Ground support in strongly foliated and faulted rocks

at Woodlawn Mines, NSW

MARK BOUFFLER 1

ABSTRACT
The Woodlawn base metal sulphide deposit, located 50km S of Goulbum,
New South Wales, was mined as an open pit operation for 10 years from
19TI I producing 8 million tonnes of ore. Underground development
began in 1985 and reached full production of SOO,OOOtIyr as open pit
mining ceased in mid 1987. Underground development highlighted the
extensive deformation and intense alteration associated with the deposit
and the host rocks.
The deposit occurs above an acid volcanic pile in a sequence of
interbedded and interfingering shales, cherts, volcanogenic sediments and
pyroclastics of mid to late Silurian age intruded by dolerite sills.
Intense talc-ehlorite alteration, faulting, folding, jointing and a strong
foliation have combined to produce unstable ground conditions which
require a high degree of ground support. Mining is by mechanised cut
and fill and small scale long hole stoping using development waste as
back fill.
Systematic short term ground support is provided by 2.4 m long split sets,
installed by a Tamrock 2 boom Jumbo. Long term support of the hanging
wall and successive lifts is provided by twin strand cable dowels from 5
to 20 m long installed using a Tamrock Cabolter. Steel W straps, arched
steel sets and shotcrete are occasionally used for specific ground support
requirements.
Improvements in recovery of-the orebody from about 50% in 1987 to
about 65% in 1989 were made by using a flexible approach to mine
planning and ground support and keeping a tight control on opening
geometry.

INTRODUCTION
The Woodlawn base metal sulphide deposit, located 50 km S of
Goulbum, NSW, (Figure 1) was discovered in 1969 and
commenced production from an open pit in 1977. During the 10
years of open pit operation, 5 million tonnes of complex ore,
grading 1.6% Cu, 4.7% Pb, 12.5% Zn and 88 g/t Ag, and 3
million tonnes of copper ore grading 1.5% Cu, 0.5% Pb, 1.7% Zn
and 20 g/t Ag were treated in the concentrator.
Since commencement of full scale underground mining in
1987 until June 1990, 1.5 million tonnes of complex ore grading
1.4% Cu, 4.3% Pb, 10.3% Zn and 96 g/t Ag and 174,000 tormes
of copper ore grading 1.86% Cu, 0.7% Pb, 2.2% Zn and 29 g/t Ag
were treated in the concentrator.
As at May 1990, diluted recoverable reserves at Woodlawn
stood at 3.6 million tonnes grading 1.6% Cu, 4.2% Pb, 10.3 % Zn
and 90 g/t Ag. The mine is owned by Denehurst Limited who
purchased the operation from Australian Mining and Smelting
Lld in August 1987.
GEOLOGY AND MINERALISATION
The Woodlawn deposit is hosted by a sequence of Late Silurian
shales, cherts and pyroclastics intruded by dolerite sills. Detailed
regional and local geological descriptions are available in Malone
et al (1975) and McKay and Hazeldene (1987).
I. Mark Bouffler Senior Geologist Woodlawn Mines, PO Box 141,
Goulbum NSW 2580
FIG. 1. Woodlawn Mine Location Map
The mineralisation occurs as complex, fine grained, banded
massive sulphides consisting of pyrite, sphalerite, galena and
chalcopyrite with associated stringers of disseminated copper ore
on the footwall and the southern edge of the lenses. Gangue
minerals include talc, cWorite, pWogopite, quartz, barite, calcite
and dolomite.
The bulk of the mineralisation occurs in three main lenses as
shown in Figure 2. Lens 1C which originally cropped out as a
massive ironstone gossan was mined to a depth of 200m from the
open pit. Lens 1B and 2B (B Zone) have only been mined from
underground.
Numerous small pods and lenses of discontinuous
mineralisation occur over a strike length of 400m and make up
the Lens 3 horizon, about 250m into the stratigraphic hanging
wall of the main ore horizon.
Intensely altered talc cWorite schist occurs on the footwall and
within the orebody. Elsewhere chloritisation, silicification and
sericitisation are variably developed.

MINE GEOlOGISTS' CONFERENCE Mount Isa 2 - 5 October 29

 MARK BOUFFLER

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Fro.2. Woodlawn Mine longitudinal section (looking west), showing stope levels referred to in the text.

STRUCTURE MINING METHODS

The Woodlawn orebody is situated in the eastern limb of the Underground mining at Woodlawn is carried out via a 1:9 decline
Woodlawn Syncline, dominated by N-S open to isoclinal folding, (5.5m x 5.5m) using Toro 500D loaders, Tarnrock twin boom
with a well developed west dipping axial plane cleavage. The jumbos and modified Caterpillar 769 trucks. Two recognised
structural interpretations developed by Malone et al (1975) and mining methods are in use, cut and fill and small scale long hole
Henry (1978) indicate four episodes of deformation. The lower stoping.
greenschist facies mineral assemblages and pervasive slaty Cut and fill stoping was the predominant method used from the
cleavage developed during D3 and D4 (McKay, 1989). beginning of underground production in mid 1986 until mid
Faulting in the vicinity of the orebody is dominated by NW 1988. During this time recovery of the mineable ore averaged
trending dextral faults within and sub-parallel to the Woodlawn about 50% with a high proportion of mining costs going into
Corridor (McKay 1989). The massive sulphide accumulations short term ground support in stopes which invariably collapsed
provide the only marker horizon giving an average strike of 350" before mining was completed.
and dip varying from 40 to 800W, and are occasionally In an attempt to recover a larger percentage of the ore and
overturned as in Lens 2B (RL 2490). The three main lenses once provide more reliable production, long hole stoping was
comprised a single massive sulphide body which was fragmented introduced on a trial basis in the thickest section of Lens 1C.
by two faults (Figure 3).
Measurements of the stress field by Miller (1986) indicated the MINING SEQUENCE AND GROUND SUPPORT
principal stress of 15 MPa was N-S, with 11 MPa E-W and 7
MPa vertically. This is a localised pattern which differs from the Cut and Fill Stopes
general stress geometry of Eastern Australia where the principal
A typical cut and fill stope sill level is driven, 5m high and 5-7m
stress was E-W (McKay, 1989).
wide on the footwall of the lens with 5m wide crosscut panels to
the hanging wall, leaving stub pillars abutting the hanging wall

30 Mount Isa 2 - 5 October MINE GEOLOGISTS' CONFERENCE

 GROUND SUPPORT IN STRONGLY FOllATED AND FAULTED ROCKS

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FIG. 3. Level plan of ore outline showing 750 and 790 Fault
offsets for Lens 1B, Lens 1C and Lens 2B at RL 2560.

between panels (Figure 4). Before drilling each face, split set
bolts 2.4m long and 46mm diameter,are installed with a plate and
washer, at the operator's discretion, in holes with a nominal
diameter of 43mm, using the Jumbo. An average of about 25
split sets are installed for each four metre end fired in a stope and
10 for each development end.
After completion of the sill lift, rows of twin superstrand cable
(15.2mm diameter) with a 26t breaking strain, are installed and
grouted using a Tamrock Cabolter. Cable dowels are generally
installed on a two metre grid pattern with all holes drilled
vertically except on the footwall row where holes are 5 to 20°
from vertical, depending on the dip of the lens (Figure 4).
Hole depths range from 6m to 20m depending on their location
These will be five to a row, 2m apart, also in a fan pattern (Figure
relative to the hanging wall and the dip of the lens. This pattern
of support gives reinforcement for two or three lifts both in the
ore and the strongly foliated hanging wall. Experience at
Woodlawn showed that most failures occur within ground not
pre-reinforced by cable dowels.
After cabling the stope is backfilled with development waste
pushed up to within half a metre of the back using a Caterpillar
D6 bulldozer.
On following lifts, taken in 5m slices, exposed cable dowels
are cut and pre-stressed to 10 to 12t and a plate with a barrel and
wedge anchor installed. One or two rows of cable dowels are
also installed along the footwall to provide support in that part of
the lens not covered from the sill lift. Split sets are generally
placed between cable dowels where necessary.
Long Hole Stopes
Small scale long hole stoping is used in the thickest sections of
the orebody (Lens 1C) and where ground conditions are too poor
to enable reasonable recovery by cut and fill mining. Using this
method, a sill level and drill level are driven (4.5m x 4.5m), along
the footwall, about lOm apart vertically (back to floor) and short
term ground support installed as for cut and fill stopes.
Localised support around the mucking level is provided by a
fan pattern of five or six, 6m long cable dowels on a 2m row
spacing. In addition, 9m long countersunk birdcage cable dowels
are proposed to be installed to help support the hanging wall.
___ Ore outline
_ _ Stope outline
..=9...;.'-'-O.:;.:ON'--_ _-t- ..; r:::I Ore not mine d
FIG. 4. B20 stope RL 2482 Lens lB. Typical sill level on a cut
and fill stope. Inset shows cross sectional view of ground
5).
After installation of ground support, a rise is cut through at one
end of the stope and successive rings of vertical, column charged
blast holes fired into the slOL
Other Forms of Support
Steel Sets
Arched steel sets are erected where primary development passes
through major fault zones. In the past this was used for long term
support and safety. If similar faults were encountered now, they
would be systematically supported with cable dowels and split
sets with steel sets used as a last resort.
Shoterete and Mesh
Shoterete, mesh and W straps are occasionally used for specific
requirements. Various types of shoterete and mesh are currently
being tested in areas where the block size is less than the split
set/cable dowel spacing.
GEOLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING GROUND
STABILITY
Many geological factors affect ground conditions to varying
degrees. Information on most of these is obtained from drill core
prior to mining and from mapping as mining progresses. They

MINE GEOlOGISTS' CONFERENCE Mount Isa 2 • 5 October 31

 MARK BOUFFLER
drive
2.4m split
sets _ _
/ Two stope profiles are commonly used when driving a sill lift.
/ These are the "shanty back" or arch abutment profile and the
/ /
FIG. 5. Cross section of long hole stope layout and ground
support.
are discussed below.
1. Attitude of the lens - governs the cable pattern and stope
proflle.
2. Faulting and shearing - restricts access points, determines
where pillars will be and can severely limit mining recovery.
3. Joints - are irregular, ubiquitous and unpredictable in some
areas.
4. Talc chlorite alteration and silicification.
5. Thickness of the lens - determines stope layout and pillar
location.
6. Rock type - shales and tuffs are strongly foliated.
Dolerite is strongly jointed and blocky with block size often
smaller than the ground support spacing.
Acid volcanics are siliceous, weak to moderately foliated
and generally very competent.
Ore is banded and foliated parallel to the hanging wall and
often jointed with irregularly distributed chlorite layers.
7. Foliation intensity - strongly foliated schistose rocks tend to
fret around split set and cable dowel plates, thus relieving the
pre-stress and minimising their effectiveness.
8. Groundwater and mine production water - any water
whatsoever in talcose ground causes rock falls.
9. Folding - very little affect on the mesoscale. However, the
lower confining pressure in the hinge area of the larger folds
results in strike slip movement along talc chlorite layers and
opening up of the foliation.
STOPE GEOMETRY
As well as the ground support described previously, well planned
stope geometry is essential to maximise use of the natural load
bearing strength of the rock. Various combinations of pillars and
stope profiles are used, depending upon the thickness and dip of
the ore.
Where ore is less than 15m thick, driving along the footwall
with crosscuts to the hanging wall leaves stub pillars. Originally
these were maintained over successive lifts giving an inclined
32 Mount Isa 2 - 5 October
pillar parallel to the hanging wall. However, after one or two lifts
these usually collapsed as they had no natural support and were a
dead weight supported by cable dowels and split sets.
Most pillars are now vertical, beginning on or near the footwall
and gradually moving closer to the hanging wall on successive
lifts. Where the ore is greater than 15m thick, the footwall stub
pillars become island pillars by the third lift and hanging wall
stub pillars by the fourth lift.
Vertical rib pillars are left where cross-cutting faults make
mining of the ore unsafe or impossible. Crown pillars, IOm
thick, are left every 60m vertically in each lens and a 40m thick
floor pillar remains between the open pit and underground
workings in Lens IC.
natural arch profile.
The shanty back stope profile is used where the orebody is
mined over the full thickness and the dip is less than about 65°.
The footwall shoulder holes are not drilled in the face, a wedge of
ore is left which places the pressure squarely on the footwall.
Sometimes the knee and lifter holes are not drilled on the hanging
wall which leaves a wedge of ore at the base, thus decreasing the
up dip span over which the hanging wall is exposed (Figure 6).
The natural arch profile is used wherever the orebody thickness is
greater than the stope width.
12111
10111
(~bles
611
HW wedge of
Oftnot lIined
FiG. 6. Cross section of shanty back stope profIle and ground
support.
TYPES OF FAILURE - CAUSE AND CONTROL
The structural complexity caused by four periods of deformation
has resulted in several common failure patterns. By identifying
these patterns and where they occur, appropriate measures are
developed to control or avoid them, thus improving recovery of
the ore, safety and reducing operating costs. The most common
ones are:
1. Fretting or unraveling of the hanging wall along the
foliation is generally avoided by split setting the hanging
wall to within two metres of the floor as stoping progresses.
Such a failure is usually small and can be controlled if extra
support is installed immediately the hanging wall starts to
relax. Pushing fill tight against the hanging wall as mining
progresses also helps to stop unravelling.
MINE GEOlOOISTS' CONFERENCE
 GROUND SUPPORT IN SlRONGLY FOUATED AND FAULTED ROCKS
2. Large blocks susceptible to failure occur where flat lying
cross structures, such as joints. intersect the foliation. Where
these are not supported by split sets, installation of 4m long
cable dowels has reduced the frequency of failure. However,
occasionally the blocks are too large and failure occurs at the
grout/cable interface Failure is preceded by fretting and
opening up of flat lying structures at which time additional
cabling may help, along with stacking of backfill along the
hanging wall to provide support and "choke off' the
movement
3. Where a particular failure plane is recognised beyond the
standard support (either split sets or cable dowels).
additional, longer cable dowels are installed.
4. Back failures occur on sill levels not pre-reinforced with
cable dowels. Commonly, these are caused by talc chlorite
layers of varying thickness which occur throughout the
lenses. Once exposed, the soft talc chlorite layer gradually
frets away up dip, undercutting blocks of competent rock
which eventually fail. Cabling after stoping advances every
30 to 40m rather than at the completion of each stoping level
has helped to restrict this. Shoterete and mesh may also be
used if tests are positive and the metallurgy is not adversely
affected.
5. Similar failures to that described in point 4 occur where talc
chlorite schist is present along the footwall. Fretting of the
schist undercuts the footwall allowing the ore to slough off.
In areas where this is prevalent, a "shanty back" or arch
abutment proflle is used to put the load squarely on the
footwall.
CONCLUSIONS
The primary aim of ground support is production with safety.
This is achieved using a flexible. conservative approach to mine
planning and ground support while keeping a tight control on
stope geometry. Understanding the geology and structure of the
orebody enables maximum use of the natural load bearing
strength of the rock when planning the location of access points,
pillars and stope layout.
Three years of underground mining at Woodlawn has shown
that natural support is insufficient to hold the ground. The
emphasis of support efficiency is directed mainly to the backs and
the hanging wall.
Systematic installation of split sets and grouted cable dowels
as soon as practicable after mining greatly assists in minimising
wallrock dilution and maximising recovery of the ore.
Improvements in recovery of the orebody from about 50% to
65% were made in the past three years using a flexible approach
to mine planning and ground support and keeping a tight control
on stope geometry.
MINE GEOlOGISTS' CONFERENCE Mount Isa 2 - 5 October
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank Bob Singer for reviewing and co-
ordinating preparation of the final draft, Jarnie Dennis, Tom Ho
and Simon Jackson for constructive discussion and review,
Linette Eva for typing and Jenny Purdy-Rosengren for drafting
the figures. Thanks also to Woodlawn Mines for permission to
publish the paper.
The flexibility of the underground mining team at Woodlawn
Mines and their awareness of the need for new approaches to
handling the constant ground failures has enabled mining of the
orebody in very difficult conditions.
REFERENCES
Ayres, D.E., 1978. The mineralogy and chemical composition of the
massive sulphide at Woodlawn, New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust,
26,155-68.
Bouffler, M. 1989. Recent Developments at the Woodlawn Mine.
Abstract in Base Metal Update. Some Australian Base Metal Projects -
Exploration and Recent Developments. NSW Dept. Minerals and
Energy, Sydney Mineral Exploration Discussion Group Symposium,
Sydney,Oc11989.
Bouffler, M., Holborow, R, and Singline, R., 1990. Geology and
Mineralisation of Southeastern New South Wales. Pacific Rim
Congress &cursion Notes. Dept. ofMinerals and Energy, NSW.
Dugan, KJ., and Fuller, P.G., 1987. Cable bolting procedures. Woodlawn
Mines underground projecL Consultant's report for Wood/awn Mines
(unpubl.)
Fuller, P.G. 1987 - 1990. Reviews of underground conditions and ground
control practices. Consultant's reports for Woodlawn Mines (unpubl.).
Gilligan, LB., Felton, E., Anne & Olgen, F., 1979. The regional setting
of the Woodlawn Deposit, New South Wales. .J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 26,
135·140.
Henry, R.L., 1978. The stratigraphy and structure of the Tarago area,
NSW. MSc Thesjs Australian National University (unpubl.).
Malone, E.J., 1979. Nature, distribution and relationships of the
mineralisation at Woodlawn, New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 26,
141-53.
Malone E.J., Olgen, E, Cucchi, EG., Nicholas, T., and McKay, W.J.,
1975. Woodlawn copper-Iead·zinc Deposit in Economic Geology of
Australia and Papua New Guinea. Metals 701·10, AusIMM,
Melbourne.
McKay, W.J. 1989. A study of the geological setting, nature and genesis
of the Woodlawn base metal deposit, NSW, Australia. PhD Thesis,
Australian National University (unpubl.).
McKay, WJ. and Davies, RH., 1990. Woodlawn - A synthesis of
exploration and structural geology in Geological aspects of the
discovery of some important mineral deposits in Australia (ed. KR
Glasson). AusIMM., Melbourne.
McKay, WJ. and Hazeldene, R.K., 1987. The Woodlawn Zn-Pb-Cu
sulphide deposit, New South Wales, Australia: An interpretation of ore
formation from field observations and metal zoning. Econ. Geol. 83:
141·164.
Miller, D.R, 1986. Stress measurements at Woodlawn Mines on the 2510
level. COflSultafll'S report ofWoodlawn Mines (unpubl.).
Petenen, M.D. and Lamben. LB., 1979. Mineralogical and chemical
zonation around the Woodlawn Cu-Pb-Zn ore deposit, southeastern
New South Wales. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. 26,169- 86.
Price, I., 1987. A guide to ground suppon at Woodlawn. Company
Repori (unpubl.).
33
34 Mount Isa 2 - 5 October MINE GEOlOGISTS' CONFERENCE