monarch butterfly, (Danaus plexippus), familiar member of the 

milkweed
butterfly group (subfamily Danainae, order Lepidoptera) known for its large size, its
orange and black wings, and its long annual migrations. Monarchs are concentrated in
North, Central, and South America but can also be found in Australia, Hawaii, India,
and other locations, albeit intermittently in some. Several subspecies of monarchs have
been recognized. The endangered subspecies Danaus plexippus plexippus is a migratory
monarch found primarily in North America and occasionally on islands in the Caribbean
region. The subspecies D. plexippus megalippe is a nonmigratory form that occurs on
the Cayman Islands in the Caribbean.
Physical description and life cycle

monarch butterfly
The monarch’s wingspan averages 90 to 100 mm (about 4 inches). The coloration of the
orange wings, marked by black veins and a black border with two rows of spots, warns
predators of the insect’s bad taste. The viceroy butterfly (see brush-footed butterfly) and
the monarch share similar coloration. Indeed, like the monarch, the viceroy is
unpalatable to some of its predators. Hence, it is believed that the two noxious
organisms resemble one another as a form of defense against predators and that the
relationship between them serves as an example of Müllerian mimicry.

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monarch butterfly life cycle

monarch caterpillar
The monarch caterpillar is easily recognized by its vertical stripes of black, white, and
yellow-green. Eggs are laid singly on any of a number of milkweed (Asclepias) species
found throughout the monarch’s range, and the caterpillars feed exclusively on these
plants. Milkweeds produce acrid milky juices that contain toxic compounds called
cardenolides, which are stored in the voracious caterpillar’s body and make the larva
and its subsequent stages distasteful to predators. After several molts, the caterpillar
attains a length of 45 mm (almost 2 inches).
monarch butterfly chrysalis

monarch butterfly
The fully grown caterpillar usually leaves its milkweed plant to pupate elsewhere as a
pale green, golden-spotted chrysalis. After 10–14 days the chrysalis becomes
transparent, and the metamorphosed butterfly’s dark body is visible. The adult emerges
upside down and spends several hours drying its wings before being able to fly. Feeding
on a variety of nectar sources, adults live only a few weeks—except those
that migrate south and overwinter in Mexico, which live seven to nine months. Thus,
about four generations of monarchs occur annually.
Studies of different populations of monarchs in North and Central America and on
certain islands have revealed differences in wing and body morphology in relation to
migration patterns and breeding behaviour. For example, monarch populations in
eastern North America, which undertake long-distance migrations, possess large bodies
and large angular forewings. In contrast, nonmigratory monarchs found in Puerto Rico,
southern Florida, Costa Rica, and Hawaii have smaller bodies and smaller forewings.
Monarchs found in western North America possess small bodies and large wings,
an adaptation that scientists believe may be associated with a reliance on gliding flight.
Research has shown that the various body traits and wing traits of monarchs are
inherited, indicating that they have evolved in response to a combination of factors,
including migratory influences, genetic drift, and breeding behaviour.
Migration

Know about monarch butterflies and their long annual migration from North America's Great
Lakes to Mexico
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In North America the migratory monarch butterfly (D. plexippus plexippus) is a well-
known example of a wide-range migrant with an extensive breeding range. Thousands
of these monarchs gather in autumn and migrate southward, sometimes traveling about
3,000 km (1,800 miles) to overwinter on the California coast or in the mountains of the
oyamel fir forest in Mexico. Certain other populations overwinter in Texas or Florida.
The recapture of marked butterflies has revealed that they can travel as far as 130 km
(80 miles) in one day. The longest distance recorded thus far for the complete flight of a
migrant monarch butterfly is 3,010 km (1,870 miles). Upon reaching their overwintering
destination, the monarchs gather in sheltered sites, particularly on trees where they
cluster on trunks and big branches to hibernate.
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The monarchs begin to return north in the spring, feeding on nectar along the way.
Some of the returning butterflies are members of the first generation that develops from
the overwintered insects; others represent successive generations that develop as the
insects progress toward more northern latitudes. Eggs are laid on milkweed plants
encountered along the way, and a new generation hatches, matures, and continues the
northward trip.
Threats

monarch butterfly
Most of the overwintering forests of the migratory monarch in Mexico are protected
within the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Although logging is banned there, illegal logging and degradation of the forest have
threatened the survival of monarch populations. Likewise, ongoing land development in
areas along the monarch’s different migratory routes is considered a serious threat to
the ability of the species to successfully perform its annual migratory feat. Some
researchers suspect that a loss of milkweed plants, associated with the expansion in the
early 21st century of the use of genetically modified herbicide-resistant crops in
the United States, has further placed the monarch’s long-term survival in jeopardy.
Finally, anthropogenic climate change has significantly impacted the migratory
monarch butterfly and is expected to continue to pose an existential threat.
Recurring drought in parts of western North America, exacerbated by global warming,
has affected the growth of native milkweed populations and increases the frequency of
catastrophic wildfires throughout monarch habitats. Extreme weather of all kinds can
kill migrating butterflies before they have completed their life cycles, and changes in
temperature regimes can trigger early migrations that occur before milkweed plants or
nectar sources are widely available.

Scientists’ ability to determine the monarch’s population status has been challenged by
difficulties in monitoring populations accurately and by a limited knowledge of naturally
occurring annual and geographical population fluctuations. Indeed, estimates of their
decline between 2010 and 2020 range from 22 to 72 percent. However, given
the myriad of threats and a definite and dramatic population decline, the migratory
subspecies (D. plexippus plexippus) was listed as an endangered species on
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened
Species in 2022.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Melissa
Petruzzello.
Asclepiadoideae
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Asclepiadoideae
plant subfamily
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Alternate titles: Asclepiadaceae, milkweed subfamily
By The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Article History
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Texas milkweed
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milkweed Stephanotis carrion flower Hoya Huernia
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Asclepiadoideae, formerly Asclepiadaceae, the milkweed subfamily of the
flowering-plant family Apocynaceae (order Gentianales), including more than
214 genera and about 2,400 species of tropical herbs or shrubby climbers,
rarely shrubs or trees. It was formerly treated as its own family (Asclepiadaceae).
However, molecular evidence suggests that the group is evolutionarily derived from
Apocynaceae, and thus it has been recategorized as a subfamily by the Angiosperm
Phylogeny Group III (APG III) botanical classification system.

Most members of Asclepiadoideae have milky juice, flowers with five united petals,

podlike fruits, and, usually, tufted seeds. Male and female parts of each flower are
united in a single structure, and the pollen is characteristically massed in bundles called
pollinia, pairs of which are linked by a yokelike bar of tissue contributed by the stigma of
the pistil. Parts of the pollinia stick to visiting insect pollinators, which then carry them
to other flowers to facilitate cross-pollination. The silky-haired seeds are drawn out of
their pods by the wind and are carried off. In some species the fertility is low, and many-
flowered plants often produce few fruits. Many milkweed butterflies, including monarch
butterflies, rely exclusively on Asclepiadoideae plants as a food source for their larva.

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bloodflower
wax flower

carrion flower
A number of Asclepiadoideae species are grown horticulturally for their beauty or
notable adaptations. Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) and bloodflower (A.
curassavica) often are cultivated as ornamentals. The butterfly weed (A. tuberosa)
of North America has bright orange flowers. Hoya carnosa, which is commonly
called wax plant because of its waxy white flowers, is often grown indoors as a pot plant.
Several succulent plants—such as Hoodia, Huernia, and carrion flower (Stapelia)—
produce odours that humans find offensive but which attract flies to pollinate the plants.
The ant plant (Dischidia rafflesiana) is uniquely adapted with hollow inflated leaves
filled with root structures. The leaves can store rainwater or, if punctured, form a
suitable nesting chamber for symbiotic ants, which protect the plants from
harmful insects.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Melissa Petruzzello.