Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147

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Journal of Structural Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsg

A review of mesoscopic magmatic structures and their potential for T

evaluating the hypersolidus evolution of intrusive complexes
Scott R. Patersona,∗, Katie Ardilla, Ron Vernonb, Jiří Žákc
a
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, 3651 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0740, USA
b
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
c
Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 6, Prague, 12843, Czech Republic

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The perception that plutonic bodies are structurally simple is disappearing with the recognition of an array of
Fabric magmatic structures useful for constraining hypersolidus temporal histories, evolving rheologies, strain fields,
Granite flow directions, growth and cooling patterns, tilting and syn-emplacement tectonism. These histories provide a
Intrusive complex powerful means of testing an array of growth, emplacement, chamber evolution and tectonic models. Important
Magmatic structures
points include that: (1) many structures form in “hydrogranular” or congested magma slurries during magma
Crystal sorting
mush avalanching, local convection and late hypersolidus strain challenging the notion that magmas must have
≤55% crystals to convect/fractionate and form compositional diversity in upper crustal magma chambers; (2)
magmatic fabrics reflect transient strain in these slurries rather than flow directly: the latter must be inferred by
linking geometries with temporal and kinematic information; (3) caution is needed when using anisotropy of
magnetic susceptibility and similar quantitative tools that characterize, through a single ellipsoid, preferred
orientations of mineral grains given the increasing recognition of multiple fabrics in plutons; and (4) that future
studies are particularly needed in plutons focusing on the distribution and styles of compositionally defined
structures, magmatic folding, shear zones and faults, multiple fabrics and of the physical/chemical behaviors in
hydrogranular slurries.

1. Introduction
The earliest study of mesoscale structures in plutons is often traced
back to at least the seminal works by H. Cloos (1925), E. Cloos (1936,
1946) and Balk (1937), who emphasized the value of studying mag-
matic foliation, lineation, layering and joints in plutons. Subsequently,
the conspicuous layering, unconformities and erosional features, in-
cluding 'cross-bedding' and magmatic shears in mafic–ultramafic in-
trusions attracted much attention (e.g., Wager and Brown, 1968;
Jackson, 1971; Irvine, 1980, 1987). These were explained by crystal
settling, marginal crystallization combined with rhythmic super-
saturation (e.g., McBirney and Noyes, 1979), and deposition from
crystal-mush density currents. Similar features were noted in grani-
toids. For example, Gilbert (1906) and E. Cloos (1936) described ac-
cumulations of alkali-feldspar megacrysts in single-mineral aggregates
and modally-sorted layers of schlieren, commonly with graded-bedding
and cross-bedding.
By 1977 (the initiation of Journal of Structural Geology), structural
analyses of granitoids were beginning to expand (e.g., King, 1964;
Wager and Brown, 1968; Pitcher and Berger, 1972; Pitcher et al., 1985;
Didier, 1973; Moore and Lockwood, 1973; Wiebe, 1974), but still
lagged behind the depth and understanding of structural work in me-
tamorphic rocks, possibly because of the perception that many grani-
toids lacked mesoscale internal structures, and certainly because the
complex nature of the hypersolidus to subsolidus behaviors of plutons
(Fig. 1) inhibited a full understanding of plutonic structures. Great
advances have been made over the last 40 years, as the 'granite com-
munity' has meshed detailed field studies of igneous systems with
technologically-advanced structural, chemical and modeling tools.
Below we provide a survey of the rich diversity of mesoscale (visible
at outcrop scale, sometimes aided with hand lens) magmatic structures
in plutons (Fig. 2) and discuss their value for unravelling hypersolidus
histories of granitoids. To evaluate structures in plutons, one must first
distinguish magmatic versus solid state structures and then determine
whether they were formed by internal or tectonic processes (Fig. 3).
After a brief introduction to these steps, we survey five groups
(Figs. 2–5) of magmatic structures: (1) internal contacts; (2) composi-
tionally defined structures; (3) preferred orientations; (4) deformation
structures; and (5) local indicators of growth, younging, vertical and
kinematics, followed by mention of outstanding challenges and a few

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: paterson@usc.edu (S.R. Paterson).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2018.04.022
Received 3 January 2018; Received in revised form 14 April 2018; Accepted 16 April 2018
Available online 12 May 2018
0191-8141/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.R. Paterson et al. Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the complex transition from magmatic to solid state behavior, its dependence on magma crystallinity, strain rate, and changing
deformation mechanisms (color coded from lower left to upper right of diagram). Magmatic, plastic and brittle processes can occur simultaneously in the transitional
'submagmatic' zone, particularly at different strain rates. Common structures in each transitional zone are depicted as follows: (a) euhedral crystals with no preferred
orientation; (b) magmatic foliation; (c) magmatic shear; (d) brittle fracture of minerals; (e) mineral-mineral interactions forming synneusis or glomerocrysts; (f)
minerals with melt-filled fractures; (g) deformation twinning; (h) veins and fractures cross-cutting minerals; (i) chessboard subgrain formation in quartz; (j) de-
formation creep in phenocrysts. Three dashed lines show possible paths of tectonically driven magma deformation (slow strain rates), internal magmatic processes,
and processes during eruption (fast strain rates).

particularly useful modern approaches for addressing these challenges.
The equally rich world of microstructures in plutons (visible micro-
scopically in thin sections) and of meso- and microstructures in the
coupled host rocks (e.g., Vernon, 2004; Passchier and Trouw, 1996)
will not be emphasized, although all three should be integrated in
practice. We conclude with interpretations on how magmatic structures
form (Fig. 6) and their potential for unravelling hypersolidus growth
histories of intrusive complexes.
2. Deciphering magmatic vs. solid-state and internal vs. tectonic
processes
The first step in evaluating structures in plutons is to determine the
rheological state of the deforming material when the structures formed
(Fig. 1). This is challenging because as the crystal-to-melt proportion
increases, magmas change from a dilute crystal suspension in melt, to
“hydrogranular” or congested magma slurries with a transient crystal
framework and connected melt network, and finally to isolated melt-
filled pores just above the solidus (Arzi, 1978; Vigneresse, 2008; Costa
et al., 2009; Brown, 2013; Bergantz et al., 2017). Thus, the magma's
rheological state undergoes a continuous evolution (Vigneresse et al.,
1996; Scaillet et al., 2000; Petford, 2009) that is sometimes broadly
divided into magmatic, submagmatic and solid-state fields (see below
and references in Paterson et al., 1989; Vernon, 2004).
The magmatic rheologic field involves displacement of magma with
enough melt for objects (crystals, enclaves, rock fragments) to move
and rotate into alignment without significant interactions nor de-
forming internally. At the mesoscale, the most robust observations for
recognizing structures formed during magmatic flow are those asso-
ciated with: (1) igneous shapes (euhedral for selected crystals), internal
crystal features (concentric zoning, growth twinning; e.g., Streck,
2008), and crystal distributions (clustered and anticlustered; e.g.,
Jerram et al., 2003); (2) plutonic structures of identical age that intrude
or crosscut them; (3) growth of magmatic features (comb layering,
orbicular structure; Moore and Lockwood, 1973); (4) evidence of high
strain with no solid-state microstructures in crystals, implying that melt

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Fig. 2. Photos of mesoscale magmatic structures (scale: rulers = 15 cm, hammer ∼22 cm, notebook ∼15 cm): (a) cross-cutting contacts and internal layering; (b)
graded schlieren; (c) different styles of layering including from right to left leucogranite dike, enclave swarm, schlieren, troughs, schlieren + felsic layers, “ridge and
pillar”; (d) migrating tube structure and reintrusion by host magma; (e) diapir; (f) cross-cutting schlieren troughs, locally folded (white arrow) or faulted (red arrow),
height of outcrop ∼5 m; (g) plume with schlieren-rich head and gradational tail, arrow = 2D movement direction; (h) mafic ellipsoid; (i) magmatic “dish and pillar”
structures due to upward melt migration; (j) feldspar UST structure; (k) folded plagioclase + amphibole magmatic foliation with new magmatic hornblende parallel
to axial plane; (l) folded aplite dike (thin dashed line) with magmatic axial planar foliation (thick line) defined by plagioclase, biotite, hornblende and enclaves; (m)
two magmatic preferred orientations at a single outcrop. Older enclave alignment = solid line. Younger plagioclase, hornblende, biotite alignment = dashed line.
Enclave tips bending from old to new; (n) magmatic mullion at margin of rhyolite plug intruding marine metasediments; (o) K-feldspar megacryst cluster; (p) pipe-
shaped K-feldspar megacryst cluster; (q) complex normal faulting, trough truncation, and folding of schlieren. Comb layering evident in some light-colored layers.

takes up the strain (Park and Means, 1996); and (5) contemporaneous
melt relocation structures (e.g., melt pockets in low stress sites; Hibbard
and Watters, 1985). Microstructural criteria for magmatic flow are
summarized by Paterson et al. (1989) and Vernon (2000, 2004).
The submagmatic rheologic field involves flow/strain of hydro-
granular magma slurries with transient crystal frameworks and melt
networks by a complex combination of processes, such as melt-assisted
grain-boundary sliding, grain-boundary migration assisted by contact
melting, strain partitioning into melt-rich zones, melt-enhanced em-
brittlement, high-temperature intracrystalline plastic deformation, and
transfer of melt into sites of low mean pressure (Paterson et al., 1989;
Vigneresse et al., 1996; Vernon, 2004; Bergantz et al., 2017). Discrete-
element numerical modeling by Bergantz et al. (2017) and Schleicher
et al. (2016) elegantly display the complex fluid to visco-plastic beha-
vior of these flows, including the ephemeral development of 'crystal
force chains' (see also Philpotts and Dickson, 2000) that can transmit
stresses, drive intracrystalline deformation and change local melt
pressures. This field is the most challenging to recognize at the me-
soscale, since it involves a mixture of both magmatic and solid-state
features across short spatial and temporal scales. Perhaps the best

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S.R. Paterson et al.
Fig. 3. Cartoon showing three 'endmember' preferred orientation patterns in plutons (pink) and surrounding host rock modified from Paterson et al. (1998). (a)
Completely decoupled system (internally complex); (b) partially coupled system (margin parallel); (c) completely coupled system (rectilinear or folded). Black
lines = magmatic foliation, lineation, or folds. Grey lines = host rock structures. Filled dots = vertically plunging lineations; arrows = plunging lineations.
criteria are the evidence of patches of crystal plasticity or elastic phe-
nomena (subgrains, faulting) contemporaneous with melt relocation
phenomena. For example, the presence of primary mineral aggregates
(namely quartz, alkali-feldspar, and sodic plagioclase) in con-
temporaneous fractures (Bouchez et al., 1992; Vernon, 2004), indicates
that late-stage melt travelled to low-pressure sites during brittle de-
formation of crystals.
At the mesoscale, solid-state deformation is characterized by: (1)
evidence of grain-shape change and grainsize reduction by internal
deformation and recrystallization; (2) lenticular recrystallized ag-
gregates and 'tails' of minerals; (3) structures passing through solid
xenoliths and/or continuous with structures in solid host rock; (4) fine-
grained folia anastomosing around less deformed 'relic' aggregates; (5)
boudinage of strong minerals or clasts, with recrystallized aggregates of
weaker minerals (e.g., quartz and mica) between the boudins; (6) het-
erogeneous strain with local mylonitic zones; and (7) fractures and
cataclasites. Microstructural criteria for solid-state flow are summarized
by Paterson et al. (1989), Passchier and Trouw (1996) and Vernon
(2000, 2004).
Once hypersolidus structures are identified and characterized,
consideration must be given to whether they reflect localized internal
processes within an active magma chamber or reflect regional tectonic
deformation imposed on a magma chamber. Magmatic and submag-
matic structures can form by either process, since regional deformation
can act on a crystallizing magma chamber. We view 'magma chambers'
as structural geologists, that is not just eruptible magma, but any mush
that contains enough interconnected melt to allow magmatic to sub-
magmatic structures, including late fabrics to form. Two reliable cri-
teria for recognizing tectonically-formed hypersolidus structures in-
clude: (1) coupling or continuity with regional tectonic structures in
host rock (Fig. 3c); and (2) continuous structures crosscutting or
overprinting internal contacts and/or xenoliths, indicating that magma
pulse juxtaposition predated the structure (e.g., Paterson et al., 1998).
Pervasive solid-state ductile structures in plutons are typically caused
by regional deformation due to the mechanical challenge of lower
viscosity magmas deforming higher viscosity solid rock (e.g., Ramsay,
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147
1989; Johnson et al., 2003).
Complications can occur if regional deformation destabilizes
growing crystal mush zones in chambers, which then collapse and form
local magmatic structures, such as the magmatic folds, faults and
troughs. We know of no reliable criteria to easily identify such cases as
being of tectonic origin beyond the permissive observation of being
spatially linked to a syn-intrusive fault (Emelus and Troll, 2014).
3. Inventory of magmatic structures
Space restrictions only allow a brief introduction below of 5 pro-
minent groups of structures that are the most common and most useful
for unravelling hypersolidus granitoid histories (Fig. 2).
3.1. Structures defining regional internal contacts and layering
Incremental emplacement of compositionally-distinct magma pulses
in intrusive complexes results in a range of magmatic structures, such as
dikes and gradational to sharp unit contacts (Fig. 2a, b, c, o; Pitcher and
Berger, 1972; Hardee, 1982; Paterson et al., 2011). Flow, mixing and
mingling along these contacts commonly leads to hybrid zones and
layered intrusive sequences (e.g., Fernandez and Gasquet, 1994; Wiebe
and Collins, 1998; Barbey, 2009).
Internal contacts are also defined by a wide range of igneous
layering, particularly schlieren, in granitoids, ranging from kilometer-
scale layered zones (Fig. 2b; Lucus and St-Onge, 1995; Clarke and
Clarke, 1998; Žák et al., 2009; Burgess and Miller, 2008) in which
layering maintains subparallel orientations, mineral grading and local
cross-bedding, to more complexly-shaped, 10 cm-to 10 m-scale struc-
tures discussed below (Fig. 2d, e, f, q; e.g., Barrière, 1981; Parsons,
1986; Paterson et al., 2008; Pinotti et al., 2016). Mafic–ultramafic
complexes also are characterized by both internal intrusive contacts,
compositional layering of cumulates, and local 'unconformable' struc-
tures resembling cross-bedding (Fig. 2; e.g., Wager and Brown, 1968;
Irvine, 1980; Naslund and McBirney, 1996). These layers can be mod-
ally, or grain and density sorted, and have graded or sharp contacts.
S.R. Paterson et al. Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147

Fig. 4. Key elements used to define 'compositionally defined' structures (modified from Paterson, 2009). (a) Schlieren-bound troughs showing truncations, mineral
grading, local mineral clusters (Photos Fig. 2f, p); (b) stationary tubes; (c) migrating tubes (Fig. 2d); (e) mesoscale diapir (Photo Fig. 2e); (f) plumes with schlieren
'heads' and open 'tails' (Fig. 2g); (g) mafic ellipsoids with internal margin parallel foliation (Fig. 2h); (h) irregular mineral clusters; (i) pipes.

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Fig. 5. Cartoon of local, mesoscale structures used to infer growth and younging directions, paleovertical, and kinematics of magma movement (the latter modified
from Philpotts and Asher, 1994): (a) cross-cutting, schlieren-bound troughs and mineral grading (Photos Fig. 2c, f, p); (b) asymmetric (chilled versus hybrid) contacts
after Wiebe and Collins (1998). Enclaves are flattened near chilled margin and irregular near hybrid; (c) undeformed tube or pipe axes; (d) concave up enclave
channels with enclaves molding minerals at channel base after Wiebe and Collins (1998); (e) magmatic flame structures and load casts; (f) layering deflected by
sinking block; (g) (g) granophyre segregations attached to phenocrysts; (h) imbricate minerals; (i) crystal orientation patterns due to flow in dike; (j) broken and
sheared phenocrysts; (k) granophyre wisps and back-folding by differential flow; (l) granophyre wisps; (m) magmatic S–C structures; (n) ramp structures; (o) shear
bands; (p) vesicles elongated parallel to the axial surface of folded flow layers; (q) asymmetric micro-folds in flow layering formed during rotation of a phenocryst or
glomerocryst; (r) Riedel shears; (s) asymmetric folds of magmatic foliation or layering.

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Some have non-planar geometries, akin to schlieren-defined structures
in silicic plutons.
3.2. Localized compositionally defined structures
An increasingly diverse collection of compositionally defined, local
magmatic structures are recognized in granitoids (Figs. 2 and 4). Many
of these are partly characterized by schlieren, that is, centimeter-to
meter-scale layers typically with sharp basal contacts, diffuse upper
contacts and downward modal increases of dense major and accessory
minerals (e.g., Barrière, 1981; Reid et al., 1993; Burgess and Miller,
2008; Paterson, 2009). Minerals within schlieren layers are strongly
aligned parallel to the basal schlieren orientation (Fig. 2). Schlieren
form in widely ranging orientations, including vertical (Wiebe et al.,
2007; Žák and Klomínský, 2007; Paterson, 2009), indicating that hy-
drogranular flow sorting of crystals, and not just gravity, plays an im-
portant role in schlieren formation.
Schlieren-bound structures include the following:
(1) Troughs (Figs. 2f, q and 4a) are open-ended, schlieren-bound
channels comprised of multiple stacked and cross-cutting layers
(e.g., Wager and Brown, 1968; McBirney and Noyes, 1979; Barrière,
1981; Reid et al., 1993; Burgess and Miller, 2008). The perpendi-
cular direction to a layer truncation defines a younging or trough
growth direction (Fig. 2).
(2) Tubes (Figs. 2d and 4b, c) are closed, cylindrical, schlieren-bound
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Fig. 6. Cartoon depicting mesoscale mag-
matic structure formation in an in-
crementally grown (purple units) crystal-
lizing magma chamber intruded by new
magma pulses (red and orange); modified
from Paterson et al. (2016). Crystal-rich
mush zones form and collapse along mar-
gins of older pulses. Arriving new pulses
drive convection and 'return flow' (grey ar-
rows) in chamber. Examples of how in-
dividual structures may form in this system:
(a) cross-cutting troughs during margin
collapse; (b) migrating tubes during con-
vection; (c) diapirs and plumes (d) moving
sideways as new pulse enters chamber; (e)
mafic ellipsoids and cognate inclusions
formed from collapsing or mingling margin
material with new pulse; (f) mineral clus-
ters during flow sorting; (g) pipe structures
by flow sorting during rising or sinking of
magmas; (h) magmatic faults cooling/
shrinking and collapsing margins; (i) dikes
and veins as late melts migrate through
marginal cracks.
channels in 3D, with channels either nested inwards (stationary
tubes; Fig. 4b) or forming dike-like zones of crescent-shaped,
crosscutting schlieren (migrating tubes or ladder dikes; Fig. 4c; Reid
et al., 1993; Weinberg et al., 2001; Žák and Klomínský, 2007;
Paterson, 2009; Dietl et al., 2010). Schlieren truncations provide
younging or migration directions of tube margins. Some tube
structures are re-intruded, rotated and broken during and after
formation (e.g., Paterson, 2009; Hodge et al., 2012). As with trough
structures, the younging direction of tubes may show systematic
patterns across plutons (Memeti et al., 2014; Ardill et al., 2017;
Wiebe et al., 2017).
(3) Mesoscale diapirs (Figs. 2e and 4d) are 10 cm-to 10 m-scale, ellip-
soidal to tear-drop shaped, compositionally variable and distinct
from the host magma, and with narrow tails and schlieren-bound
'heads'. They have been described in both mafic (Larsen and Brooks,
1994) and felsic (Paterson, 2009) plutons. The schlieren at the
diapir head is thought to form by filter pressing and accumulation
of mafic and accessory minerals (Weinberg et al., 2001). The trend
of a line through the tail and symmetrically dividing the head
provides a 2D movement direction. Where examined in detail,
diapir 'movement directions' are found in all orientations and so are
not simply buoyancy driven (Weinberg et al., 2001; Paterson,
2009).
(4) Plume structures (Figs. 2g and 4e) have modally distinct (from host
magma), schlieren-bound 'heads' and broad tails, sometimes mi-
micking mushroom or jellyfish shapes, that compositionally grade
S.R. Paterson et al.
into the host granitoid. Their broad, gradational tails make them
distinct from diapirs and indicate that the source of plume material
is the host magma. The trend of a line symmetrically splitting the
tail and the head provides a 2D movement direction, which in cases
where measured also have variable orientations.
(5) Mafic ellipsoids (Figs. 2h and 4f) are 1–3 m long, elongate 3D el-
lipsoids of fine-grained, more mafic plutonic rock distinct from
their host, with a weak schlieren border (Memeti et al., 2014). They
can resemble microgranitoid enclaves, except for the schlieren rims
and because mineral alignment within the mafic ellipsoids usually
defines a well-developed margin-parallel pattern.
(6) Mineral clusters (Fig. 2o and p, 4g) range from millimeter-scale
joined crystals (synneusis of Vance, 1969), centimeter-scale crystal
clusters and glomerocrysts (Seaman, 2000; Cashman et al., 2017),
to decimeter-scale clusters with highly varied shapes, from irre-
gular, dike-shaped, trough-shaped, to pipe-like, (Paterson et al.,
2005; Memeti et al., 2014). Mesoscale clusters are dominated by a
single mineral, but may include microgranitoid enclaves and xe-
noliths, and may or may not have bounding schlieren. Mineral
preferred orientations in clusters are highly variable.
(7) Pipes (Figs. 2o and 4h) are closed, cylindrical, often sub-vertical 3D
structures with little internal layering. Pipe compositions are typi-
cally dominated by more evolved (buoyant) compositions (Wiebe
and Collins, 1998) or by one mineral and thus a type of mineral
cluster (e.g., Paterson, 2009). Their margins with the host magma
may or may not be marked with weak schlieren. Internal mineral
orientation occurs parallel to pipe margins, although these folia-
tions may rotate to 'regional' fabric orientations in pipe centers.
Rocher et al. (in press) describe meter-scale, vertically elongated K-
feldspar accumulations with inward-dipping concentric foliation
and steeply plunging lineations in their upper parts that change to
flat foliation with enclaves at their lower ends.
3.3. Structures defined by preferred orientation
Strain of crystal mushes (Benn, 1994) caused by gradients during
magma flow or tectonic deformation, lead to the alignment of crystals,
microgranitoid enclaves and xenoliths (Fig. 2k, l, m), as well as trans-
position of older magmatic structures during folding and faulting,
leading to the development of one or more magmatic foliations and
lineations (Fig. 3). A common misconception is that only a single fabric
(foliation ± lineation) forms in intrusive complexes, whereas close
inspection often establishes the presence of two or more sets of fabrics
that may have contemporaneous or overprinting relationships (e.g., Žák
et al., 2007; Kratinová et al., 2010; Macchioli Grande et al., 2015;
Alasino et al., 2017). Different mineral populations may show different
intensities of alignment and/or different orientations (Blumenfeld and
Bouchez, 1988; Schulmann et al., 1997; Paterson et al., 1998). Fur-
thermore, microgranitoid enclaves may have internal mineral align-
ments parallel to, or distinct from, alignments in the host matrix and
parallel to, or distinct from, the enclave long axis (Paterson et al.,
2004). Xenoliths may preserve older magmatic or metamorphic struc-
tures. Local layering or other magmatic structures discussed above may
have mineral alignments distinct from preferred orientations in nearby
host granitoids (Paterson, 2009; Alasino et al., 2017).
Magmatic fabric patterns may or may not show refraction across
compositional boundaries (Compton, 1955; Hines et al., in press), be
parallel to fold axial planes and fold axes (Pitcher and Berger, 1972)
and show deflections in magmatic shear zones. Regional patterns can be
quite varied, although Paterson et al. (1998) defined three simplified
'endmember' patterns: (1) internally complex, decoupled (Fig. 3a); (2)
margin parallel or partially coupled (Fig. 3b); and (3) rectilinear, in-
ternally folded and coupled with host rock (Fig. 3c. Type #1 and 2
foliation patterns can locally show steepening lineation patterns, which
have been used to infer 'magma feeder zones' (e.g., Vigneresse and
Bouchez, 1997; Olivier et al., 1997; Talbot et al., 2004). Careful
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147
observation of these relationships has the power to document complex
strain histories in magma chambers (e.g., Fernandez, 1988; Žák et al.,
2007; Cao et al., 2015).
3.4. Deformation-related structures
Once formed, all magmatic structures can be altered by continued
deformation, resulting in transposition of these older structures during
formation of a variety of magmatic folds, faults and shear zones (Fig. 2).
Both brittle and ductile faults can develop in magma (Hibbard and
Watters, 1985; Dingwell, 1997; Katz et al., 2006; Bergantz et al., 2017).
Magmatic brittle faults and 'ductile' shears typically do not show high
strain, elongate crystal shapes and strong crystal preferred orientations
(Fig. 2f, q), since most displacement is accommodated by melt (Park
and Means, 1996; Paterson et al., 1998). Faults also may draw in ad-
ditional melt (Geshi, 2001; Pinotti et al., 2016), become sealed by
continued crystal growth (Park and Means, 1996) and therefore may be
cryptic, unless offset markers are present.
Although magmatic folds are briefly described in several publica-
tions (Brown et al., 1986; Harm, 1991; Smith and Houston, 1994;
Paterson et al., 1998), detailed studies of magmatic folds are rare. Ex-
amples of folded layering, dikes, enclaves, and magmatic foliations are
common in both volcanic (e.g., Vernon, 1987; Iezzi and Ventura, 2000;
Castro et el. 2002; Ventura, 2004) and plutonic rocks (e.g., Rosenberg
et al., 1995; Paterson et al., 1998; Yoshinobu et al., 2009). Variable fold
profiles, fold-related geometric and mineral lineations, presence or
absence of an axial planar foliation and refolding all occur (Fig. 2f, k, i,
q).
Mullions, another response to strain (Fletcher, 1982; Price and
Cosgrove, 1990; Urai et al., 2001; Schmalholz and Schmid, 2012), also
occur in magmatic rocks (Paterson et al., 1998; Yoshinobu et al., 2009),
and would benefit from further detailed studies. Fig. 2n shows a mul-
lion formed at the contact between an Ordovician rhyolite plug and
marine metasediments in the Chaschuil region, NW Argentina (Lusk
et al., 2017). Magmatic mullions have been described along dike-host
rock margins and in some cases the tip of the mullion can tighten and
feed veins intruding subparallel to the axial planes of host rock folds
(Paterson et al., 1998; Yoshinobu et al., 2009). Mullion axes are parallel
to regional fold axes and the shortening directions implied by the
mullions are consistent with regional shortening implied by the host
foliation. These observations document syn-magmatic regional de-
formation during which the magma mush had a higher effective visc-
osity than its host.
3.5. Magmatic indicators of local solidification, younging, paleovertical,
and kinematics
A variety of local magmatic structures provide additional informa-
tion about structures, such as their initial orientation, growth/crystal-
lization direction and kinematics of associated deformation.
Unidirectional solidification (or crystallization) structures (Fig. 2j)
(UST's of Shannon et al., 1982) include: (1) comb layering; (2) crenulate
layering; (3) dentritic growth patterns, similar to crescumulate and
spinifex microstructures; and (4) intergrowth layering. Besides cross-
cutting intrusive boundaries (Fig. 2a), mesoscale magmatic structures
available to provide local growth directions include: (1) local cross-
cutting boundaries in compositionally defined structures (Fig. 2d, f, q,
5a); (2) mineral grading (Fig. 2b, f, 5a); (3) magmatic load cast and
flame structures (Fig. 5e; Puziewicz and Wojewoda, 1984); (4) asym-
metric contact characteristics (Figs. 2b and 5b), such as the chilled
versus hybrid margins of Wiebe and Collins (1998); and (5) enclave
channels (Figs. 2c and 5d) with mineral molding at base (Wiebe and
Collins, 1998). Proposed 'way-up' or 'paleo-vertical' indicators include:
(1) load casts, flame structures (Puziewicz and Wojewoda, 1984;
Vaughan et al., 1995); (2) block sinking patterns in non-convecting
magma (Fig. 5f; Paterson et al., 1998; Emeleus and Troll, 2014); (3)
S.R. Paterson et al.
axes of undeformed pipes and tubes (Fig. 2d, p, 5c; Wiebe and Collins,
1998; Paterson, 2009), and (4) 'dish and pillar' structures during which
rising melts deflect layering upwards (Fig. 2i). Kinematics caused by
deviatoric strain during movement of magma, can be established from:
(1) crystal orientation patterns defining S–C structures, shear bands,
and hyperbolic patterns in dikes (Fig. 5i, m, n, o; Komar, 1972; Shelley,
1985; Vernon, 1987; Miller and Paterson, 1994; Correa-Gomes et al.,
2001; Geoffroy et al., 2002); (2) imbricate phenocrysts (Fig. 5h;
Blumenfeld and Bouchez, 1988); (3) broken, sheared and rotated phe-
nocrysts (Fig. 5g, q) (Vernon, 1987; Blumenfeld and Bouchez, 1988);
(4) granophyre wisps (Fig. 5i; Philpotts and Asher, 1994); (5) asym-
metric folds (Fig. 5s); (6) segregations attached to phenocrysts (Fig. 5g);
(7) Riedel shears (Fig. 5r); and (8) ramp structures (Fig. 5n; Philpotts
and Asher, 1994).
4. Discussion
4.1. Hypersolidus structural histories
The wealth of magmatic structures described above emphasizes
that, comparable to metamorphic structures, a growing set of structural
'tools' exist for unravelling hypersolidus histories. For example, cross-
cutting or overprinting structures help to establish temporal histories.
Layering, foliation patterns, folds, and faults all provide information
about hypersolidus strain fields. And when combined with kinematic
information they can be used to infer magma flow directions. Structures
indicating paleovertical in chambers can be used to evaluate local
magmatic tilting of layers or tectonic tilting of entire intrusive com-
plexes. There also is great potential for constraining changing rheolo-
gies and evolving internal gradients as we better understand structures,
particularly the non-vertical motions of structures like diapirs and
plumes and the mechanisms and kinematics of magmatic folding and
faulting. The increasing mesoscale evidence of structures younging to-
wards contacts with older units (unit ages established through geo-
chronology) and statistically preferred migration directions are likely
driven by internal motions of magma during incremental growth and
crystallization of intrusive complexes. Finally, in our experience, all
plutons have at least limited magmatic structures (e.g., Bouchez, 1997),
although some intrusive complexes are much richer in magmatic
structures than others (e.g., Weinberg et al., 2001; Pinotti et al., 2016).
Why this is so will provide exciting information about the construction
and behavior of these systems. Thus, the results of magmatic structural
studies provide powerful constraints on models of magmatic systems
and need to be fully incorporated into geochemically dominated dis-
cussions of these systems.
4.2. Key issues about magmatic structures
4.2.1. Hypersolidus deformation mechanisms
One unique aspect of magmatic structures is that they form across a
wide range of temperatures, effective viscosities and deformation me-
chanisms associated with evolving physical and chemical processes
(e.g., Cruden, 1990; Rosenberg and Handy, 2005). It has been tradi-
tional to identify key, rather abrupt, transitions in these behaviors (e.g.,
van der Molen and Paterson, 1979; Vigneresse et al., 1996; Rosenberg
and Handy, 2005), and to conclude that magma with less than ca 55%
melt becomes 'static', which we believe typically means to others that
magma is hard to erupt or vigorously convect. However, many of the
preserved structures noted in this paper likely formed during this
transition from 55% to < 20%. Nicolas and Ildefonse (1996), Park and
Means (1996) and Paterson et al. (1998) argue that magma can deform
with even less than 20% melt through grain alignment and sliding on
melt films aided by dissolution or melting at grain impingements
(called contact melting by Park and Means, 1996). Benn (1994) es-
tablished that only small increments of strain are needed to form
magmatic fabrics. And Bergantz et al. (2017) and Schleicher et al.
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147
(2016) show the complex simultaneous, viscous–plastic–brittle beha-
vior of deforming hydrogranular crystal mushes and argue against
abrupt rheological transitions. Therefore, a key issue is to recognize
that crystal mushes can continue to deform at low melt proportions
during which melt-aided, crystal-plastic, and even brittle deformation
mechanisms increasingly overlap (Bergantz et al., 2017; Holness et al.,
2017).
4.2.2. Layering
Attempts to categorize layering (e.g., Wager and Brown, 1968;
Irvine, 1980; Barbey, 2009; Pinotti et al., 2016) collectively suggest
that the following styles form by processes that often occur simulta-
neously in growing plutons: (1) intrusion of newly arriving magma
pulses or of locally derived magma from other parts of the chamber
(e.g., late melts forming dikes) resulting in internal contacts and/or
planar zones of mingling and mixing (e.g., layering in hybrid zones
along contacts; Fig. 2a; Hutton, 1992; Paterson et al., 2008; Barbey,
2009); (2) fractionation driven by hydrodynamic and gravity-driven
sorting and crystal–melt separation resulting in modally defined
layering (Fig. 2b; Irvine, 1980; Barrière, 1981). Petford (2009) also
noted that igneous layering may form during increasing shear rate and
shear thinning in congested magma slurries when crystals arrange
themselves into layers parallel with the mean flow direction, a phe-
nomenon observed both experimentally and in computer simulations
(Stickel and Powell, 2005); (3) thermally/chemically driven fractiona-
tion and flow forming diffuse layering (Boudreau, 1995); (4) de-
formation-assisted (magmatic or tectonic) strain (e.g., attenuated en-
claves forming schlieren), crystal-melt segregation, or collection of
crystals and rock fragments into planar zones (Fig. 2c, o, q; Tobisch
et al., 1997); and (5) chemical and textural mineral modifications of
evolving layers as bulk compositions and environmental conditions
shift (Boudreau, 1995).
Only the first of the processes listed above to form internal contacts/
layers involves the arrival of a new pulse of magma. A challenge for
futures studies is to apply criteria for establishing which contacts reflect
juxtaposition of new pulses versus internally formed boundaries (e.g.,
Miller and Paterson, 2001). Thus two critical issues regarding internal
contacts/layering are the following: (1) that many internal contacts
form by processes in already emplaced magma and are not contacts
between arriving pulses; and (2) the degree to which internal contacts/
layering can be removed.
Some recent publications examining incremental growth of in-
trusive complexes conclude that evidence for the numerous original
intrusive contacts have been removed by subsequent processes (e.g.,
Coleman et al., 2004, 2012). To test this idea, it is important to examine
the processes proposed to remove contacts. Older internal contacts/
layering may be removed by: (1) being entirely transported out of the
map section or recycled by a newly arriving magma pulse; (2) wide-
spread convection and homogenization in a magma chamber; (3) re-
working of contacts during widespread subsolidus deformation and
metamorphism; and (4) pervasive annealing during widespread near-
solidus, thermally driven (possibly fluid aided) recrystallization.
Evidence of magmatic erosion resulting in sharp truncations of older
structures along new intrusive contacts, the presence of cognate blocks
of older phases in younger, and the presence of antecrysts in younger,
particularly compositionally uniform units support #1 and #2
(Paterson et al., 2016; Gaschnig et al., 2017). Widespread convection
(#2) is supported by the extensive dispersal of foreign objects (zircon
antecrysts, microgranitoid enclaves, chemically distinct mineral popu-
lations) throughout new pulses and homogenization of the originally
distinct pulses. The above mechanisms require a large, active magma
chamber.
Removal of magmatic structures without an active chamber can
occur by #3 or #4. Extensive deformation and recrystallization at
amphibolite facies conditions (#3) results in easily identifiable gneisses
with strong metamorphic fabric and/or compositional banding, and loss
S.R. Paterson et al.
of igneous microstructures, such as oscillatory zoning. Grains are
characterized by polygonal to irregularly xenoblastic quartz and feld-
spar, and rounded inclusions of quartz in feldspar and vice versa
(Vernon, 2000, 2004).
Conceivably, contacts could be obscured by #4. Grain boundary
adjustments and mineral reactions are recognized in mafic/ultramafic
magmas where temperatures are significantly higher (Boudreau, 1995;
Holness et al., 2017). If so, these processes should remove mineral
primary igneous microstructures such as oscillatory zoning, either by
grain-boundary migration or advance of a diffusion front. Although
limited mineral alteration has been documented in granitoids (Barnes
et al., 2017), considerable doubt exits that modifications extensive
enough to remove evidence of older structures occurs without wide-
spread subsolidus deformation (Vernon and Paterson, 2008b; Holness
et al., 2017). Furthermore, the common preservation of euhedral grain
shapes, euhedral inclusions, disequilibrium dihedral angles, and oscil-
latory zoning in the minerals in granitoids lacking solid-state de-
formation is strong evidence that extensive subsolidus grain-shape
changes did not occur during cooling of granitic magmas (Vernon and
Paterson, 2008b; Holness et al., 2017). Finally, in typical granitoid
plutons, internal structures, formed during both the construction of the
plutons and subsequent internal processes, are typically well preserved
(Fig. 2). This is true even for the granitoids emplaced at amphibolite
facies conditions. Consequently, magmatic structures are unlikely to be
obliterated by intergranular changes, unless pervasive subsolidus tec-
tonic deformation occurs.
4.2.3. Compositionally defined magmatic structures
It is our expectation that knowledge of compositionally defined
structures will continue to grow, both in the recognition of new types
and in a better understanding of formation. Mechanisms of formation
presently remain controversial (e.g., compare Weinberg et al., 2001;
Paterson, 2009; Hodge et al., 2012; and Wiebe et al., 2017). Although
crystallization, fractionation, and mixing certainly play a role in
forming crystals or the melts from which crystals grow, we suggest that
existing evidence favors that physical processes dominate in the for-
mation of these structures: below we present some of the more popular
ideas for their formation.
Wiebe and Collins (1998), Weinberg et al. (2001), Paterson (2009)
suggested that tubes and pipes represent cylindrical channels of magma
flow through crystal mushes, and that the main flow direction is par-
allel to the tube walls. Schlieren along the tube walls form by combined
flow sorting and filter pressing. Weinberg et al. (2001) also noted that
coarse K-feldspar aggregates occurred on the upstream side of 'dike
necks' (pipes), as inferred from crosscutting relationships in the dike.
They suggested that flow necking (a consequence of melt extraction,
crystal growth and flow sorting) led to a 'megacryst logjam’, which
continued to grow by the filtering out of megacrysts upstream (see also
Clarke and Clarke, 1998; Rocher et al., in press). Magma flow through
tubes and pipes, potentially either up or down, can be explained by
thermal or compositional buoyancy (e.g., Griffiths, 1986; Martin et al.,
1987; Weinberg et al., 2001), Raleigh–Taylor fingering (Wiebe and
Collins, 1998; Perugini and Poli, 2005; Schofield et al., 2010), rising
volatile-rich magmas (Clarke et al., 2013; Weinberg et al., 2001;
Memeti et al., 2014) or falling objects (Castro et al., 2008; Rocher et al.,
in press).
Schlieren-bounded troughs are generally viewed as open (towards
more crystal poor magma) mush channels analogous to flow channels
with a 'bed-load' and formed in a porous media (e.g., Wahrhaftig, 1979;
Dufek and Bergantz, 2007). Magma flow is interpreted to be parallel to
trough axes, inferred by aligned hornblendes in basal schlieren in
granitoids (Paterson, 2009) or aligned, elongate plagioclase and olivine
parallel to the trough axes in mafic rocks (Holness et al., 2017). The
intra-chamber channel flow is potentially caused by the disturbance
and collapse of growing magma mush zones along margins (Humphreys
and Holness, 2010; Marsh, 2015) or erosion of previous pulses
143
Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147
(Paterson et al., 2016), and avalanching of crystal piles down into re-
gions of the chamber with lower effective viscosities (e.g., Irvine, et al.,
1998; Bergantz, 2000; Žák and Paterson, 2009).
Mesoscale diapirs and plumes show all the characteristics of
Raleigh–Taylor instabilities: but one surprising recent observation has
been the wide variation in movement directions of these structures,
many of which show non-vertical directions (Paterson, 2009). Alter-
natively, they may record local flow gradients/displacement fields
(stress, strain, rheology) in crystal mush systems, potentially driven by
either regional deformation of magma chambers and/or convective
movement in reservoirs during arrival of new magma batches.
Mafic ellipsoids have only recently been recognized as such (Memeti
et al., 2014) but may be comparable to microgranitoid enclaves and
largely formed by magma mingling. The greatest uncertainties are the
original source of magmas, the type of structure prior to mingling
(mafic dikes, pipes, sheets) and where initial mingling occurred (e.g.,
Barbey et al., 2008; Paterson et al., 2016).
Although individual types have been examined, the full range of
sizes and shapes of mineral clusters have not been systematically stu-
died. Many are thought to have formed by the combined physical
processes of nucleation and surface energy effects, flow sorting, and
filter pressing (e.g., Vance, 1969; Barrière, 1981; Jerram et al., 2003;
Vernon and Paterson, 2008a). This clustering also implies that stress
transfers between crystals, leading to crystal plasticity, may be more
common in these hypersolidus systems than previously recognized.
Petford (2009) and Bergantz et al. (2017) summarized processes
such as the following that occur in flowing hydrogranular magma
slurries because of their complex times-transgressive rheologic beha-
vior: (1) crystal disorder-order transition to form compositional
layering parallel to the flow direction; (2) either crystal jamming
(forming clumps) or dilatancy (drawing in melts); and (3) transient
particle pressures that fluidize crystal mushes resulting in an in-
stantaneous pressure decrease and in situ bubble formation in the melt,
promoting chamber-wide instability and formation of melt pipes and
channels, disrupted layering, crystal clustering, synmagmatic faulting,
and collapse and remixing of mush zones. These phenomena could form
a number of the magmatic structures listed above.
4.2.4. Preferred orientations of mineral grains
Two outstanding issues regarding the interpretation of preferred
orientations are the following: (1) the need to recognize that they re-
flect transient hydrogranular strain and are only parallel to flow planes/
directions under certain conditions; and (2) that there are many plutons
with more than one foliation/lineation. The first issue is discussed ex-
tensively by Paterson et al. (1998) who noted that foliation/lineation
patterns (Fig. 3) must be combined with kinematic and other in-
formation to establish flow patterns. And Bergantz et al. (2017) ex-
amine what fabrics record at the mineral population scale. The re-
cognition of multiple fabrics in granitoids is typically ignored in AMS
and other quantitative fabric analyses in which one ellipsoid per station
is determined. This forces multiple preferred orientations to be aver-
aged and the loss of information about temporal histories. These
quantitative studies will be more valuable if combined with the re-
cognition of multiple fabrics.
4.2.5. Deformation structures
It is our interpretation that the 'deformation structures' listed above
form in hydrogranular “submagmatic” mushes either at fast strain rates
or as the magma is approaching its solidus and thus represent an im-
portant record of the rheological behavior of magma chambers under
these conditions.
Magmatic fold morphology depends on the rheologic state of ma-
terial being folded, particularly whether or not an effective viscosity
contract exists between different folded phases (Fernandez and
Gasquet, 1994), and the relative crystal/melt proportion. Folding in
crystal poor magmas may be more akin to soft sediment folding in
S.R. Paterson et al.
which a fluid phase is present. Magmatic folding can obviously occur at
very fast strain rates (see volcanic examples and Albertz et al., 2005).
Examples below exemplify the potential of detailed studies of magmatic
folding. Vernon (1987) described magmatic folds in glassy rhyolitic
obsidian in which flow banding displays limb thinning (relative to
hinges) with crystallites and stretched vesicles defining an axial planar
foliation, reflecting strain during folding. However, the sense of relative
rotation of the phenocrysts (Fig. 5p) remains constant around the folds
indicating that they record a pre-folding shear strain. Paterson et al.
(1998) describe a magmatic fold in an ∼90 Ma pluton in the Cascades
core, Washington, where a magmatic foliation, defined by plagioclase
and hornblende, is folded and a new magmatic foliation defined by
poikilitic hornblende grew parallel to the axial plane (Fig. 2k). The
number of overgrown grains define a minimum crystal percent during
folding of ca 70%. Žák et al. (2007) describe a magmatically folded
leucogranite dike that has parasitic folds in both limbs and hinge, hinge
thickening, and an axial planar magmatic foliation (Fig. 2l). Line length
method of 'unfolding' the dike indicates ∼28% shortening.
We are not aware of any systematic study of different types of
magmatic faults and shear zones in plutons, indicating that this is an
important topic for future research. Published descriptions of individual
fault types suggest that there are three main groups, namely those
caused by: (1) differential flow/strain gradients during local or
chamber wide convection (e.g., Hibbard and Watters, 1985; Neufeld
and Wettlaufer, 2008; Pinotti et al., 2016; Bergantz et al., 2017); (2)
marginal processes in growing crystal mush zones, particularly re-
sulting in normal faults during gravitational collapse of mushes
(Fig. 2q; e.g., Irvine et al., 1998; Solgadi and Sawyer, 2008; Paterson
et al., 2008) and cooling induced fractures (Geshi, 2001; John and
Stünitz, 1997; Žák et al., 2009; Humphreys and Holness, 2010); and (3)
synchronous tectonism during magma chamber crystallization (e.g.,
Blumenfeld and Bouchez, 1988; John and Blundy, 1993; Zibra, 2012).
Studies of magmatic faults are an underutilized tool to evaluate late
strain fields in plutons, the collapse of crystal rich margins and localized
convection in magma chambers, which are otherwise resisting further
flow or strain.
4.3. Modern approaches for studying magmatic structures
A combination of the following techniques provide a powerful
means to address the key issues outlined above: (1) GIS-based, geor-
eferenced grid-mapping provides key spatial information about the
type, orientation, and distribution of magmatic structures within plu-
tons (e.g., Olivier et al., 1997; Launeau and Cruden, 1998; Peternell
et al., 2011; Rocher et al., in press): (2) crystal size distribution data
provide a quantitative measure of cooling and crystallization histories
of plutonic bodies (e.g., Cashman and Marsh, 1988; Zieg and Marsh,
2002; Jerram et al., 2003): (3) Electron Back-Scatter Diffraction pro-
vides mineral lattice preferred orientations and when combined with
qualitative mineral composition is useful for evaluating deformation
mechanisms and kinematic information (Žák et al., 2008; Holness et al.,
2017); (4) anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility is widely used to ana-
lyze pluton fabrics (e.g., Tarling and Hrouda, 1993; Archanjo et al.,
1995; Bouchez, 1997; Borradaile and Henry, 1997; Kruckenberg et al.,
2010; Dietl et al., 2010; Tomek et al., 2017; Žák et al., 2017); (5) mi-
neral-scale electron microprobe and laser ablation-inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry analyses, leading to the application of crystal
thermometers and chemometers are powerful tools to evaluate the
origin, timing and rheologic evolution of compositionally defined
magmatic structures (McBirney, 1993; Solgadi and Sawyer, 2008;
Davidson et al., 2008; Barnes et al., 2016, 2017; Putirka, 2016; Zhang
et al., 2017); and (6) discrete element, computational fluid dynamics,
numerical simulations of a hydrogranular magma mushes (e.g. Bergantz
et al. (2017).
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Journal of Structural Geology 125 (2019) 134–147
5. Conclusions
(1) A complex array of magmatic structures occur in plutons and pro-
vide useful tools for constraining hypersoidus temporal histories,
evolving rheology, strain fields and inferred flow directions, growth
and cooling information, local and regional tilting, and syn-em-
placement tectonism.
(2) The above structural histories provide a powerful means of testing a
wide array of incremental emplacement, magma chamber growth
and evolution and syn-emplacement tectonic models.
(3) Many of these magmatic structures form in “hydrogranular” magma
slurries during local convection, collapse of mushes and strain re-
sulting in local structural diversity. Thus, the notion that magmas
must have ≤55% crystals to convect, mix, fractionate or strain to
form compositional and structural diversity at these crustal levels,
needs to be revised.
(4) Researchers using preferred orientations to indicate magma flow
must remember that these reflect strain rather than flow directly:
the latter must be inferred from structural geometries and temporal
and kinematic information.
(5) The presence of multiple fabrics in plutons requires caution in the
interpretation of Anisotropy of Magnetic Suceptibility and other
quantitative tools that define preferred orientations at the sampling
site through use of a single ellipsoid.
(6) Future structural studies are particularly needed in plutons ex-
amining the distribution, styles and formation of compositional
defined structures, magmatic folding, shear zones, brittle faults, and
multiple fabrics in hydrogranular slurries.
Acknowledgements
We thank Marian Holness and Jean-Luc Bouchez for helpful reviews
and Joao Hibbertt for editorial assistance. Scott Paterson and Katie
Ardill acknowledge National Science Foundation support through
grants EAR-0537892 and EAR-1624847. Paterson acknowledges dis-
cussions with Jorn Kruhl and George Bergantz about magmatic systems.
Jiří Žák acknowledges financial support from the Czech Science
Foundation through Grant No. 16-11500S and from the Charles
University through Center for Geosphere Dynamics (UNCE/SCI/006)
and project PROGRES Q45.
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