What Are the Fire Extinguisher Colours?

The five fire extinguisher colours are:

1. Blue – Dry Powder

2. Black – Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
3. Cream – Foam
4. Red – Water (Spray and Mist)
5. Yellow – Wet Chemical

Fire extinguishers are divided into five colour codes. As such, it is

paramount to get the correct fire extinguisher based on the risk at
hand. This is not just in terms of the legal compliance under the The
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005, but because they save
lives. Fire extinguishers are available in the following colour codes:
1. Blue (Dry Powder Extinguishers)

Blue label fire extinguishers are

sometimes known as ‘ABC’ extinguishers because they can be used
on Class A, B, and C fire types. However, this fire extinguisher must
not be used in enclosed spaces because it is very easy to inhale the
powder, and cleaning is not easy.
The standard dry powder can be used on some electrical fires, while
the special dry powder extinguisher may be used on fires involving
flammable metals.
How Do a Dry Powder Extinguishers Work?
Dry powder or chemical extinguishers work by coating the fuel or
burning material with a thin layer of dust. This separates the fuel from
the oxygen. It also works by interrupting the chemical reaction of a
fire, which is why they are effective in putting out fires from classes A,
B, and C.
Used on:

 Organic material like wood, flammable material, coal, cardboard,

paper, etc
 Flammable liquids like diesel, petrol, oil, turpentine, etc.
 Fire involving electrical equipment of up to 1000 volts
 Fires involving flammable gasses like LPG (liquid petroleum gas)
and acetylene

NOTE: Special dry powder extinguisher can only be used on

flammable metals like magnesium and titanium.
Not used on:

 Cooking oil fires

 Over 1000V electrical fires
 In enclosed spaces like residential homes, offices, etc.

Who Might Need Dry Powder Extinguishers?

 Welding and flame cutting businesses

 Premises with large boiler rooms
 Buildings using flammable gases for chemical processes
 Garage forecourts
2. Black (Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers)
 Black labelled fire extinguishers are
CO2 fire suppressers, and they are primarily used for electrical fires.
They are also used in computer server rooms. They can also be used
in Class B fire types.
How Does a Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers Work?
A Carbon Dioxide (CO2) fire extinguisher works by suffocating the fire
by displacing the oxygen needed to burn with CO2. For it to be
effective, the CO2 must be placed close to the source of the fire.
Used on:

 Flammable liquid type of fire like diesel, petrol, paint, etc

 Electrical related fire

Not used on:

 Kitchen fires
 Flammable materials
 Organic material like fabric, cardboard, wood, or paper
Who Might Need Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers?

 Building sites
 Server rooms
 Commercial kitchens
 Office blocks
  Buildings with electrical equipment

NOTE: all vehicles must carry 2kg of CO2 fire extinguisher as

standard.
 https://fire-risk-assessment-network.com/blog/fire-extinguisher-colours/

SAFE OPERATING OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Fact
Poor maintenance and incorrect usage of fire
extinguishers in the home are two key reasons small
house fires can spread endangering lives and causing
considerable damage to property. House fires can be
brought under control within the first few minutes of
ignition if attended to correctly with an extinguisher that
is well maintained, which can buy valuable time before
the Fire Services arrive.
How to operate a fire extinguisher
There are a number of different types of portable fire
extinguishers, each can be identified by the colour
coding and labelling. Check that the extinguisher you
intend to use is suitable for the type of fire encountered
eg a water extinguisher must never be used on any fire
involving electrical equipment.
There are four (4) basic steps for using modern portable
fire extinguishers.
The acronym PASS is used to describe these four basic
steps.
1. Pull (Pin)
Pull pin at the top of the extinguisher, breaking the
seal. When in place, the pin keeps the handle from
being pressed and accidentally operating the
extinguisher. Immediately test the extinguisher.
(Aiming away from the operator) This is to ensure
the extinguisher works and also shows the operator
how far the stream travels
2. Aim
Approach the fire standing at a safe distance. Aim
the nozzle or outlet towards the base of the fire.
3. Squeeze
Squeeze the handles together to discharge the
extinguishing agent inside. To stop discharge,
release the handles.
4. Sweep
Sweep the nozzle from side to side as you approach
the fire, directing the extinguishing agent at the base
of the flames. After an A Class fire is extinguished,
probe for smouldering hot spots that could reignite
the fuel.
Extinguisher tips
 The Australian Standard 2444 (AS 2444) Portable
Fire Extinguishers and Fire Blankets selection and
location will provide comprehensive information.
 Ensure everyone in the home/office knows the
location of all extinguishers and how to use them.
 Only ever operate an extinguisher if safe to do so. If in
doubt, get out.
 Remove the safety pin by pulling it sharply (this also
breaks the plastic seal). Test to ensure that the
extinguisher is operable immediately after removing
from the mounting bracket.
 Always try to work in pairs for safety.
 Carry or drag extinguisher to the scene of the fire.
In an Emergency Call Triple Zero (000)
A collaboration of Fire and Rescue NSW, NSW Rural
Fire Service, ACT Fire Brigade and ACT Rural Fire
Service
 https://www.fire.nsw.gov.au/page.php?id=632

Introduction to Types of Computer

Cables

In the computer system, there are several different parts which

are connected to the system. These parts can be directly

plugged into the computer system computer motherboard, or

there can be a requirement of some cable to connect

computer parts to the system. These parts can be digital

cameras, hard drives, mice or other devices. There are

different types of cables in the market, like HDMI cable, VGA

cable, DVI cable, Ethernet cable, PS/2 cable, 3.5 mm audio

cable, USB cable, and computer power cord cable.

Types of Computer Cables

Here is the list of Types of Computer Cables

1. HDMI cable
HDMI (High definition Media Interface) is a type of computer

cable used to transmit high definition video and audio signals.

Using the HDMI cables, the audio and video signal can be

easily transmitted without compromising the quality of

images and can send crystal clear images using this cable. The

HDMI cables are used to connect cable boxes, TVs, DVD

players, media streamers and other electronic devices. All

types of Av devices can be connected to one standard cable,

which is an HDMI cable. Also, one HDMI cable is capable of

transmitting both audio and video signals at the same time.

2. VGA cable
VGA (Video Graphics Ray) cable is another type of computer

cable which is used for sending video signals and is used to

link the monitor and the CPU of a computer. The VGA cable

can also be used in HD televisions. All the information

displayed on the monitor is coming from the VGA cable. There

is a total of 15 pins in the plugin the cable, which have three

rows containing 5 pins each. And the cable is easily fitted in

the monitor and the other end is fixed in the CPU of a

computer system.

3. DVI cable
DVI cables are used to connect the LCD monitor and the video

card. Using this cable, the user can see high image quality
without having any disturbance. The DVI cable is mostly used

in CRT monitors, which have a VGA connection. This cable

transmits the digital and analog signals to the computer

system. The DVI cable is capable enough of digital

connections and analog connections. The DVI cable can be

easily distinguished, whether it is analog or digital, by looking

if there is any flat pin present on the cable. If the flat pin has

four pins around, then it is a DVI analog, and there is only a

flat pin, then it is DVI digital.

4. Ethernet Cable
The Ethernet cable is a type of computer network cable which

is used for a wired network. The Ethernet cable is used to

connect the switches, monitors, PCs to the LAN (Local Area

Network). The length and durability of the Ethernet cable

describe the quality of the connection. If the cable is too long

and is not durable, it will contain a poor quality of the signal.

And due to this factor, there are different types of Ethernet

cables present in the market. The Ethernet cables are plugged

into the Ethernet port present on the motherboard. The

Ethernet cable looks like a phone cable but contains more

wires than phone cables. There are eight wires in the Ethernet

cable, and they can be available in different colors in the

market.
5. PS/2 Cable
The PS/2 cable is a standard cable to connect the mouse and

keyboard to the computer system. The length of the PS/2

cable is long enough so that the user can easily connect the

mouse and keyboard to the system and use the system. There

are a total of 6 pins in PS/2 cables and have a round

connector. There are majorly two sizes of PS/2 cable. The

smaller size is the most common cable, but some adaptors

can be used to convert it into a larger size. This cable is now

replaced with USB cables as they are universal cables and can

be easily plugged into any system.

6. 5mm Audio Cable

The 3.5mm audio cables are a type of computer cables that

are used in computer audio applications. This cable can be

used for connecting a mini-stereo audio device, PC sound

card or any portable CD player to any multimedia speaker.

This cable can also be used to connect earphones and

headphones to the system.

The green port is for headphones and computer speakers.

Blue port is for DVD player, MP3 player and pink port Is used

for connecting microphones.

7. USB cables
The USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable is a standard cable used

to connect universal devices or personal computers. It is

mainly used for short-distance digital communication. The

digital data can be transferred using a USB cable. Nowadays,

the USB cable is used to charge devices like smartphones,

Bluetooth speakers, trimmers and many more. The USB cables

can be used to connect two devices directly. The USB cable is

connected to the USB port present in the computer system.

The mouse and keyboard are also connected to a USB port as

they have USB cables. As the device is connected through the

USB cable, the unplugging of the USB cable when a device is

running can cause damage to a device, so whenever there is a

need of removing the USB cable, first it should be eject safely

and then it should be removed from the system.

Advantages of Computer Cables

Below are some advantages explained below.
The computer cables can be used to connect various devices

to the system and perform several operations. The computer

cables can easily transmit the digital and analog signal

through it. Some of the computer cables are capable enough

to transmit electric power through it like a USB cable. Using a

computer cable, one can see movies, play games, listen to

music, and do many more things. Ethernet cables can be used

to connect the computer system to the internet world.

Conclusion
Every type of computer cable has its advantages and can be

used for a different purpose. And all the computer cables are

standard cables which means they can be used to connect it

to any system. The cable’s performance depends on the size

of the cable and the durability of the cable.

  https://www.educba.com/types-of-computer-cables/

Basic computer network components

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Network components

Servers

Client
Router, switch, and PCs

Ethernet cable

Computer networks share common devices, functions, and features including servers,
clients, transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other hardware and
software resources, network interface card(NIC), local operating system(LOS), and the
network operating system (NOS).
Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network
operating system. Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the
network. There are many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several
functions. For example, there are file servers, print servers, mail servers,
communication servers, database servers, fax servers and web servers, to name a few.
Sometimes it is also called host computer, servers are powerful computer that store
data or application and connect to resources that are shared by the user of a network.
Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network
resources. Client computers are basically the customers(users) of the network, as they
request and receive services from the servers. These days, it is typical for a client to be
a personal computer that the users also use for their own non-network applications.
Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect
computers in a network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable.
Transmission media are sometimes called transmission medium channels, links or
lines.
Shared data - Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients such as data
files, printer access programs and e-mail.
Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared printers and peripherals are hardware
resources provided to the users of the network by servers. Resources provided include
data files, printers, software, or any other items used by clients on the network.
Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special expansion card
called a network interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares(formats) and sends data,
receives data, and controls data flow between the computer and the network. On the
transmit side, the NIC passes frames of data on to the physical layer, which transmits
the data to the physical link. On the receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received
from the physical layer and processes the message based on its contents.
Local Operating System - A local operating system allows personal computers to
access files, print to a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives
that are located on the computer. Examples are MS-DOS, Unix, Linux, Windows 2000,
Windows 98, Windows XP etc. The network operating system is the software of the
network. It serves a similar purpose that the OS serves in a stand-alone computer
Network Operating System - The network operating system is a program that runs on
computers and servers that allows the computers to communicate over the network.
Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like
a distribution center. When a computer requests information from a network or a
specific computer, it sends the request to the hub through a cable. The hub will receive
the request and transmit it to the entire network. Each computer in the network should
then figure out whether the broadcast data is for them or not.
Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network
components. Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical
device addresses in each incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the
right destination or port.
Unlike a hub, switch doesn't broadcast the received message to entire network, rather
before sending it checks to which system or port should the message be sent. In other
words, switch connects the source and destination directly which increases the speed of
the network. Both switch and hub have common features: Multiple RJ-45 ports, power
supply and connection lights.
Router - When we talk about computer network components, the other device that used
to connect a LAN with an internet connection is called Router. When you have two
distinct networks (LANs) or want to share a single internet connection to multiple
computers, we use a Router. In most cases, recent routers also include a switch which
in other words can be used as a switch. You don’t need to buy both switch and router,
particularly if you are installing small business and home networks. There are two types
of Router: wired and wireless. The choice depends on your physical office/home setting,
speed and cost.
LAN Cable A local area Network cable is also known as data cable or Ethernet cable
which is a wired cable used to connect a device to the internet or to other devices like
computer, printers, etc.

See Also

 https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Basic_computer_network_components#:~:text=Computer
%20networks%20share%20common%20devices,network%20operating%20system%20(NOS).

In the world of technology, there are vast numbers of users'

communicating with different devices in different languages. That also
includes many ways in which they transmit data along with the
different software they implement. So, communicating worldwide will
not be possible if there were no fixed 'standards' that will govern the
way user communicates for data as well as the way our devices treat
those data. Here we will be discussing these standard set of rules.

Yes, we're talking about "protocols" which are set of rules that help in
governing the way a particular technology will function for
communication. In other words, it can be said that the protocols are
digital languages implemented in the form of networking algorithms.
There are different networks and network protocols, user's use while
surfing.

Types of Protocols
There are various types of protocols that support a major and
compassionate role in communicating with different devices across
the network. These are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher
Let's discuss each of them briefly:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular

communication protocol which is used for communicating over a
network. It divides any message into series of packets that are
sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at
the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing
protocol. It is mostly used with TCP. The IP addresses in packets
help in routing them through different nodes in a network until it
reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular
protocol connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute
communication protocol to Transmission Control Protocol
implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-
latency linking between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving
incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send
and distribute outgoing E-Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from
one machine to another. Types of files may include program files,
multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for
transferring a hypertext among two or more systems. HTML tags
are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like
text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles
which allow a client system for establishing a connection with the
server machine for making a request. The server acknowledges
the request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is
abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard
protocol to secure the communication among two computers
one using the browser and other fetching data from web server.
HTTP is used for transferring data between the client browser
(request) and the web server (response) in the hypertext format,
same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring of data is
done in an encrypted format. So it can be said that https thwart
 hackers from interpretation or modification of data throughout
the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one
system with another. The connecting process here is termed as
remote login. The system which requests for connection is the
local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is
the remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for
searching, retrieving as well as displaying documents from
isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server principle.

Some Other Protocols

Some other popular protocols act as co-functioning protocols

associated with these primary protocols for core functioning. These
are:

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
 RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)
 RLP (Resource Location Protocol)
 RAP (Route Access Protocol)
 L2TP (Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol)
 PPTP (Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol)
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

 https://www.w3schools.in/types-of-network-protocols-and-their-uses
 What are the 4 layers of the TCP IP model?
 BYAFROZ AHMAD
 UPDATEDJUNE 1, 2022
 INCCDEINTERVIEW TIPSROUTING AND SWITCHING
 READ TIME10 MINS
Table Of Contents
1. What are the 4 layers of the TCP IP model in networking?
o What is TCP IP full form?

o What is a TCP IP model?  

o History of TCP IP model
o What are the advantages and disadvantages of TCP IP?
 Advantages of TCP/IP Model

 Disadvantages of TCP/IP model

o What are the 4 layers of the TCP IP model?

o Network Access Layer or Link Layer
 What are the functions of the Network Access layer?

o Internet Layer
 What are the functions of the Internet layer?

o Transport Layer or Host to Host Layer

 What are the functions of the Transport Layer?

o Application Layer
 What are the functions of the Application layer?

o What are some common protocols associated with each

layer of the TCP/IP model? 
o How does data flow through the layers of the TCP/IP
model?  
o How can the TCP/IP model be used to troubleshoot
networking issues?  
o Conclusion
Layers of the TCP IP Model

What are the 4 layers of the TCP IP model in networking?

The TCP IP model is a four-layer communication model that
breaks down communication into manageable chunks. This makes
it possible to standardize the process of communication without
relying on software and hardware providers. As a result,
companies can save time and money while still ensuring reliable
communication. This post will look into all 4 layers of the TCP IP
model in depth.
I would suggest you read about the OSI model, OSI model cheat
sheet Infographic, IP subnetting, VLANs, and VLAN tagged vs.
untagged topics to grasp the basic understanding of networking.

What is TCP IP full form?

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

TCP IP reflects the two standard protocols in the model. The
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) manages end-to-end packet
delivery, while the Internet Protocol (IP) provides IP addressing
and Routing between networks.

What is a TCP IP model?  

The TCP/IP model is a conceptual model used to describe the

functions of a networking system and how data travels from one
device to another over a network. 

It is a hierarchical model which divides these functions into four

abstraction layers which are Application, Transport, Internet, and
Network Access layer respectively, and are used to describe the
structure of communication networks. 

The TCP/IP model is often compared to the OSI model, which is a

similar conceptual model for networking. The OSI model has 7
layers compared to 4 layers of the TCP IP model.

History of TCP IP model

Listed below are some key points that aided in the advancement
of the TCP/IP model:

 TCP IP protocol was developed by DARPA in the 1960s. 

  In 1975, Stanford and University College London tested two-
network TCP/IP communications.
 In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared
TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking,
which helped promote this model.
 ARPANET adopted this structured protocol as a standard in
1983.
 Companies like IBM, DEC, and others later adopted TCP/IP as
their standard communication protocol.
 The University of California accepted TCP/IP as public
domain in 1989.
 Slowly, the TCP/IP model became the global standard for
computer networking and Internet communication.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of TCP

IP?
Advantages of TCP/IP Model

There are many advantages of the TCP/IP model. 

 It is a very flexible and scalable model and can be used in

small, medium, and large networks.
 TCP/IP is also a very reliable model. It is designed to be
robust and handle a large amount of data without losing any
information. 
 It uses a modular approach, making it easy to add new
features and services.
 It uses a layered approach which makes it easy to
understand and troubleshoot.
 It supports many routing protocols.
Disadvantages of TCP/IP model

Some of the disadvantages of the TCP/IP model include:-

 The TCP/IP model effectively gets a message from point A to

point B. However, this model is not always the best choice.
There are times when another model, for example, the OSI
model, will be better suited in a particular situation.
 Each layer of TCP/IP has its own set of protocols that govern
how data is transmitted and received, which is sometimes
difficult to understand and manage for newcomers.
 The TCP/IP model is a logical model that doesn’t necessarily
correspond to the network’s physical structure, which
sometimes creates confusion.
 TCP/IP model can sometimes be difficult to troubleshoot
problems at each layer because of the complex interactions
between the various protocols.

What are the 4 layers of the TCP IP model?

The TCP/IP reference model has four layers:

1. Network Access Layer or Link Layer

2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer or Host to Host Layer
4. Application Layer
Each layer is responsible for different aspects of communication.
For example, the Network Access Layer is responsible for the
physical transmission of data, while the Internet Layer handles
routing and IP addressing. The Transport Layer ensures reliable
communication between hosts, and the Application Layer
provides services such as email and web browsing.
Network Access Layer or Link Layer

The Network Access layer is the first and the lowest layer of the
TCP/IP model, and it combines the functionalities of the Physical
Layer and the Data Link Layer of the OSI model.

The Network Access layer of the TCP/IP model uses Cables,

Repeaters, Hubs, switches, and bridges to physically connect
devices to the network and pass data within the same network
subnet. The data unit is bits(1s and 0s) and frame. Protocols used
on this layer are Ethernet, RS232, etc. 

The Network Access layer defines the mechanism for the physical
transmission of data between devices on the same network. It
defines how the data should be sent physically through a network
and maps an IP address (4 bytes or 32 bits) into a physical address
or MAC address (6 bytes or 48 bits). It includes hardware devices
that directly interact with a network medium and identify hosts by
utilizing the MAC address. This layer is mainly responsible for
transmitting frames transmitted by a point-to-point connection,
such as an ethernet cable or token ring cable.

What are the functions of the Network Access layer?

These are the functions of the Network Access Layer:-

 Access to the physical network medium, like cables, wireless.

 It provides MAC addressing and mapping of logical IP
address to physical MAC address.
 Error notification.
 It does the sequencing of frames.
 It provides Flow control.
Internet Layer

The Internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model, and it
is equivalent to the Network layer in the OSI model. Its primary
function is to provide IP Addressing and Routing. Routers are
used on this layer. The data unit is Packets, and protocols include
IP protocol, ICMP, etc.

What are the functions of the Internet layer?

These are the functions of the Internet Layer:-

 It is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

packet, including routing through intermediate routers
across multiple network segments. 
 The Internet layer is also responsible for the IP
addressing scheme that uniquely identifies each host on a
TCP/IP network.
 The Internet layer also provides for fragmentation and
reassembly of long datagrams.
 The Internet layer also provides the Time-to-Live (TTL) field
in the IP datagram header.
 IP datagram also contains source and destination address
which is used to forward packets between IP networks.
 It also does error handling, congestion control, and QoS
(Quality of Service).

Transport Layer or Host to Host Layer

The Transport layer is the third layer of the TCP/IP model and
matches up to the Transport layer of the OSI model. It ensures
data is delivered between applications in sequence,error-free, and
without loss or duplication.

On this layer, firewalls are used. Its data unit is the Segment, and
protocols are TCP and UDP.

TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol that ensures that

all data is delivered correctly. UDP is an unreliable, connectionless
protocol that does not guarantee delivery or ensure that packets
are received in order

It provides reliable, in-order delivery of packets to endpoints on a

network. This layer ensures that messages are delivered correctly
and that all packets arrive in the correct order. In addition, it can
multiplex and demultiplex data streams between two applications.

What are the functions of the Transport Layer?

 The Transport layer chops the message received from the

Application layer into segments and tags or numbers them
to make a sequence. And then forwards it to the IP layer for
further processing.
 The Transport layer ensures that data is delivered correctly in
sequence to the correct destination host by doing error
detection, correction (by resending), and reordering of
messages.
 It is responsible for providing end-to-end communication
services for applications.
 It is also responsible for providing reliability by doing flow
control and error control.

Application Layer
The Application layer is the fourth layer of the TCP/IP model, and
it combines the functionalities of the Session, Presentation, and
Application Layers of the OSI model. In addition, it provides the
interface between the application and the network.

It is responsible for presenting data to the user. Applications such

as Web browsers and FTP/Email clients are used on this layer. Its
data unit is the Data, and Application layer protocols are FTP,
HTTP, HTTPS, etc.

What are the functions of the Application layer?

 The Application layer is responsible for the user interfaces

and application services.
 The user interfaces include a command-line, menu-driven,
and graphical user interface.
 The application services include e-mail, file transfer, remote
login, and World Wide Web.
 The Application layer is responsible for formatting messages
into a format that the underlying transport layer services can
transport. It also ensures that messages are properly
received and interpreted by the receiving application.
 The application layer ensures that the data is delivered to the
correct application process.

What are some common protocols associated with

each layer of the TCP/IP model? 

The TCP/IP model is a four-layer model that consists of the

Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Access layers. 
  The application layer protocol suite includes HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, and DNS. 
 Standard protocols associated with the Transport layer
include TCP and UDP. 
 The Internet layer has network protocols which include IP,
ICMP, and ARP. 
 Network Access layers have protocols like Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
RS232, etc. 

The TCP IP model layers Interaction

How does data flow through the layers of the

TCP/IP model?  
Similar to the OSI model, in the TCP/IP model, Data flows through
the layers in a serial fashion. Each layer takes the data it receives
from the layer above it, adds its own headers and trailers (as
appropriate), and passes the resulting data down to the next layer.

Let us take an example of a web browser talking to a web server.

In this case, data will flow from top to bottom through the layers
in the following order: the Application layer, the Transport layer,
the Internet layer, and the Network Access layer. Where each layer
will encapsulate and decapsulates packets to process data and
pass data to the next layer.

On the other side of the application, where the Web server lies,
data will follow from bottom to up, following the Network Access
Layer, the Internet layer, the Transport layer, and finally reaching
the Application layer.
How to use the TCP IP model for Troubleshooting

How can the TCP/IP model be used to troubleshoot

networking issues?  

The TCP/IP model can be used to troubleshoot networking issues

by identifying the problem at each layer and then resolving it. For
example:-

 If there is a problem with the network interface, you can

check the Physical layer for a loose cable or a bad
connection.
 If the problem is with the network layer, you can check the IP
address to see if it is valid and routable.
 If the problem is with the transport layer, you can check the
TCP or UDP port to see if it is open.
  If the problem is with the application layer, you can check
the application itself for errors. 

Conclusion

The TCP/IP model has proven to be a robust and flexible

architecture that you can use in various network types. Therefore,
it is crucial to understand the different layers of the TCP IP model
and how they interact with each other to troubleshoot problems
and optimize network performance.  We have touched on almost
all aspects of the TCP IP model in this article; let me know if you
want me to add anything else. 

 https://afrozahmad.com/blog/4-layers-of-the-tcp-ip-model/

Any device that does not need to remain at one place to carry out its
functions is a mobile device. So laptops, smartphones and personal
digital assistants are some examples of mobile devices. Due to their
portable nature, mobile devices connect to networks wirelessly. Mobile
devices typically use radio waves to communicate with other devices
and networks. Here we will discuss the protocols used to carry out
mobile communication.
Mobile communication protocols use multiplexing to send information.
Multiplexing is a method to combine multiple digital or analog signals
into one signal over the data channel. This ensures optimum utilization
of expensive resource and time. At the destination these signals are
de-multiplexed to recover individual signals.
These are the types of multiplexing options available to
communication channels −
 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) − Here each user is
assigned a different frequency from the complete spectrum. All
the frequencies can then simultaneously travel on the data
channel.
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) − A single radio frequency is
divided into multiple slots and each slot is assigned to a
different user. So multiple users can be supported
simultaneously.
  CDMA (Code Division Multiplexing) − Here several users
share the same frequency spectrum simultaneously. They are
differentiated by assigning unique codes to them. The receiver
has the unique key to identify the individual calls.

GSM
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communications. GSM is
one of the most widely used digital wireless telephony system. It was
developed in Europe in 1980s and is now international standard in
Europe, Australia, Asia and Africa. Any GSM handset with a SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module) card can be used in any country that
uses this standard. Every SIM card has a unique identification
number. It has memory to store applications and data like phone
numbers, processor to carry out its functions and software to send and
receive messages
GSM technology uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to
support up to eight calls simultaneously. It also uses encryption to
make the data more secure.
The frequencies used by the international standard is 900 MHz to
1800 MHz However, GSM phones used in the US use 1900 MHz
frequency and hence are not compatible with the international system.

CDMA
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It was first used by
the British military during World War II. After the war its use spread to
civilian areas due to high service quality. As each user gets the entire
spectrum all the time, voice quality is very high. Also, it is
automatically encrypted and hence provides high security against
signal interception and eavesdropping.

WLL
WLL stands for Wireless in Local Loop. It is a wireless local telephone
service that can be provided in homes or offices. The subscribers
connect to their local exchange instead of the central exchange
wirelessly. Using wireless link eliminates last mile or first mile
construction of network connection, thereby reducing cost and set up
time. As data is transferred over very short range, it is more secure
than wired networks.
WLL system consists of user handsets and a base station. The base
station is connected to the central exchange as well as an antenna.
The antenna transmits to and receives calls from users through
terrestrial microwave links. Each base station can support multiple
handsets depending on its capacity.

GPRS
GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services. It is a packet based
wireless communication technology that charges users based on the
volume of data they send rather than the time duration for which they
are using the service. This is possible because GPRS sends data over
the network in packets and its throughput depends on network traffic.
As traffic increases, service quality may go down due to congestion,
hence it is logical to charge the users as per data volume transmitted.
GPRS is the mobile communication protocol used by second (2G) and
third generation (3G) of mobile telephony. It pledges a speed of 56
kbps to 114 kbps, however the actual speed may vary depending on
network load.
What Is Network Topology?
Best Guide to Types and
Diagrams
By Staff Contributor on August 15, 2019

The configuration, or topology, of a network is key to

determining its performance. Network topology is the way a
network is arranged, including the physical or logical
description of how links and nodes are set up to relate to each
other.

There are numerous ways a network can be arranged, all with

different pros and cons, and some are more useful in certain
circumstances than others. Admins have a range of options
when it comes to choosing a network topology, and this
decision must account for the size and scale of their business,
its goals, and budget. Several tasks go into effective network
topology management, including configuration management,
visual mapping, and general performance monitoring. The key
is to understand your objectives and requirements to create
and manage the network topology in the right way for your
business.

Following an in-depth network topology definition, this article

will look at the main types of network topologies, their
benefits and drawbacks, and considerations for determining
which one is best for your business. I’ll also discuss the use
and benefits of network topology mapping
software like SolarWinds® Network Topology Mapper in
configuring your network, visualizing the way devices connect,
and troubleshooting network issues.
What Is Network Topology?
Why is Network Topology Important?
Types of Network Topology
Star Topology
Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Tree Topology
Mesh Topology
Hybrid Topology
Which Topology Is Best for Your Network?
What Tools Help Manage and Monitor Networks?

What Is Network Topology?

Network topology refers to how various nodes, devices, and
connections on your network are physically or logically
arranged in relation to each other. Think of your network as a
city, and the topology as the road map. Just as there are many
ways to arrange and maintain a city—such as making sure the
avenues and boulevards can facilitate passage between the
parts of town getting the most traffic—there are several ways
to arrange a network. Each has advantages and disadvantages
and depending on the needs of your company, certain
arrangements can give you a greater degree of connectivity
and security.

There are two approaches to network topology: physical and

logical. Physical network topology, as the name suggests,
refers to the physical connections and interconnections
between nodes and the network—the wires, cables, and so
forth. Logical network topology is a little more abstract and
strategic, referring to the conceptual understanding of how
and why the network is arranged the way it is, and how data
moves through it.

Why Is Network Topology Important?

The layout of your network is important for several reasons.
Above all, it plays an essential role in how and how well your
network functions. Choosing the right topology for your
company’s operational model can increase performance while
making it easier to locate faults, troubleshoot errors, and
more effectively allocate resources across the network to
ensure optimal network health. A streamlined and properly
managed network topology can increase energy and data
efficiency, which can in turn help to reduce operational and
maintenance costs.
The design and structure of a network are usually shown and
manipulated in a software-created network topology diagram.
These diagrams are essential for a few reasons, but especially
for how they can provide visual representations of both
physical and logical layouts, allowing administrators to see the
connections between devices when troubleshooting.

The way a network is arranged can make or break network

functionality, connectivity, and protection from downtime. The
question of, “What is network topology?” can be answered
with an explanation of the two categories in the network
topology.

1. Physical – The physical network topology refers to the

actual connections (wires, cables, etc.) of how the
network is arranged. Setup, maintenance, and
provisioning tasks require insight into the physical
network.
2. Logical – The logical network topology is a higher-
level idea of how the network is set up, including which
nodes connect to each other and in which ways, as well
as how data is transmitted through the network. Logical
network topology includes any virtual and cloud
resources.
Effective network management and monitoring require a
strong grasp of both the physical and logical topology of a
network to ensure your network is efficient and healthy.

Back to top
What’s the Most Common Type of
Network Topology?
Building a local area network (LAN) topology can be make-or-
break for your business, as you want to set up a resilient,
secure, and easy-to-maintain topology. There are several
different types of network topology and all are suitable for
different purposes, depending on the overall network size and
your objectives.
As with most things, there’s no “right” or one-size-fits-all
option. With this in mind, I’ll walk you through the most
common network topology definitions to give you a feel for
the advantages and disadvantages of each.

What Is Star Topology?

A star topology, the most common network topology, is laid
out so every node in the network is directly connected to one
central hub via coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cable.
Acting as a server, this central node manages data
transmission—as information sent from any node on the
network has to pass through the central one to reach its
destination—and functions as a repeater, which helps prevent
data loss.
Advantages of Star Topology

Star topologies are common since they allow you to

conveniently manage your entire network from a single
location. Because each of the nodes is independently
connected to the central hub, should one go down, the rest of
the network will continue functioning unaffected, making the
star topology a stable and secure network layout.
Additionally, devices can be added, removed, and modified
without taking the entire network offline.

On the physical side of things, the structure of the star

topology uses relatively little cabling to fully connect the
network, which allows for both straightforward setup and
management over time as the network expands or contracts.
The simplicity of the network design makes life easier for
administrators, too, because it’s easy to identify where errors
or performance issues are occurring.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

On the flipside, if the central hub goes down, the rest of the
network can’t function. But if the central hub is properly
managed and kept in good health, administrators shouldn’t
have too many issues.

The overall bandwidth and performance of the network are

also limited by the central node’s configurations and technical
specifications, making star topologies expensive to set up and
operate.

Back to top
What Is Bus Topology?
A bus topology orients all the devices on a network along a
single cable running in a single direction from one end of the
network to the other—which is why it’s sometimes called a
“line topology” or “backbone topology.” Data flow on the
network also follows the route of the cable, moving in one
direction.

Advantages of Bus Topology

Bus topologies are a good, cost-effective choice for smaller

networks because the layout is simple, allowing all devices to
be connected via a single coaxial or RJ45 cable. If needed,
more nodes can be easily added to the network by joining
additional cables.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

However, because bus topologies use a single cable to

transmit data, they’re somewhat vulnerable. If the cable
experiences a failure, the whole network goes down, which
can be time-consuming and expensive to restore, which can
be less of an issue with smaller networks.

Bus topologies are best suited for small networks because

there’s only so much bandwidth, and every additional node
will slow transmission speeds.

Furthermore, data is “half-duplex,” which means it can’t be

sent in two opposite directions at the same time, so this
layout is not the ideal choice for networks with huge amounts
of traffic.

Back to top
What Is Ring Topology? Single vs.
Dual
Ring topology is where nodes are arranged in a circle (or ring).
The data can travel through the ring network in either one
direction or both directions, with each device having exactly
two neighbors.
Pros of Ring Topology

Since each device is only connected to the ones on either side,

when data is transmitted, the packets also travel along the
circle, moving through each of the intermediate nodes until
they arrive at their destination. If a large network is arranged
in a ring topology, repeaters can be used to ensure packets
arrive correctly and without data loss.
Only one station on the network is permitted to send data at a
time, which greatly reduces the risk of packet collisions,
making ring topologies efficient at transmitting data without
errors.

By and large, ring topologies are cost-effective and

inexpensive to install, and the intricate point-to-point
connectivity of the nodes makes it relatively easy to identify
issues or misconfigurations on the network.

Cons of Ring Topology

Even though it’s popular, a ring topology is still vulnerable to

failure without proper network management. Since the flow of
data transmission moves unidirectionally between nodes
along each ring, if one node goes down, it can take the entire
network with it. That’s why it’s imperative for each of the
nodes to be monitored and kept in good health. Nevertheless,
even if you’re vigilant and attentive to node performance,
your network can still be taken down by a transmission line
failure.

The question of scalability should also be taken into

consideration. In a ring topology, all the devices on the
network share bandwidth, so the addition of more devices can
contribute to overall communication delays. Network
administrators need to be mindful of the devices added to the
topology to avoid overburdening the network’s resources and
capacity.
Additionally, the entire network must be taken offline to
reconfigure, add, or remove nodes. And while that’s not the
end of the world, scheduling downtime for the network can
be inconvenient and costly.

What Is Dual-Ring Topology?

A network with ring topology is half-duplex, meaning data can
only move in one direction at a time. Ring topologies can be
made full-duplex by adding a second connection between
network nodes, creating a dual ring topology.
Advantages of Dual-Ring Topology

The primary advantage of dual ring topology is its efficiency:

because each node has two connections on either side,
information can be sent both clockwise and counterclockwise
along the network. The secondary ring included in a dual-ring
topology setup can act as a redundant layer and backup,
which helps solve for many of the disadvantages of traditional
ring topology. Dual ring topologies offer a little extra security,
too: if one ring fails within a node, the other ring is still able to
send data.

Back to top
What Is Tree Topology?
The tree topology structure gets its name from how the
central node functions as a sort of trunk for the network, with
nodes extending outward in a branch-like fashion. However,
where each node in a star topology is directly connected to
the central hub, a tree topology has a parent-child hierarchy
to how the nodes are connected. Those connected to the
central hub are connected linearly to other nodes, so two
connected nodes only share one mutual connection. Because
the tree topology structure is both extremely flexible and
scalable, it’s often used for wide area networks to support
many spread-out devices.
Pros of Tree Topology

Combining elements of the star and bus topologies allows for

the easy addition of nodes and network expansion.
Troubleshooting errors on the network is also a
straightforward process, as each of the branches can be
individually assessed for performance issues.

Cons of Tree Topology

As with the star topology, the entire network depends on the
health of the root node in a tree topology structure. Should
the central hub fail, the various node branches will become
disconnected, though connectivity within—but not between—
branch systems will remain.

Because of the hierarchical complexity and linear structure of

the network layout, adding more nodes to a tree topology can
quickly make proper management an unwieldy, not to
mention costly, experience. Tree topologies are expensive
because of the sheer amount of cabling required to connect
each device to the next within the hierarchical layout.

Back to top
What Is Mesh Topology?
A mesh topology is an intricate and elaborate structure of
point-to-point connections where the nodes are
interconnected. Mesh networks can be full or partial mesh.
Partial mesh topologies are mostly interconnected, with a few
nodes with only two or three connections, while full-mesh
topologies are—surprise!—fully interconnected.

 
The web-like structure of mesh topologies offers two different
methods of data transmission: routing and flooding. When
data is routed, the nodes use logic to determine the shortest
distance from the source to destination, and when data is
flooded, the information is sent to all nodes within the
network without the need for routing logic.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies are reliable and stable, and the complex
degree of interconnectivity between nodes makes the network
resistant to failure. For instance, no single device going down
can bring the network offline.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies are incredibly labor-intensive. Each

interconnection between nodes requires a cable and
configuration once deployed, so it can also be time-
consuming to set up. As with other topology structures, the
cost of cabling adds up fast, and to say mesh networks require
a lot of cabling is an understatement.

Back to top
What Is Hybrid Topology?
Hybrid topologies combine two or more different topology
structures—the tree topology is a good example, integrating
the bus and star layouts. Hybrid structures are most
commonly found in larger companies where individual
departments have personalized network topologies adapted
to suit their needs and network usage.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

The main advantage of hybrid structures is the degree of

flexibility they provide, as there are few limitations on the
network structure itself that a hybrid setup can’t
accommodate.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

However, each type of network topology comes with its own
disadvantages, and as a network grows in complexity, so too
does the experience and know-how required on the part of
the admins to keep everything functioning optimally. There’s
also the monetary cost to consider when creating a hybrid
network topology.

Back to top
Which Topology Is Best for Your
Network?
No network topology is perfect, or even inherently better than
the others, so determining the right structure for your
business will depend on the needs and size of your network.
Here are the key elements to consider:

 Length of cable needed

 Cable type

 Cost

 Scalability

Cable Length 
Generally, the more cable involved in network topology, the
more work it’ll require to set up. The bus and star topologies
are on the simpler side of things, both being fairly lightweight,
while mesh networks are much more cable- and labor-
intensive.

Cable Type 
The second point to consider is the type of cable you’ll install.
Coaxial and twisted-pair cables both use insulated copper or
copper-based wiring, while fiber-optic cables are made from
thin and pliable plastic or glass tubes. Twisted-pair cables are
cost-effective but have less bandwidth than coaxial cables.
Fiber-optic cables are high performing and can transmit data
far faster than twisted-pair or coaxial cables, but they also
tend to be far more expensive to install, because they require
additional components like optical receivers. So, as with your
choice of network topology, the wiring you select depends on
the needs of your network, including which applications you’ll
be running, the transmission distance, and desired
performance.

Cost
As I’ve mentioned, the installation cost is important to
account for, as the more complex network topologies will
require more time and funding to set up. This can be
compounded if you’re combining different elements, such as
connecting a more complex network structure via more
expensive cables (though using fiber-optic cables in a mesh
network is overdoing it, if you ask me, because of how
interconnected the topology is). Determining the right
topology for your needs, then, is a matter of striking the right
balance between installation and operating costs and the level
of performance you require from the network.

Scalability 
The last element to consider is scalability. If you anticipate
your company and network expanding—or if you’d like it to
be able to—it’ll save you time and hassle down the line to use
an easily modifiable network topology. Star topologies are so
common because they allow you to add, remove, and alter
nodes with minimal disruption to the rest of the network. Ring
networks, on the other hand, have to be taken entirely offline
for any changes to be made to any of the nodes.

How to Map Network Topology

When you’re starting to design a network, topology diagrams

come in handy. They allow you to see how the information will
move across the network, which, in turn, allows you to predict
potential choke points. Visual representation makes it easier
to create a streamlined and efficient network design, while
also acting as a good reference point if you find yourself
needing to troubleshoot errors.

A topology diagram is also essential for having a

comprehensive understanding of your network’s functionality.
In addition to assisting with the troubleshooting process, the
bird’s-eye view provided by a topology diagram can help you
visually identify the pieces of the infrastructure your network
is lacking, or which nodes need monitoring, upgrading, or
replacing.

The good news is you don’t have to do it manually: you can

easily create a map of your network topology with tools.
Back to top
What Tools Help Manage and Monitor
Networks?
There are a few network topology mapping products on the
market. One of the more common ones is Microsoft Visio,
which lets you “draw” your network by adding different nodes
and devices to a canvas-like interface. While this can work for
smaller networks, drawing each additional node quickly
becomes unwieldy if you’re working with a multitude of
devices and topologies spread across an entire company.
Other options, like Lucidchart and LibreOffice Draw, are either
free or offer free trials, and while they’re viable options,
especially if the cost is a concern, they don’t come with a full
set of premium network mapping tools to make managing a
network easier and less time-consuming.

Due to variations in network topology and the different ways

networks can behave—including their unique security issues,
pressure points, and management challenges—it’s often
useful to automate configuration and management tasks
using network software.
Network Configuration

First, consider using a network configuration management

tool. This kind of tool can help you configure your network
correctly and automate repetitive tasks to take the pressure
off the network administrator. As your organization or
network grows, the network topology may become more
layered or more complex, and it can become harder to deploy
configurations across the entire network with certainty.
However, with configuration management tools, the
complicated network topology is no issue: tools can usually
auto-detect each node on the network, allowing you to
deploy standard configurations that may be required for
compliance reasons, or flag any configurations outside what is
expected.

Network configuration management tools can also highlight

vulnerabilities, so you can correct these issues and keep your
network more secure. Finally, these kinds of tools should also
display the lifecycle of the devices on your network, alerting
you to devices coming to their end-of-service or end-of-life
points, so you can replace them before problems begin to
arise.

Network Performance Troubleshooting

You should use network management software to track

overall performance. A performance manager can keep track
of network issues, outages, and performance issues. A
performance management tool will also have the functionality
to set network performance baselines and establish a clear
picture of how your network typically behaves when healthy.
Then, by setting alerts when your network performs
unexpectedly or outside of these baselines, you can quickly
track, pinpoint, and troubleshoot issues.
With complex network topologies, it may be hard to figure
out exactly which part of the network is having issues. Some
performance managers will create a visual display of your
network topology, so you can see the entire network in a one-
map overview. This can show you how your network is laid
out, bring your attention to changes in the topology, and flag
where problems are arising. To get started understanding
your network topology, you can try a tool like Network
Topology Mapper free for 14 days. This tool automatically
discovers and generates detailed topology maps of your
network and can create multiple map types without having to
rescan your network every time.
That’s one reason I really like SolarWinds Network Topology
Mapper (NTM). No matter the size of your network, it can not
only automatically discover all the devices and create a
diagram of your network topology for you, but also populate
the map with industry-specific icons for easy visual
differentiation. In addition to the auto-discovery feature, the
software offers an intuitive network wizard so you can drag
and drop nodes and node groups (which you can also
customize). Visualizing the various connections between
nodes in a single map or diagram can be cumbersome,
especially if you’re working with an expansive wide area
network, but the interface in NTM lets you sort through
different layers of connections, depending on the level you’re
trying to inspect.
You can configure NTM to periodically rescan your network to
keep your diagrams up to date. It integrates easily with other
programs, and it offers a robust reporting system so you can
track metrics, from device inventory to network performance,
all while helping keep you PCI compliant.

Topology Mapping for Managed

Services Providers
Topology mapping isn’t just important for managing a single
network. It’s also a key aspect of managed services providers’
(MSPs’) essential duties—for hundreds or even thousands of
different customers across multiple networks.
Due to the specific needs of MSPs, it often isn’t enough to use
the same tool you might use for your personal or company
network. It’s worth noting that another SolarWinds MSP
(currently N-able) product, N-central®, has a specialized tool
for this use case.
The N-central network topology mapping solution enables
you to perform in-depth assessments of the networks you
manage. You can perform on-demand and scheduled scans,
as well as get access to detailed data represented in a clear,
visual way.
What to Know About Network Topology Today

The best advice I can give regarding network topology is that

you should be deeply familiar with the needs and usage
requirements of your network. The total number of nodes on
the network is one of the primary considerations to account
for, as this will dictate whether it’s feasible to use a simpler
topology, or whether you’ll have to make the investment in a
more complicated network structure.

As I mentioned earlier, no one topology is “best.” Each offers

its own set of perks and drawbacks, depending on the
network environment you’re working with or attempting to
set up. For this reason, I would avoid jumping to immediate
conclusions about any of the network topologies based solely
on the descriptions here. Before deciding, try using a network
topology mapping tool to sketch the layout you’re thinking
about using. Network Topology Mapper, my personal favorite,
lets you plot the entire structure of your network in a way
that’s both easy to use and easy to parse, and it offers a 14-
day free trial.
Related Posts

 Network Scanning How-To Guide

 Best Network Diagram Software + Guide
 Guide to Network Latency – How to Check, Measure, and
Reduce Network Latency
CategoriesGeneral IT, Networking, Tool ReviewsPost navigation

Best Ways to Transfer Large Files

What Is Network Intelligence (NI)?

11 Types of Networks Explained: VPN, LAN & More

Stéphane Bourgeois

06.10.2016

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Emerging Technology

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Used for everything from accessing the internet or printing a document to

downloading an attachment from an email, networks are the backbone of business
today. They can refer to a small handful of devices within a single room to millions
of devices spread across the entire globe, and can be defined based on purpose
and/or size.
 
 
We put together this handy reference guide to explain the types of networks in use
today, and what they’re used for.
 

11 Types of Networks in Use Today

 
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless
modem, a computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one
person in one building. These types of networks are typically found in small
offices or residences, and are managed by one person or organization from a single
device.
 

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

We’re confident that you’ve heard of these types of networks before – LANs are
the most frequently discussed networks, one of the most common, one of the most
original and one of the simplest types of networks. LANs connect groups of
computers and low-voltage devices together across short distances (within a
building or between a group of two or three buildings in close proximity to each
other) to share information and resources. Enterprises typically manage and
maintain LANs.
 
Using routers, LANs can connect to wide area networks (WANs, explained below)
to rapidly and safely transfer data.
 

3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology, such
as Wi-Fi. Typically seen in the same types of applications as LANs, these types of
networks don’t require that devices rely on physical cables to connect to the
network.
 
4. Campus Area Network (CAN)

Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks (MANs, explained
below), these types of networks are typically seen in universities, large K-12
school districts or small businesses. They can be spread across several buildings
that are fairly close to each other so users can share resources.
 

5. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and
incorporate elements from both types of networks. MANs span an entire
geographic area (typically a town or city, but sometimes a campus). Ownership
and maintenance is handled by either a single person or company (a local council,
a large company, etc.).
 

6. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across

longer physical distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be
remotely connected to each other over one large network to communicate even
when they’re miles apart.
 
The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers
together around the world. Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned
and maintained by multiple administrators or the public.
 

7. Storage-Area Network (SAN)

As a dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage devices to

several servers, these types of networks don’t rely on a LAN or WAN. Instead,
they move storage resources away from the network and place them into their own
high-performance network. SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive
attached to a server. Types of storage-area networks include converged, virtual and
unified SANs.
 
8. System-Area Network (also known as SAN)

This term is fairly new within the past two decades. It is used to explain a
relatively local network that is designed to provide high-speed connection in
server-to-server applications (cluster environments), storage area networks (called
“SANs” as well) and processor-to-processor applications. The computers
connected on a SAN operate as a single system at very high speeds.
 

9. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

As an alternative to traditional switch-based Ethernet LANs, POLAN technology

can be integrated into structured cabling to overcome concerns about supporting
traditional Ethernet protocols and network applications such as PoE (Power over
Ethernet). A point-to-multipoint LAN architecture, POLAN uses optical splitters to
split an optical signal from one strand of singlemode optical fiber into multiple
signals to serve users and devices.
 

10. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to securely
connect its various locations to share computer resources.
 

11. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its users send and
receive data as if their devices were connected to the private network – even if
they’re not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection, users can access a private
network remotely.
 
If you have questions about which type of network is right for your organization,
or want to learn more about Belden’s network solutions that improve uptime,
maintain security, and help improve user access, click here.
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