7 AC CIRCUITS

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Sinusoids
7.2 Phasors
7.3 Phasor relationship for circuit elements
7.4 Impedance and Reactance
7.5 Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain
7.6 Impedance Combination

7.0 INTRODUCTION

Direct current (DC) is known as the electricity flowing in a constant direction, and/or
possessing a voltage with constant polarity.
Alternating current (AC) is the sources that produce voltages with alternating polarity,
reversing positive and negative over time.

7.1 SINUSOIDS

A Sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.

υ(t) = Vm sin ωt

where Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid

ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid

Figure 7.1 A sketch of Vm sin ωt : (a) as a function of ωt

(b) as function of t

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 2
T = period of the sinusoid (second) T


1
f = frequency of the sinusoid (Hertz) f 
T

  2f (rad/s)

A more general expression :

υ(t) = Vm sin (ωt +  )

where (ωt +  ) - argument

 - phase

Figure 7.2 Two sinusoids with different phases

υ2 leads υ1 by  or υ1 lags υ2 by 

If  ≠ 0 , υ1 and υ2 are out of phase

If  = 0 , υ1 and υ2 are in phase

We can compare υ1 and υ2 in this manner because they operate at the same frequency. They do
not need to have the same amplitude.

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A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form.

Trigonometric identities :

sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B  sin A sin B

With these identities, it can be shown that :

sin (ωt ± 180º) = - sin ωt

cos (ωt ± 180º) = - cos ωt
sin (ωt ± 90º) = ± cos ωt
cos (ωt ± 90º) =  sin ωt

Graphical means of relating cosine and sine :

(a) cos (ωt - 90º) = sin ωt (b) sin (ωt + 180º) = - sin ωt

Adding A cos ωt and B sin ωt

Adding A cos ωt + B sin ωt

A cos ωt + B sin ωt = C cos (ωt -  )

Where C = A2  B 2
B
  tan 1
A

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Example 7.1

Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid.

υ(t) = 12 cos(50t +10º)

Solution:

Amplitude, Vm = 12 V
Phase,  = 10º
Angular frequency, ω = 50 rad/s
2 2
Period, T    0.1257 s
 50
1
Frequency, f   7.958 Hz
T

Problem 7.1:

Given the sinusoid 5 sin(4πt - 60º), Calculate its amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period,
and frequency.

Example 7.2:

Calculate the phase angle between

υ1(t) = -10 cos(ωt + 50º)
υ2(t) = 12 sin(ωt - 10º)

State which sinusoid is leading.

Solution:

The phase angle can be calculated in three ways. The first two methods use trigonometric
identities, while the third method uses the graphical approach.

Method 1

To compare υ1 and υ2 , we must express them in the same form. If we express them in cosine
form with positive amplitudes,

υ1(t) = -10 cos(ωt + 50º)

υ1(t) = 10 cos(ωt + 50º - 180º)
υ1(t) = 10 cos(ωt - 130º) or 10 cos(ωt + 230º) …. (1)

And υ2(t) = 12 sin(ωt - 10º)

υ2(t) = 12 cos(ωt - 10º - 90º)
υ2(t) = 12 cos(ωt - 100º) …………………....(2)

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Therefore the phase difference between υ1 and υ2 is 30º

We can write υ2 as
υ2(t) = 12 cos(ωt - 130º + 30º) or
υ2(t) = 12 cos(ωt + 260º) …………………………… (3)

Comparing equation (1) and (3) shows that υ2 leads υ1 by 30º.

Method 2

Alternatively, we may express υ1 in sine form :

υ1(t) = -10 cos(ωt + 50º) = 10 sin(ωt + 50º - 90º)

υ1(t) = 10 sin(ωt - 40º)
but υ2(t) = 12 sin(ωt - 10º)

Therefore the phase difference between υ1 and υ2 is 30º.

Comparing the two shows that υ1 lags υ2 by 30º, the same as saying υ2 leads υ1 by 30º.

Method 3

We may regard υ1 as simply -10 cos ωt with a phase shift of +50º. Hence, υ1 is as shown in
figure below. Similarly, υ2 is 12 sin ωt with a phase shift of -10º, as shown in figure. It is easy
to see from the figure that υ2 leads υ1 by 30º, that is,
90º-50º-10º.

Problem 7.2:

Find the phase angle between i1 = -4 sin(377t + 25º) and i2 = 5 cos(377t - 40º).
Does i1 lead or lag i2?

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Problem 7.3:

Determine which one leads and by how much.

(a) υ(t) = 10 cos(4t - 60º) and i(t) = 4 sin(4t + 50º)

(b) υ1(t) = 4 cos(377t + 10º) and υ2(t) = -20 cos 377t

7.2 PHASORS

A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. Complex
numbers allow mathematical operations with phasor quantities and are useful in the analysis of
ac circuits. With the complex number system, we can add, subtract, multiply and divide
quantities that have both magnitude and angle (such as sine wave).

A complex number z can be represented in three ways:

 In rectangular form : z = x + j y
where j   1

 In polar form : z = r

 In exponential form : z = re j
where r = magnitude of z
 = phase of z

Conversion from one form of complex number into another :

 Given x and y, we can get r and  as

y
r  x2  y2 ,   tan 1
x
 If we know r and  , we can obtain x and y as
x  r cos  , y  r sin 

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular form.

Multiplication and division are better done in polar form.

Given the complex numbers :

Z = x + j y = r , Z1 = x1 + j y1 = r11
Z2 = x2 + j y2 = r2 2

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Addition:
Z1+Z2 = (x1+x2) + j(y1+y2)

Subtraction:
Z1-Z2 = (x1-x2) + j(y1-y2)

Multiplication:
Z1Z2 = r1r2 1  2

Division:
Z1 rr
 1   2
Z 2 r2

Reciprocal:
1 1
  
Z r

Square root:

Z  r
2

Complex conjugate:
Z *  x  jy  r    re  j

A phasor diagram showing V = Vm and I = I m  

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Sinusoid-phasor transformation

Time-domain Phasor-domain/frequency-domain
Vm cos (ωt +  ) Vm 
Vm sin (ωt +  ) Vm   90
Im cos (ωt +  ) Im 
Im sin (ωt +  ) Im   90

Example 7.3:

Evaluate these complex numbers:

(a) (4050)  (20  30)

10  30  (3  j 4)
(b)
(2  j 4)(3  j 5)

Example 7.4:

Transform these sinusoids to phasors.

(a) ν = -4 sin(30t + 50º)

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(b) i = 6 cos(50t - 40º)

Example 7.5:

Find the sinusoids represented by these phasors.

(a) V = j8e-j20º

(b) I = -3 + j4

Example 7.6:

Given i1(t) = 4 cos(ωt + 30º) and i2(t) = 5 sin(ωt - 20º), find their sum.
* Use phasors for summing sinusoids of the same frequency.

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7.3 PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Resistor

Voltage-current relationship: (a) time-domain

(b) frequency domain

Phasor diagram

If the current through a resistor R is

i = Im cos (ωt +  )
By Ohm’s Law, voltage across it is
ν = iR = RIm cos (ωt +  )
Phasor form of voltage, V = R I m
But phasor representation of the current is I = I m
Hence, V = RI

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Inductor

Voltage-current relationship: (a) time-domain

(b) frequency domain

Phasor diagram
I lags V by 90º

Assume i = Im cos (ωt +  )

di
v  L  LI m sin(t   )
dt
Recall - sin A = cos(A + 90º)
Therefore v  LIm cos(t    90)
Transform to phasor: V = LIme j ( 90)  LIme j e j 90
= LIme j 90
But I m  I and ej90º = j
Therefore, V = jLI

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Capacitor

Voltage-current relationship: (a) time-domain

(b) frequency domain

Phasor diagram
I leads V by 90º

Assume v  Vm cos(t   )
dv
iC
dt
I
I = jCV , V=
j C

Summary of voltage-current relationships

Element Time domain Frequency domain

R ν = Ri V = RI
di
L vL V = jLI
dt
dv I
C iC V=
dt j C

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Example 7.7:

The voltage υ(t) = 12 cos(60t + 45º) is applied to a 0.1 H inductor. Find the steady-state current
through the inductor.

Example 7.8:

If υ(t) = 6 cos(100t - 30º) is applied to a 50 µF capacitor, calculate the current through it.

7.4 IMPEDANCE (Z) AND REACTANCE (X)

The voltage-current relations for the three passive elements :

II
V = RI, V = jωLI, V=
j C
In terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current :

V V V 1
R  jL 
I I I j C

Using Ohm’s law in phasor form :

V
Z or V  Z I
I

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Z = impedance (Ω)

Circuit Element Impedance Admittance Reactance

1
Resistor Z=R Y= -
R
1
Inductor ZL = jwL Y= XL = ωL
jL
1 1
Capacitor ZC = Y = jωC XC = 
j C C

The impedance can be expressed in rectangular form :

Z = R + jX
Where R = resistance
X = reactance

If Z = R + jX inductive impedance
Z = R – jX capacitive impedance

The impedance can also be expressed in polar form :

Z = Z 

 Z = R + jX = Z 

X
where Z  R2  X 2 ,   tan 1
R

and R  Z cos  , X  Z sin 

Example 7.9:

The current flowing through a 20 mH inductor is 10 cos(10,000t + 30º) mA. Calculate :

(a) The inductive reactance
(b) The impedance of the inductor
(c) The phasor voltage V
(d) The steady-state expression for υ(t)

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Example 7.10:

Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown.

Example 7.11:

Determine v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown.

7.5 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

For KVL, let υ1, υ2, ……., υn be the voltages around a closed loop.

Then υ1+υ2+…….+υn = 0

In the sinusoidal steady state,

Vm1 cos(t  1 ) + Vm 2 cos(t  2 ) +…… + Vmn cos(t  n ) = 0

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This can be written as
Re(Vm1e j1 e jt ) + Re(Vm 2 e j 2 e jt ) +….+ Re(Vmn e j n e jt ) = 0
or
Re[(Vm1e j1  Vm 2 e j2  ....  Vmn e jn )e jt ]  0

If we let Vk = Vmk e j k , then

Re[( V1  V2  ....  Vn )e jt ]  0

Since e jt  0
V1  V2  ....  Vn  0

Indicating that KVL holds for phasors.

By similar procedure:

KCL holds for phasors, I1  I 2  ....  I n  0

7.6 IMPEDANCE COMBINATION

Consider N impedances is series:

Applying KVL around the loop gives:

V1  V2  ....  VN  I(Z1  Z 2  ....  Z N )

V
Zeq   Z1  Z2  ....  Z N
I

or Zeq  Z1  Z2  ....  ZN

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If N = 2, as shown in figure below, the current through the impedance is
V
I
Z1  Z2

Since V1=Z1I and V2=Z2I, then

Z1 Z2
V1  V, V2  V
Z1  Z 2 Z1  Z 2

Consider N impedances in parallel:

1 1 1 
I1  I 2  ....  I N  V   ....  
 Z1 Z2 Z N 
1 I 1 1 1 
     ....  
Zeq V  Z1 Z2 Z N 

and the equivalent admittance :

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When N = 2 , the equivalent impedance becomes:

Since,

Which is the current divider rule.

Example 7.12:

Find the input impedance of the circuit. Assume that the circuit operates at ω = 50 rad/s.

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Example 7.13:

Determine υo(t) in the circuit.

Example 7.14:

Determine I and ZT for the circuit.

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Tutorial 7 : AC Circuits

Q1. In a linear circuit, the voltage source is νs = 12 sin (103 t + 24˚) V.

(a) What is the angular frequency of the voltage?
(b) What is the frequency of the source?
(c) Find the period of the voltage.
(d) Express νs in cosine form.
(e) Determine νs at t = 2.5 ms.

Q2. A current source in a linear circuit has is = 8 cos (500πt - 25˚) A.

(a) What is the amplitude of the current?
(b) What is the angular frequency?
(c) Find the frequency of the current.
(d) Calculate is at t = 2 ms.

Q3. Express the following functions in cosine form :

(a) 4 sin (ωt - 30˚)
(b) -2 sin 6t
(c) -10 sin (ωt + 20˚)

Q4. (a) Express ν = 8 cos (7t + 15˚) in sine form.

(b) Convert i = -10 sin (3t - 85˚) to cosine form.

Q5. Given ν1 = 20 sin (ωt + 60˚) and ν2 = 60 cos (ωt - 10˚), determine the phase angle
between the two sinusoids and which one lags the other.

Q6. Calculate these complex numbers and express your results in rectangular form :
1545
(a)  j2
3  j4

8  20 10
(b) 
2  j 3  j 4  5  j12
(c) 10  8505  j12

Q7. Given the complex numbers z1 = -3 + j4 and z2 = 12 + j5, find :

z1 z1  z 2
(a) z1 z 2 (b) (c)
z2 z1  z 2

Q8. Transform the following sinusoids to phasors :

(a) -10 cos (4t + 75˚)
(b) 5 sin (20t -10˚)
(c) 4 cos 2t + 3 sin 2t

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Q9. Use phasors to simplify the following sinusoidal functions :
(a) 3 cos (20t + 10º) - 5 cos (20t - 30º)
(b) 40 sin 50t + 30 cos (50t - 45º)
(c) 20 sin 400t + 10 cos (400t + 60˚) – 5 sin (400t - 20˚)

Q10. Find a single sinusoid corresponding to each of these phasors :

(a) V = 40  60 V
(b) V =  3010  5060 V

Q11. Two elements are connected in series as shown in figure below. If i = 12 cos (2t - 30º)
A, find the element values.
i

180 cos (2t + 10˚) V

Q12. If νs = 5 cos 2t V in the circuit below, find νo .

2 Ω 0.25 F

+
νs 1H νo
_

Q13. In the circuit below, let νs = 60 cos (200t - 10˚) V :

(a) Construct the frequency-domain equivalent circuit.
(b) Find i(t).

2k 100 mH
i

νs 1k 1k
10 uF

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Q14. Calculate i1(t) and i2(t) in the circuit below if the source frequency is 60 Hz.

i1 i2

400 V j5 - j10

Q15. If is = 5 cos (10t + 40˚) A in the circuit below, find io .

4 3
io

0.2 H is 0.1 F

Q16. Find ZT and I in the circuit below.

4 6
I

- j10 j8
3090 V

ZT

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 Answers

Q1. (a) ω = 103 rad/s Q2. (a) 8A

(b) f = 159.2 Hz (b) 1570.8 rad/s
(c) T = 6.283 ms (c) 250 Hz
(d) νs = 12 cos (103 t - 66˚) (d) 7.25 A
(e) νs(2.5 ms) = 2.65 V

Q3. (a) 4 cos (ωt - 120˚) Q4. (a) 8 sin (7t +105˚)
(b) 2 cos (6t + 90˚) (b) 10 cos (3t + 5˚)
(c) 10 cos (ωt +110˚)

Q5. V1 lags V2 by 20˚ Q6. (a) -0.424 + j 4.97

(b) 0.415 – j 0.628
(c) 109.25 – j 31.07

Q7. (a) -56 + j 33 Q8. (a) 10   105

(b) -0.095 + j 0.373 (b) 5   100
(c) -0.637 – j 0.558 (c) 5   36.87

Q9. (a) 3.32 cos (20t + 114.49˚) Q10. (a) 40 cos (ωt – 60˚)
(b) 64.78 cos (50t – 70.89˚) (b) 38.36 cos (ωt + 96.8˚)
(c) 9.44 cos (400t – 44.7˚)

Q11. R = 11.49 Ω, L = 4.821 H Q12. νo(t) = 5 cos (2t + 90˚) V or -5 sin 2t V

Q13. (a) Vs = 60   10 Q14. i1(t) = 6.248 cos (120πt – 51.34˚) A

100 mH === j 20 Ω i2(t) = 3.124 cos (120πt + 128.66˚) A
10 μF === - j 500
(b) i(t) = 26.61 cos (200t – 3.896˚) mA

Q15. io(t) = 2.325 cos (10t + 94.46˚) A Q16. ZT = 19 – j 5 Ω

I = 1.527 104.7 A

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