Anglicist, Volume 07 No 02 August 2018, 121-128

The Use of Code-Switching by Lecturers

in Content Classes of the English Department
Universitas Airlangga
Febrian Falentino Fredriktho
Jurianto
English Department, Universitas Airlangga

Abstract

Code switching is a common phenomenon in a multilingual country like Indonesia and can occur in any contexts.
However, classroom context seems to have little attention with regard to code switching. This study aimed to find
out types and functions of code switching committed by the content classes lecturers in the English Department
Universitas Airlangga. Lecturers of three content classes were chosen: English Phonetics-Phonology, Introduction
to General Linguistics, and Semiotics. This research adopted a qualitative method and employed field observation
by recording and transcribing the data. The data was analyzed by using Hoffman’s theory of types and functions of
code-switching (1991). This study found some important results. First, the lecturers used two types of code-
switching: grammatical and contextual. Of the grammatical classification, the most frequently used type in the
classes is intra-sentential code switching, and of contextual classification, situational code switching is the most
frequent. Second, the most found function of code switching in the classes is repetition used for clarification. This
function relates to intra-sentential code switching, which is used to maintain the teaching and learning process
running smoothly. Thus, the lecturers committed code switching in order to have a better communication with their
students, so the students could understand the subject matter better.
Keywords: code switching, English content classes, intra-sentential code-switching, situational code-switching, functions of
code-switching

1. Introduction
In Indonesia, there are some languages spoken such as regional languages like Javanese, Buginese, and
Bataknese, the national language (Bahasa Indonesia), and international language, in this case usually
English. There are many choices of language to be spoken in this country. Fishman (1972) stated the
concept of domain, which includes participant, setting, and topic. Participants related to individuals who
have a role in the conversation (Bell 2014). Setting is related to physical setting or place where the
conversation happens (Bell 2014). For example, a school where a teacher is teaching to his or her students.
Topic is related to the subject to be talked to in a specific setting with certain participants (Bell 2014).
In a multilingual society like Indonesia, society tends to do code switching and code mixing. Code
switching is a common phenomenon in multilingual society. Code switching is regarded as a
communicative phenomenon of constantly switching between two languages in a bilingual’s speech
repertoire. Crystal (1987) views the concept as a code switch when an individual who is bilingual
alternates between two languages during his or her speech engagement with another bilingual.
Such a phenomenon, code switching happens not only in daily conversation, but also happens in the
classroom. In the classroom, teachers usually commit code switching and code mixing. The aim of the
study uses to examine the types and functions code-switching performed by lecturers in content classes.

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2. Code
Code is a set of numbers, letters, or symbols that show what something is or gives information about
it, in another word is “a term which refers to a variety” (Marjohan 1998). Thus a code may be an idiolect,
a dialect, a sociolect, a register or a language.
Kridalaksana (1993) stated that “code” is an image as a system expression that is utilized to describe a
certain meaning. Listeners may need to shift their expectations to come to a useful understanding of
speakers’ intentions. Similarly, speakers may switch the form of their contributions in order to signal a
change in the situation, shifting relevance of social roles, or alternate ways of understanding a
conversational contribution.
2.1. Code Switching
Code-switching involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistic varieties within the same
utterances or during the same conversation. When someone speaks, switching can comprise of evolving
languages: in that of monolinguals or shift of style because it is the result of bilingualism (Hoffman 1991).
There are two ways of classifying code-switching: grammatical classification and contextual
classification (Hoffman 1991). Grammatical classification is a classification of code-switching according
to where is the location of sentence or utterance which code-switching occurs, and the contextual
classification is the classification of code-switching according to the reasons why code-switching occurs.
The grammatical classification of code switching can be grouped into three types: tag-code-switching,
inter-sentential code-switching and intra-sentential code-switching. A tag code-switching happens when
a bilingual speaker adds short expressions (tag) from the language he or she used to speak at the end of
his or her utterances. An inter-sentential code-switching happens when there is a complete sentence in a
foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base language. An intra-sentential code-switching
occurs when a word, a phrase, or a clause of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base
language.
The second classification is contextual classification. There are two types in this classification namely
situational code-switching and metaphorical code-switching. Situational code-switching shows up when
there is an adjustment in a certain circumstance that makes the bilingual changeses from one code to the
next codes. The changing circumstances included could be the setting, the participants, or the norms of
interaction. Metaphorical code-switching happens when there is a change in the perception, or the
purpose, or the topic of the conversation.
One of the functions of classroom code-switching is insufficient vocabulary resources (Sert 2005).
Other functions come from Huerta, McClave and Silva-Corvalan (Silva-Corvalan, 1983): affective,
elaboration, emphasis, addressee specification, and clarification. Insufficient Vocabulary Resources or
the lack of vocabulary resources is often seen as the only reason for code-switching, but during
observations the majority of the cases where code-switching took place had to do with other factors. There
were, however, some cases of code switching due to insufficient vocabulary resources (Bolander 2008).
Affective functions serve for expression of emotions. In this respect, code switching is used by the
teacher in order to build solidarity and intimate relations with the students. Elaboration function occurred
when extra data from the information or details on a topic were included in the subtle language. Emphasis
function occurred when the teacher focused or underscored a pointing the substitute language. This switch
is joined by an adjustment in voice intonation which displayed a higher pitch level.
Addressee specification occurred when the teacher switched languages as she or he tended to, or
delivered their discourse, to a different listener. In this case, the teacher switches to Indonesian as she
turned, made by eye-contact and addressed the parents after speaking to the children. Clarification
function occurred when the educator switched to second language (L2) as she clarified or reworded
something she had quite recently said in English.
Hoffman (1991) proposed the functions of code switching into seven points. The first function of code-
switching proposed is ‘talking about a particular topic’. Here, people have the freedom to choose the
language they want to use to talk about a particular topic. Sometimes, a speaker feels free and more
comfortable to talk about something difficult in their everyday language and switch to the language refers

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to the term. The second function of code-switching proposed is ‘quoting somebody else’. Regarding this
function, Hoffman (1991, 54) suggests that “people sometimes like to quote a famous expression or saying
of some well-known figures.” The third function of code-switching proposed is ‘being emphatic about
something’. Hoffman (1991, 54) states that “he or she, either intentionally or unintentionally, will switch
from his or her second language to his or her first language.”
The fourth function of code-switching proposed is ‘interjection’, which can be defined as inserting a
filler into a sentence to get the attention from your audience. The fifth function of code-switching
proposed is ‘repetition used for clarification’. As Hoffman (1991, 54) stated, “when a bilingual wants to
clarify his or her speech so that it will be understood more by the listener, he or she can sometimes use
both of the languages that he masters saying the same utterance”. In other words, the information is
repeated two different languages with the same meaning in the information. The sixth function of code-
switching proposed is ‘intention of clarifying the speech content for the interlocutors’. Clarifying is
important when the listeners could not understand what the speaker means and to clarify his or her speech,
he or she needs to use code-switching and code-mixing. The seventh function of code-switching is
‘expressing group identity’. To express group identity, a group can use code switching as their media.
Thus, when the lecturers commit the code switching, then their identity will be formed as the difference
from the other groups (Hoffman 1991).
2.2. Code Switching in the Classroom
Code switching also happens in the classroom, especially a classr that learn a second language. Many
teachers view it as a communicative strategy in the classroom, so students can acquire the second language
fast. For instance, in Indonesian classroom, English is a second language and Bahasa Indonesia is our
native and both of them are switched during the class. Recent studies propose that code-switching is a
part of the process of acquiring a second language and that it may be an important competence in itself in
the way the speaker can interchange between the two languages and utilize each language for specific
purposes (Bolander 2008).
At the point when the students switch to the native language in order to comprehend a syntactic
element, the ultimate purpose for this is to have the capacity to understand the language and learn. Here,
the students attempt to learn their second language and also make people understand it. The learner
switches to the native language because she or he thinks that it is more essential to have the capacity to
convey a message, regardless of the language in which she or he does it, than to adhere to the code rules
in the classroom. This in its turn reflects the student's willingness to participate in the interaction (Bolander
2008).
In the content classroom, code-switching is used to make the burden of the teachers or lecturers less
while they are teaching. For example, Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) point out in their research that
mathematics teachers are not language specialists, they have to cope with the double burden of
transmitting content as well as language. Because mathematics has some complicated terminology in the
native language and target language, then it will be another burden when teachers try to explain only in
English. Based on his opinion, he implied that code-switching is needed in the content classroom,
especially with such complicated terminology. Moreover, code-switching usage will make the students
understand the lessons given by the teacher.
3. Methodology
The participants for this research are the students of English Phonetics-Phonology (C1), Introduction
to General Linguistics (C2), and Semiotics (C3) courses in Odd Semester each class from those courses.
All classes are taken as the participants because the researcher wants to analyze the types and functions
used in grammar classrooms from class, also the researcher wants to know how often the lecturers commit
code switching in several meetings. To get the data, the researcher will record the lecture from the
beginning to the end, so the researcher can analyze further for some times about code switching done by
the lecturer and also do the observation to obtain the data.

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Number Types of Code-Switching Number of occurrences

Grammatical classification Total
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

Tag code-switching
1 4 2 1 7

Inter-sentential code-switching
2 5 3 2 10

1.3 Intra-sentential code-

3 3 3 9 15
switching
Contextual classification
Situational code-
4 9 2 1 13
switching
2.2 Metaphorical code- -
5 2 1 3
switching
Table 1 Number of the Occurrences of Code-Switching Types Found in All Classes

4. Discussion
Number of occurrences
Number Functions of Code-Switching Total
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3

1. Talking about a particular topic 2 2 5 9

2. Quoting somebody else - - 2 2

3. Being emphatic about something 8 - 1 9

4. Interjection 2 3 1 6
5. Repetition used for clarification 5 1 3 9
Intention of clarifying the speech
6. 3 2 - 5
content for the interlocutor
7. Expressing group identity 2 - - 2
Table 2 Number of the Occurrences of Code-Switching Functions Found in All Classes

In Tables 1 and 2, all types and functions of code-switching were found in the utterances of lecturers
in the three classes. The type of code-switching in grammatical classification most frequently found is the
intra-sentential code-switching which occured fifteen times in the three classes, and the most frequently
found type in contextual classification is situational code-switching, which occurred thirteen times. The
most found functions are talking about a particular topic, being emphatic about something, and repetition
used for clarification. The functions occurred nine times in three classes and the most occurred type in
contextual classification is situational code-switching, which occured thirteen times. However, not all
types of each classification and functions of code-switching happened in all classes.
Below are some examples of the tag code-switching.
1) Noun, tetap juga noun (C1U13)
2) Jangan hanya jelaskan “yo wes ngono iku, mboh” (C1U16)
From those data, tag code-switching in those data occurred in sometimes in the middle part of the
sentence such as in number one. For number two, tag code-switching occurred in the last part of the
sentence. In data number one, the utterance occurred when the lecturer asked the students about the word
class of judges and was explaining about lexically-conditioned changes, so the utterance “Noun, tetap
juga noun” is occurred, so the tag code-switching occurred in the middle part of the sentence. Thus, tag
code-switching occurred again and it could be in every part of the sentence.
The second type from grammatical classification is inter-sentential code-switching. Here is an
example: “For example, in Russia there is an idiom is “like finding an ant.” Seperti mencari, menemukan

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semut karena di Rusia susah sekali menemukan semut. In Indonesia, can you say that? (C2U1)” For this
data, the code-switching occurred in English and then Bahasa Indonesia and back to English again. Here,
the lecturer said an idiom in Russia (Like finding an ant) when he was explaining about idioms and the
relation to the culture in every country, then he translated the idiom. Thus, the lecturer tried to clarify the
idiom he said before.
The third type from grammatical classification is intra-sentential code-switching. Here s=is an
example: ” O, as my part of apology, sebagai bentuk permohonan maaf saya because of living many
classes. (C1U24)” For this data, the code-switching occurred in Bahasa Indonesia in the middle of the
sentence, but after that it is still the continuation of the sentence. Here, the lecturer repeated the
information she wanted to state in the middle. This occurred when the lecturer asked the apology because
of many classes.
The second classification is contextual classification, which is divided into two types: situational and
metaphorical code-switching. Situational code-switching appears when there is a change in the situation
that causes the bilingual switches from one code to the other. Below are some examples of the type:
1) But once I finished the explanation, you have to back to book. Sekali lagi, kalau saya sudah
jelaskan baca, baca dan baca! (C1U1)
2) Especially for these blanks, I give you, if I’m not mistaken the blanks could be mind mapping.
Masih ingat mind map yang saya kasih blank blank blank kan? (C1U2).
They occurred in the class because before the class, there was a quiz done by the students, so the
lecturer here reminds them again that if you read the book and also the exercises (blank mind mapping),
then your score is safe.
Metaphorical code-switching happens when there is a change in the perception, or the purpose, or the
topic of the conversation:
1) For example, in Russia there is an idiom is “like finding an ant.” Seperti mencari, menemukan
semut karena di Rusia susah sekali menemukan semut. In Indonesia can you say that? (C2U1)
Here, the lecturer gave the example of idiom related to culture in Russia (like finding an ant) because
ants are difficult to find in Russia. After that, the lecturer says “In Indonesia can you say that?” After
that, the students were laughing because ants are so easy to be found. In other words, the sentence is made
to make a joke.
There are seven functions of code-switching from Hoffman (1991) and all of them were found. The
first one is talking about a particular topic. Here is an example: “Insertion, insertion itu yang mana
ma’am? Gampang. A Sound that does not occur, but you add one. Setrong (strong), weriting (writing).”
(C1U17). For this data, the data occurred when the lecturer in C1 class explained about phonological
processes, one of which is insertion. The lecturer did the code-switching when she said “Insertion,
insertion itu yang mana ma’am? Gampang, …”. After she switched the code when she said that she
wanted to talk about phonological processes, then she explained what insertion is in English, so the
lecturer switched the code again into English.
The second function that occurred is ‘being emphatic about something’. Here is an example: “Jadi
kalau ditambahkan begini berarti tidak ada lexicallynya disini. Kalau ini kan mengganti kelas kata. So
that’s why we name it as phonetically, morphologically, and lexically conditions.” (C1U13). This example
is intentionally uttered because the lecturer here wants to emphasize the meaning of divinity and the kind
of lexical change. Sometimes, it is also unintentionally occurred. That is why it is called being emphatic
about something because it sometimes occurs in order to get something or just because the speaker
intended to switch it.
The third function occurred is Interjection. Here is an example: “Old, bajunya lama, mean?” (C2U3).
For this data, the lecturer here wanted to talk about retronym, but before he asked the students, he said
that retro means old, and also the lecturer gave an example in Bahasa Indonesia “bajunya lama, …” Then,
the lecturer asked what does it mean in English again. He actually asked the student in order to get their

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attention because after that the students said “old style”. Therefore, this function is merely intended to get
students’ attention.
The fourth function occurred is repetition used for clarification. Here is an example: “Metathesis, when
you slip of tongue, sound in different order. Jadi yang di wolak walik soundnya itu lo.” (C1U18). For this
data, the utterance occurred when the lecturer said that metathesis is when slip of tongue occurred, the
sound is in a different order. After that, the lecturer explained her utterance in the mixing of code in
Bahasa Indonesia and Javanese in a different way, but still in the same meaning: “... Jadi yang di wolak
walik soundnya itu lo”.
The fifth function that occurred is ‘intention of clarifying the speech content for the interlocutor’. Here
is an example: “The club is the social organization, the other one club is also a blunt weapon, senjatanya
pentungannya hansip. Itu disebut club.” (C2U1). For this data, the lecturer here was explaining about
homonym and gave some examples. When the lecturer gave the third example (the word club), then the
lecturer switched the code into Bahasa Indonesia “… senjatanya pentungannya hansip. Itu disebut club.”
Here, the lecturer did the code-switching because the lecturer needs to clarify what is the other meaning
of club and the clarification was given in the form of translation.
The sixth function that occurred is ‘quoting somebody else’. Here is an example: “According to Teeuw,
the real world is different from the real work in the story. Jadi anda perlu membaca ini, ini mudah
dipahami. Jadi dunia nyata yang ada dalam karya sangat berbeda dengan dunia fiksional.” (C3U11). For
this data, the lecturer explained that the real world is different from the literary world as she said
“According to Teeuw, the real world is different from the real work in the story.” Then, the lecturer
switched the code to Bahasa Indonesia and told the students to read Teeuw’s book because it is easy to
understand. Then, the lecturer said “… Jadi dunia nyata yang ada dalam karya sangat berbeda dengan
dunia fiksional.” Therefore, the lecturer here not only gave the credit to Teeuw who has that argument,
but also restated what Teeuw said in Bahasa Indonesia in order to make the students understand what the
quotation means.
The seventh function that occurred is ‘expressing group identity’. Here is an example: “Jangan hanya
jelaskan “yo wes ngono iku, mboh” (C1U16). This data actually occurred when she taught in the class
about non-phonological alternation and she gave the example ‘go’ becomes ‘went’ not ‘goed’. Then the
lecturer reminded the students that if one day one of your friends asked as the English Department students
why ‘go’ into ‘went’ here, then that does not have any changes, so the students can explain to their friends
that this phenomenon is called non-phonological alternation. After that, the lecturer did code-switching
into Bahasa Indonesia and then did code-switching again into the Javanese language.
From all classes, the researcher found that intra-sentential code-switching (grammatical classification)
and situational code-switching (contextual classification) were often found in all classes. Intra-sentential
code-switching actually occurred mostly because the lecturers intended to clarify the speech and translated
what they had in the native language (L1) and switch it to foreign language (L2) in order to avoid students’
misunderstanding in order to make effective learning. Based on the findings from grammatical
classification, it can be inferred that mostly the lecturers actually used intra-sentential code-switching type
because the lecturers here intended to clarify what they had said. The lecturers clarified the explanation
by giving a translation to what they had said in native language and examples. As Hoffman (1991) stated,
intra-sentential code-switching occurs when there is a word, a phrase, or a clause of a foreign language
found within the sentence in a native language. Mostly, the lecturers here switched the code from English
to Bahasa Indonesia in order to give examples and give a translation, also to clarify what they had said in
Bahasa Indonesia.
Meanwhile, in terms of contextual classification, situational code-switching found in the three classes,
and metaphorical code-switching was found in two classes. As Hoffman (1991) stated, metaphorical code-
switching is known as a type of code-switching that is used to change the situation of the class or to give
some “joy” for the class. For example, “For example, in Russia there is an idiom “like finding an ant.”
Seperti mencari, menemukan semut karena di Rusia susah sekali menemukan semut. In Indonesia can you
say that?” (C2U1). In this case, the lecturer tried to change the situation of the class from a very serious
class into a joyful class by giving a joke. That is why this joke made the students laugh. There was a class

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in which this type did not occur. It was probably because that the lecturer felt that the subject matter of
the class was difficult, so she conducted the class with no joke.
The most occurring functions in all three classes are talking about particular topic and repetition used
for clarification. As the researcher stated above, lecturers here need to express their preference in talking
about a particular topic. Sometimes the lecturers freely choose which language they want to use. It is also
related to the being emphatic about something because in this function, the speaker usually intended or
even not intended to commit the code-switching. Interjection also occurred in all three classes because
here the lecturers need the attention of the students in order to answer the questions or to give some
examples of such hard topic.
However, there are some types and functions of code-switching not occurred in one or two classes such
as tag code-switching which was least occurred in Semiotics (C 3) class and metaphorical code-switching
in Semiotics (C3) class. Tag code-switching is related to Interjection function because the lecturers here
actually only give a short translation of what they have said and also as the sentence filler. According to
Romaine (1989), tag code-switching can be inserted anywhere because it is the insertion of tags in a
sentence and it does not have the syntactic limit. It also has no significant function unlike the other types.
For example, It’s okay, no problem, ya nggak? As we can see from this example, it has no syntactic limit
and it can be added anywhere, so it could be said that it does not have a significant function (Romaine
1989).
That could occur because code-switching can make a comfortable atmosphere for both lecturers and
students because code-switching here can avoid the misunderstanding from the L2 shortcomings in a
formal situation (Simon 2001, 137).
Code-switching is actually a common thing to be used in class, even they are English Department
lecturers because the students and the lecturers are not English native speakers, though because we are
living in a multilingual country and code-switching possibly occurs (Hoffman 1991).
In formal situations code-switching can be used to make the teaching more effective. When a teacher
explains what is said in the curriculum or another academic text it can be useful to translate or explain
some concepts further in the students’ L1 (Lin 2013, 202; Jingxia 2010, 21). Thus, code-switching is a
very effective learning tool in a classroom for explaining to the students (Cook 2001).
5. Conclusion
Code-switching occurred because there are some intentions from the lecturers in the classroom. Based
on the analysis, the researcher obtained some findings. First, for most classes, Intra-sentential code-
switching (grammatical classification) and situational code-switching (contextual classification) are often
found in all classes. They occurred in order to give clarification or even translation, so the students could
understand.
For the functions, most of the lecturers used ‘repetition used for clarification’ which repeats the
information in the native language in another way, being emphatic about something which whether the
lecturer intended to commit code-switching or not and intention of clarifying for speech in interlocutor to
repeat the information in order to clarify in native language. This was effective because students here
needed clarity from what they were learning, especially because the classes taught new subjects for the
students.
However, there are some types and functions which did not occur in other classes, but they occurred
in some other classes. It is because there is a lecturer who tried to quote somebody else in order to get
support for her explanation and there is another lecturer who also tried to get more solidarity in order to
get the class more interesting by expressing what she tried to say in her native language.
The results show that, firstly, code-switching in English classroom is common to be used because the
lecturers have an intention to commit code-switching, whether it is driven by a certain situation, function
or even only for some metaphorical reason such as joking. Second, the lecturers did code-switching
because they had the intention to translate, giving examples, repeat the information in order to clarify their
speech or even only for some metaphorical (affective) reason such as joking in order to make a
comfortable atmosphere for studying. Third, code-switching can be also one of effective learning tool in

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the class because students can understand the subject matter they get in both languages: the source
language (English) and the target language (Indonesia). It could also prevent misunderstanding and
misconception for the students.
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Marjohan, Asril. 1998. "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics." 48. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Romaine, S. 1989. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Silva-Corvalan, Carmen. 1983. Language Contact and Change: Spanish in Los Angeles. Oxford: Oxford Univeristy Press
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