65 8E FD ...

Physical Parameters of CC
 Frequency: f [Hz]
 Frequency Band: [f1, f2] [Hz]
 Bandwidth: : B [Hz]
 Wavelength: l = c/f [m, nm, mm]
 Bit Duration: T [s, ms, ms]
 Bit Frequency: fb = 1/T [Hz]
 Bit rate: vb [b/s, bps] = fb [Hz]
 Voltage levels [V]
 Transmitted Power [W].
Receiving Parameters of CC
• End-to-end delay
• Received power [W].
• SNR – Signal-to-Noise Ratio.
• BER – Bit Error Rate
• Quality of Service (QoS).

Examples
• Analogical Phone:
[300 … 3400] [Hz] , B = 4 kHz
• Radio Broadcasting:
B = 15 kHz
• TV Broadcasting: B = 6 MHz
• Videophone: B = 1 MHz.

Measure Units
• bps – bits per second
• Bps – Bytes per second
1 Bps = 8 bps
1 KBps = 8 x 1024 bps = 8192 bps
• Bauds (from Baudot) – symbols per
second:
1 Baud = n bps
for n-bit symbols.

Bit Rate
• bps
• b/s
• bits per second
• 1 kbps = 1024 bps
• 1 Mbps = 1024 kbps
• 1 Gbps = 1024 Mbps
• e.g.:
64 kbps = 65536 bps
10 Mbps = 104,845,760 bps

Exercise 1
• Calculate the time needed to transmit a file

of 64 KB with 512 kbps.

Solution
 64 KB = 512 kb
 Dt = 512 kb / 512 kbps = 1 s

Exercise 2
• Calculate the time needed to transfer a file

of 700 MB with 200 kbps.

Solution
 700 MB = 8* 700 * 1024 kb = 5734400 kb
 Dt = 700 MB / 200 kbps = 5734400/200 s
= 28672 s
 Dt = 28672 s / 3600 s / h = 7h 57’52’’
 7 h = 25200 s
 57 min = 3420 s
 52 s

Proposed Exercise
• Calculate the time needed to transfer a file

of 5GB with an average rate of 100 Mbps.

Exercise
• Calculate the dB value of the signal-to-
noise ratio if the received video signal
power is 10 nW and the noise power is 0.1
pW.
• How do you appreciate the quality of the
received signal?

Solution
• S = 10 nW = 10*10 ^(-9) W = 10 ^(-8) W
• N = 0.1 pW = 10 ^(-1) * 10 ^(-12) W =
= 10 ^(-13) W
• S/N = 10 ^ 5
• S/N (dB) = 10 x lg (10 ^ 5) = 50 dB
• QoS: Excellent

Proposed Exercise
Calculate the dB value of SNR when
S = 1 mW and N = 10 nW.

Multiple Access Techniques
• TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access
• FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access
• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
• WDMA – Wavelength Division Multiple Access

TDMA
• Time Division Multiple

Access
• Each user has an
allocated time slot in
order to transmit its
information.

FDMA
• Frequency Division Multiple Access

• Each user has a frequency channel in order to
transmit its information.

The Transmitter
• Data Encoders
• Modulators
• Transmission Filters
• Amplifiers

ANALOGIC TRANSMITTER

DIGITAL TRANSMITTER

DATA ENCODING TECHNIQUES
• COMPRESSION CODES
• ENCRYPTION CODES
• ERROR-CORRECTION CODES
• LINE CODES

SIGNAL MODULATION
• Definition: Modulation means a changing
technique of a carrier signal parameters
(amplitude, frequency, phase) by a
modulating signal.
• The carrier is a sine or a cosine signal type.
• The modulating signal is analogic or digital.
• A digital modulator can use one or more
carrier signals.

MODULATION TECHNIQUES
• ANALOGIC:
1. AM – Amplitude Modulation
2. FM – Frequency Modulation
3. PM – Phase Modulation
• DIGITAL:
1. ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying
2. FSK – Frequency Shift Keying
3. PSK – Phase Shift Keying
4. QAM – Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
OTHER MODULATION TECHNIQUES
• OFDM – Ortoghonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
• DSSS – Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum
• FHSS – Frequency Hopping Spread-Spectrum

REMARK
• The transmission and receiving filters reduce the

interferences between frequency channels.
• The characteristics of these filters are given by

standards.

Telecommunication Organisations for
Standards
• ISO – International Organisation for Standards
• ITU - International Telecommunication Union
 ITU-R - ITU Radio Communications Sector
 ITU-T - ITU Telecommunications Sector
• ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards

Institute.
• ANSI – American National Standards Institute.

The Receiver
• Analogic
• Digital

ANALOGIC RECEIVER

DIGITAL RECEIVER

TERMS
ENCODER+DECODER
= CODEC
MODULATOR+DEMODULATOR
= MODEM
TRANSMITTER + RECEIVER
= TRANSCEIVER
EQUALISING
• The correction of the distortions caused by

the communication channel or the
compensation of intersymbol interference (ISI)
which occurs when the signal is transmitted
by a Band Limited (BL) channel.

LOW-PASS CHANNEL EQUALISING

SYNCHRONIZATION
• Carrier extraction from the received signal

spectrum or generating the carrier using a
local oscillator, with the same frequency
and phase as the transmitted one.
• Digital systems require additional
synchronizing circuits for bit, symbol or
frame timing.

CHAPTER 2
DATA ENCODING
TECHNIQUES

Discrete Information Source
• Finite alphabet: binary, ternary,

hexadecimal, alphanumeric (e.g.
keyboard), etc.
• Discrete time.

Logical Levels
• 1
• 0
• H (High)
• L (Low)
• M (Mark)
• S (Space)

Binary Sequences
• Polar
1/+ A, 0/-A
dc= 0
(dirrect current)
• Unipolar (ON/OFF)
1/+A, 0/0

Multilevel Signals
• More than 2 levels:
e.g. BCD – binary-to-decimal
• Ternary: +A, 0, -A or, briefly: +, 0, -

Discrete Source Models
• MODEL 1: Discrete, Complete,
Memoryless Source (DCMS) has a finite
set of independent symbols (s1, s2,..., sn)
associated to a probability vector (p1, p2, ...
pn) with the sum of the elements equal to
1:

Entropy
• Average value of the provided information:

Redundancy
• max[H(S)] = log2 n
• R = max [H(S)] - H(S)
• It is the amount of wasted "space" used to

transmit certain data.

Data Compaction Codes
• Means the remove of the redundant

symbols of the source without affecting the
entropy.
• Lossless compression.
10.10.2018 Luminita Scripcariu 61

Compaction Techniques
• Huffman – based on an apriori probabilistic
source model.
• Shannon – Fano – algorithm based on a

known source model.
• Ziv-Lempel Algorithm (ZLA) – uses a

dynamic symbol dictionary without knowing
the source model.
Huffman Code
• Based on the source probabilistic model.
• The symbols are decreasingly ordered.
• The tree-diagram is built.
• The code words are read from the root to
the edges.
• It is a prefix code (no code word is prefix
for another).

Huffman Algorithm
• Merge the symbols corresponding to the lowest

two probability values and calculate their sum.
• Repeat step 1 until all symbols are used.
• Encode by 1 and 0 the branches from each node.
• Read the code words from right-to-left, starting

from the root of the tree-diagram.

Example
• Design the Huffman code for a 5-symbol

source (A; B; C; D; E) described by the
following probability vector:
p = (1/2; 1/4; 1/8; 1/16; 1/16).

Code Table

Proposed Exercise
• Encode the sequence of characters BEE
by the designed Huffman code:
..............................................
• Decode the sequence: 110101110

..............................................

REMARKS
• The maximum probability corresponds to
the shortest code word.
• If the average length of the code words is

equal to the entropy, then the code is
optimal.

Code Analysis
• Average Code Length
• Code Redundancy
• Code Efficiency
• Compression rate

Example
Efficiency = 100%, Redundancy = 0%

Compression Rate: r = 1/1.875 = 0.5333 = 53.33 %

Huffman Code Properties
• Prefix code
• Self synchronized
• Memoryless
• Uses the same table in order to encode
and decode data.
• Errorless Decoding

Shannon-Fano Algorithm
• Ascending sort of the probability vector: p.
• Calculate the cumulative probabilities:
q(1)=0; q(i) = q(i-1) + p(i-1)
• Calculate the length of the code words:
l(i) = - [log2(p(i))]
• Express in binary (subunitary) the values
q(i).
• Read the first l(i) bits (decimal places) after
the point, in order to find the code words.
Example
p = [0.0625 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5]
• The Cumulative Vector:
q = [0 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5]
• The Length Vector:
l = [4 4 3 2 1]
• Binary conversion of q vector:
0.0000;0.0001;0.0010;0.0100;0.1000.
• Code words: 0000; 0001; 001; 01; 1
Proposed Exercise
• Design the Huffman code for a 6-symbol
source with the following probability vector:
(0.1 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.2 0.25)
• Analyze the code. Calculate the average
code length, the redundancy, the efficiency
and the compression rate of the code.
(Entropy= 2.5037 b/s).

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INTRODUCTION TO

Assoc.Prof. Luminiţa SCRIPCARIU

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 1

ASCII. PARITY CHECK

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 2

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 3

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 4

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Duplexing – separation between UL – Up Link and

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• Parallel mode (Bps)

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• Calculate the time needed to transmit a file

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 26

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 27

• Calculate the time needed to transfer a file

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 28

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• Calculate the time needed to transfer a file

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 30

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10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 32

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• TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access

• FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access

• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access

• WDMA – Wavelength Division Multiple Access

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 34

• Time Division Multiple

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 35

• Frequency Division Multiple Access

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• OFDM – Ortoghonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

• DSSS – Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum

• FHSS – Frequency Hopping Spread-Spectrum

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 43

• The transmission and receiving filters reduce the

• The characteristics of these filters are given by

10/10/2018 Luminita Scripcariu 44

• ITU - International Telecommunication Union