Special Feature

An Overview of Sound Healing Practices:

Implications for the Profession of
Music Therapy

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BARBARA J. CROWE Arizona State University, Tempe
MARY SCOVEL Private Practice, Tahlequah, Oklahoma

ABSTRACT: This article gives a brief overview of a number of tech­ is based on the former idea-music is an excellent tool for
niques in the newly emerging field of “sound healing.” The tech­
therapy but does not directly cure an illness or rehabilitate a
niques reviewed are grouped in six categories-self-generated sound,
projecting sound into the body, sounding the body, listening tech­
condition (Caston, 1968). Over the last 15 to 20 years there
nologies, healing compositions, and sound environments. Techniques has been increasing interest in the possible direct curative ef­
are described and the individuals currently associated with the dif­ fects of sound-physical vibration patterns not spatially and
ferent approaches are mentioned. The article concludes with a dis­ temporally organized into music (Webster, 1989). A number
cussion of the possible implications for the profession of music ther­
of approaches have been developed or re-discovered from an­
apy of the emergence of sound healing disciplines.
cient and non-Western medical practices that are collectively
referred to for the purposes of this article as “sound healing”
Introduction (Goldman, 1992). The purpose of this article is twofold: 1) to
From a historical perspective, the use of music and sound provide a basic overview of some of the specific sound heal­
as a healing agent is a very old idea (Gerber, 1988). From ing techniques currently being practiced in this country and
every advanced civilization of antiquity, Mesopotamia and an­ 2) to discuss how these approaches and the number of prac­
cient China to Egypt, from India to the golden age of Greece, titioners (many of whom are not associated with music ther­
the same belief has echoed-that there is something funda­ apy) may impact on music therapy practice and on the future
mental about music; that intelligently organized sound con­ of the profession of music therapy.
stituted the highest of all the arts (Tame, 1984). These civili­
zations affirmed music to be a tangible force which could be
applied in order to create change, for better or worse, within The purpose of this article is twofold: 1) to provide
the character of the individual and within society as a whole a basic overview of some of the specific sound heal­
(Roskam, 1993). Music, it was believed, was capable of ef­ ing techniques currently being practiced in this
fecting change upon matter itself (McClellan, 1991).
country and 2) to discuss how these approaches
As a tool in health and healing, our ancestors believed both
and the number of practitioners (many of whom are
that music could be a support to wellness, and thus an aid in
not associated with music therapy) may impact on
preventing disease, and that music/sound combinations could
have a direct curative effect on physical and mental illness
music therapy practice and on the future of the pro­
(Boxberger, 1962). Our modern profession of music therapy fession of music therapy.

Barbara J. Crowe, M.M., RMT-BC, is Professor of Music Therapy at Arizona

State University, Tempe and the Executive Director of Rhythm for Life. She is To begin, it may be useful to define key terms as used by
a past president of the National Association for MUSiC Therapy. the authors in this article. Though the definitions of these
Mary Scovel, M.M., RMT-BC, has a private practice in Tahlequah, Oklahoma
terms are known to music therapists, a consensus as to spe­
where she is affiliated with the Wellness Center. Prior to that she was a pro­
fessor of music therapy at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo for 13
cific definitions used will help with clarity. These terms in­
years. clude sound healing, music, music therapy, healing, curing,
0 1996, by the National Association for Music Therapy, Inc. and health. The techniques that are loosely grouped under the
21
22
heading of sound healing usually involve the direct impact of
physical, acoustical vibrations on bodily structures, physiolog­
ical functioning, and neural activity (Bruscia, 1989; Goldman,
1992). The sound is the stimulus used to heal created by the
presence and interaction of various forms of mechanical en­
ergy that constitute a sound wave. Any regularly recurring vi­
bration, whether from a stretched string, a vocal cord, or
leaves moved by wind, produces the stimulus we perceive as
sound. Though ”‘sound’ is a subjective term used by humans
to report aural psychological sensation” (Wagner, 1994, p. 1),
it is used frequently in sound healing literature to refer to phys­
ical, acoustical vibrations. According to the sound healing lit­
erature (Goldman, 1992; Gerber, 1988; McClellan, 1991), in
many of the sound healing techniques how the patient ex­
periences the sound emotionally or socially is not important.
True cognitive perception of the sound-assigning meaning to
the sensory input (Webster, 1989, p. 1069)-is not always in­
volved. The direct physical impact of the vibration itself is the
vehicle for treatment (Gerber, 1988). The physical properties
of the sound wave that produces the physical, mechanical
energy used to impact human functioning include frequency
or how fast the sound wave is occurring, amplitude or how
much space the wave occupies, and the complexity of the
vibration known musically as the overtone series.
Music is “an art of sound in time which expresses ideas and
emotions in significant forms through the elements of rhythm,
melody, harmony, and color” (Webster, 1989, p. 943). This
definition implies organization of sound--choice of possible
tones to create a melody, varying duration of sound in rhythm
patterns, the horizontal structure of tonal relations in harmo­
ny-for the purposes of human expression. If music is the
meeting between sound and human consciousness (Hughes,
1948), then the importance of human experience and percep­
tion is implied in the very definition of music. As Swanwick
(1991) notes, “Music is one important and universally evident
way in which people symbolically articulate their response to
experience thus are able to share their observations and in­
sights with others” (p. 38). Music, as opposed to sound vibra­
tion, is an intrinsic human behavior closely linked with emo­
tional and cultural expression (Gaston, 1968). The richness of
the human experience of music is why this art form has be­
come the basis of practice in music therapy.
Music therapy, in contrast to the impact of sound vibration
on body structures or energy systems, is traditionally based on
the client’s act of experiencing and interacting with the or­
ganization of sound that is music. The point of focus or basis
for the therapy is not the physical vibration that exists inde­
pendently from human perception but is now on the experi­
encing of the sound combinations themselves (Forinash,
1995). Each individual’s perception is very unique and ever
changing. It is derived from their existing mood, social situa­
tion, memories, conditioning and education, familiarity with
the stimulus, and cultural context (Radocy & Boyle, 1979). In
this phenomenological view, the particulars of the stimulus (in
Music Therapy Perspectives (1996), Vol. 14
this case characteristics of physical vibration) are not impor­
tant separate from the human experience of it. It is the person’s
perception of the stimulus and reaction to it that are critical
(Kenny, 1989; Maranto, 1991). Of course, a number of music
therapists believe that the sound quality of the music is vitally
important to the therapeutic process (Kenny, 1989). Guided
Imagery in Music (Bonny, 1978) and the Nordoff-Robbins
Method (1971) are specific music therapy techniques where
sound quality is considered critical to the effectiveness of the
intervention.
When we are defining any therapeutic intervention, it is
also important to understand the definitions of two key words,
“heal” and “cure”. According to Webster (1989), the verb to
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cure means to relieve or rid one of something troublesome or
detrimental as in an illness or symptom. Curing implies a rem­
edy that will make one well, whole or right or the actual erad­
ication of disease or sickness. Most therapeutic disciplines in­
cluding music therapy see their work as addressing a problem
area in client functioning that impedes full or independent
activity. Music therapists set goals and create music therapy
strategies addressing these assessed need areas-increasing at­
tention to the task of a child diagnosed with autism or de­
creasing agitation in persons with Alzheimer’s disease (Han­
ser, 1988). Though the disease of Alzheimer’s may not be
cured and the total needs of the client may be addressed, the
focus of therapy remains on remediation of specific areas of
dysfunction. In contrast to the implied meaning of cure, the
verb, to heal, again according to Webster (1989), means to
make whole or sound, to restore to health (general condition
of body or mind with reference to soundness or vigor) or to a
previous state of equilibrium. Healing may or may not involve
curing a disease or addressing a specific symptom. Healing
often implies work to strengthen or support the natural con­
dition of health as opposed to remediation of a problem area
(Laskow, 1992). As we will discover, the focus of many sound
healing techniques is on healing-restoration of equilibrium
or balance in energy systems of the body or states of mind
(Gerber, 1988; Bruscia, 1989).
Sound Healing Techniques
The sound healing techniques reviewed here have been
grouped under six headings by the authors-self-generated
sound, projecting sound into the body, sounding the body,
listening technologies, healing compositions, and sound en­
vironments. These groupings are arbitrary and used for the
purposes of organization only. The authors do not claim to be
experts on each of these techniques nor will judgments on the
efficacy of the specific approaches or the validity of the un­
derlying theoretical foundation be made. The intention is to
familiarize the reader with these techniques and some of the
individuals who are associated with them. It is important to
remember that many of these techniques originated in non-
Western cultures and healing traditions. Many are thousands
Sound Healing
of years old and have proven to be effective within their cul­
tural contexts.
Many of the sound healing methods are based on two the­
oretical beliefs involving energy systems in the human body.
The first is a belief in the bio-physical resonance of the phys­
ical body. “The body consists of a large number of interlocking
and interdependent vibrational systems of various frequencies
and densities. The substance of the body is a virtual sym­
phony of frequencies, sounds, and biological, mental and
emotional rhythms in a state of continuous flow which seek
to achieve and maintain the state of perfect balance and equi­
librium” (McClellan, 1991, p. 38). The effects of sound reso­
nance positively impacting the body is vital to this theoretical
construct.
The second theoretical principle often associated with
sound healing methods involves the presence of a complex
energy system within and around the body (Gerber, 1988).
This theory states that there is a web of energy, called the
etheric body or aura, that emerges from the dense physical
body and extends about three inches beyond (McClellan,
1991, p. 43). “The etheric body is a holographic energy field
or template that carries information for the growth, develop­
ment, and repair of the physical body. While the genes within
the DNA direct the molecular mechanisms which govern the
development of individual cells, the etheric body guides the
spatial unfoldment of the genetic process” (Gerber, 1988, p.
69). Though presented metaphorically for thousands of years
in Eastern esoteric traditions, the pioneering research of Burr
(1972) has measured this energetic field as electromagnetic
energy. He calls this the life field or L-field (Burr, 1972, p. 12).
Another facet of this theory notes that the etheric field is
not completely separated from the energy system within the
physical body (Gerber, 1988). Several systems from different
cultures exist that link the etheric body with the internal en­
ergy system. One such system is the acupuncture meridian
system developed in ancient China. Acupuncture points on
the human body are points along an unseen energy network
running deeply throughout the body (Gerber, 1988, p. 121).
Another system for this energetic link is found in Indian yogic
literature and involves chakras and nadis. “Chakras are seven
energy vortices in the body each anatomically corresponding
to a major nerve plexus and a major endocrine gland” (Ger­
ber, 1988, p. 128). The belief is that activation of a center
,I
translate(s) energy of a higher dimensional (or higher fre­
quency) nature into some type of glandular-hormonal input
which subsequently affects the entire physical body” (Gerber,
1988, p. 131). In addition, the nadis comprises an extensive
energetic network that moves subtle energetic matter through­
out the body (Gerber, 1988). The belief is that external wave
phenomena like sound and light can affect this energetic sys­
tem. The research of Motoyama and Brown (1978) confirmed
the presence of the chakra system in the body. Though much
of the substantiation for the efficacy of these approaches is
anecdotal from clinical practice, other scientific research in
23
disciplines including biophysics, electromagnetic fields in the
human body (Burr, 1972), biomedical research (Becker & Sel­
den, 1985), and subtle energy systems in the human body
(Rein; Srinivasan, 1988) is currently in process (Benor, 1994;
Gerber, 1988; Srinivasan, 1988).
Self-Generated Sound for Healing
Self-generated sound for healing most often involves some
form of toning. Toning is different from singing in that it is
non-verbal and projected inward rather than outward. It in­
volves the production of elongated vowel sounds for the pur­
pose of release and relief of emotional and physical stress and
to resonate parts of the body and/or energy field (Goldman,
1992). Evelyn Keyes’ 1973 book, Toning, was one of the first
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publications in this country to outline the health benefits of
regular toning. A number of individuals have recently been
advocating this sound healing technique including Don
Campbell who has created an entire toning program entitled,
“Toning for Health, Healing, and Balance” (Campbell, 1990).
In this system, toning involves the use of the voice to produce
repetitive sounds for the purpose of balancing the various en­
ergies in the body (Campbell, 1990). According to Campbell,
toning is not a method but is a tool to empower the healing
work which one is already doing. This involves re-patterning
of the body’s energy fields through suggestion (by means of
resonance) rather than by projecting a substance or force into
the body that could be intrusive (Campbell, 1994).
Another form of toning is overtone chanting which involves
specialized vocal techniques that produce as many upper har­
monics in the sound as possible. Jonathan Goldman in his
book, Healing Sounds: The Power of Harmonics (1992), ex­
plores this form of sound healing extensively. Overtone chant­
ing is found in many ancient healing and esoteric practices
especially in Tibet, Africa, and Mexico. Jonathan Goldman
(1992) reports that this form of self-generated sound healing
affects energy balancing, resonates brain structures, and im­
proves the flow of cerebral/cranial fluid.
A third form of toning involves the use of specific toned
vowel sounds to vibrate and activate the hypothesized seven
chakras in the human body postulated in a number of non-
Western medical systems (Gerber, 1988). Each system has
somewhat different vowel sounds and pitches associated with
a particular chakra. Randall McClellan in his 1991 book, The
Healing Forces of Music, presents a system that uses a series
of fundamental tones starting on C and moving through the
first seven harmonics in the overtone series to activate each
of the seven chakras centers. Goldman (19931, Hamel (1978),
Gardner (1990), and others use specific vowel sounds such as
uh and ooo to correspond to the different chakras believing
that the energy center is activated and normalized through
resonance produced with the particular timbre of the vowel.
Projecting Sound into the Body
These techniques involve a projection or application of
sound vibration directly onto a portion of the body. Cymatic
24 Music Therapy Perspectives (1996), Vol. 14

Therapy developed by British osteopathic physician, Dr. Peter into the unbalanced area in order to resonate and align the
Guy Masters, is an example of this form of sound healing problem area (Goldman, 1992). Jonathan Goldman (1992) has
technique. This therapy is based on the work of Dr. Hans Jen­ further refined this technique in a process he calls overtoning
ny (1974) who demonstrated the effects of sound waves of in which vocal harmonics or changes in timbre are amplified
certain frequency and amplitude on matter. Cymatic Therapy when the practitioner’s voice encounters an unbalanced area.
is based on two overriding principles according to McClellan These sounds are then projected at the area.
(1991): 1) that everything in the universe is in a state of vi­ Another sounding the body method is Resonant Kinesiolo­
bration, including the body as a whole and each organ or gy. Developed by Susan Gallagher Borg, this is a combined
system individually and 2) that disease is an “out-of-tuneness” technique using touch, sound and movement to evoke
of the vibration of the physiological system or organ and that change, growth and healing (Borg, 1994). Based on the prin­
through a process of resonance the vibration can be brought ciples of kinesiology of alignment and movement, on anatom­
back to normal or be corrected. Cymatic Therapy uses the ical structures, reflexes and developmental patterns, and on
direct application of sound waves on the body utilizing a de­ resonant touch, sound and movement, Resonant Kinesiology
vice known as the Cymatic Instrument. Composed of a com­

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is used to relieve and prevent chronic pain and tension, to
puter to select the appropriate frequency for the healing vi­ maintain balance and energy, and to change the body’s re­
bration and a sound generator with hammer-like vibrators, the sponses to emotions and beliefs (Borg, 1994). Sound projec­
Cymatic Instrument is used to treat physical and emotional/ tion is used as one method of remediating unbalanced energy
mental problems (McClellan, 1991). This treatment modality and misaligned body structures.
is used widely in Europe, but the Cymatic Instrument is not Another form of sounding the body technique, which does
approved for medical use in the United States. not use projected vocal sounds, is the Bio-Acoustics system
A similar technique, known as Radionics, uses oscillatory developed by Sharry Edwards (Edwards, 1992). Bio-Acoustics,
frequencies above human hearing directly applied to the which literally means “life sounds”, can be defined as a life
body. “Radionics systems have been under development and discipline that studies the frequencies thought to emanate
application in the United States and Europe for many decades. from all living systems. Edwards postulates that everyone has
Various devices, often referred to as ‘radionic black boxes,’ a personal Signature Sound, or keynote, which is a distinctive
have been used by physicians and practitioners of alternative
sound frequency. Voice analysis is the approach used to iden­
medicine since the early 1900s. A number of early pioneers
tify notes or sounds that are distinctive for each individual.
in this field, including Albert Abrams, Ruth Drown, George
Using a chromatic tuner and/or computer sound analysis pro­
de las Warr, and Malcolm Rae, developed and refined the
gram, a person’s voice is tested for pitch, octave, and notes
basics of radionic practice and theory from its earliest begin­
that are missing, stressed, or non-harmonious. Notes missing
nings” (Gerber, 1988, p. 223).
from people’s speaking voices, according to Edwards, indicate
John Beaulieu, naturopathic physician and musician, ap­
a lack of inner harmony which may be associated with current
plies sound vibration to the body through the use of tuning
or potential health problems. When missing vocal notes and
forks tuned in a Pythagorean scale (Beaulieu, 1987). A specific
octaves have been identified, various techniques can be used
interval needed to stimulate the healing effect is created by
to determine frequencies that will best elicit re-instituting the
taping two forks together. In Beaulieu’s method, the two tuning
body’s distinctive sounds. Once the appropriate frequencies
forks are then circled around the head. Dr. Beaulieu (1987)
have been determined, a special frequency generator is used
claims that this treatment stimulates the vestibular system, re­
to reproduce these sounds, usually at very low octaves.
aligns body structures, and increases cerebra-cranial fluid
In the method created by Sharry Edwards (1992), lower
flow among other effects. Other practitioners using tuning
sound frequencies are generated because, according to Ed­
forks to project sound vibration into the body apply the forks
wards, brain wave cluster patterns correspond to harmonics
directly on body parts or on chakras or acupuncture points to
balance the energy system (Goldman, 1992). of the diatonic musical scale, usually at frequencies below
normal hearing. The techniques have been used to reveal
Sounding the Body structural, genetic, environmental, biochemical, nutritional,
Techniques loosely grouped under the idea of sounding the and emotional distress. Missing notes that are identified are
body involve reading the state of the body or energy fields of then put back into the person’s environment using a dual fre­
another person and projecting the missing sound or vibration quency generator (self-management auditory device-SMAD).
back to the person to re-establish the natural state of balance. People listen to these sounds for varying amounts of time. The
Musician Sarah Benson has developed a sounding the body replacement of the sounds causes the symptoms to abate long
technique she calls the Siren Technique. In this method, the enough for the body to begin to heal itself (Edwards, 1992).
practitioner uses voice to scan up and down the client’s en­ One of the authors is currently finishing a research project
ergy field and physical body. Based on perceived changes or using the Edwards method with children diagnosed with
areas of resistance, the practitioner tones or projects sound learning disabilities.
Sound Healing
Listening Technologies
Listening technologies involve methods to improve the
hearing mechanism and the perception of sound input. Per­
haps the most well defined and extensively used listening
technology, in the author’s opinion, is the Tomatis Method.
Dr. Alfred Tomatis, a French physician and otolaryngologist,
has worked to develop an understanding of the functions of
the ear and the importance of listening as an active process
of focusing the ear to attune to particular sound signals. He
identifies three functions of the ear mechanism: 1) to assume
balance by establishing equilibrium, body tone, and integra­
tion of motor and sensory information, 2) to analyze and de­
code movements external to the ear (sound vibrations) by the
cochlea and internal movements from the vestibular system
so that auditory-vocal control can be established, and 3) to
energetically charge the central nervous system and the cortex
by receiving high frequency sounds in the range of 2000 to
8000 HZ which is the upper frequency end of speech (To­
matis, 1991).
The therapeutic process used in the Tomatis Method con­
sists of several components. First, a specially devised audio­
logical exam which tests both air and bone conduction of
sound into the cochlea is administered. Based on an indivi­
dual’s audiological profile, therapy begins with the client
learning to listen more actively by using a device invented by
Tomatis called the Electronic Ear. The initial program consists
of two hours of listening to an individualized program over a
fifteen day period. The Electronic Ear utilizes head phones that
include a special vibrating disc placed against the top of the
head to stimulate bone conduction and a cassette player that
can filter sound so that only those frequencies that cannot be
perceived by the client are played. Recordings of Mozart and
Gregorian chant are used though initially only the highest fre­
quencies are heard. After a week of this specialized listening,
a second component of the therapy which involves teaching
the client to utilize the high frequencies in their own voices
is introduced so that the brain charging phenomenon can con­
tinue after the listening program is concluded. The client reads
into a microphone attached to the Electronic Ear so that the
high frequencies of their own voice are heard. Training is also
provided in a form of chant developed by Tomatis that em­
phasizes high frequencies.
According to Tomatis and his practitioners, the ability to
truly listen is the basis of communication skills, language ac­
quisition, learning ability, and social adjustment. There is a
growing body of anecdotal evidence and some research sup­
port that the Tomatis method is effective in helping people
whose problems stem from deficiencies in these areas (Gil­
mour, et al., 1989). According to Dr. Billie Thompson, director
of the Tomatis Center in Phoenix, Arizona, clients served with
this method include children with delayed or disordered lan­
guage development, hyperactivity, behavioral and emotional
problems, learning disabilities, and autism and adults with ad­
25
justment problems, depression, fatigue, and social withdrawal
(B. Thompson, personal communication, December 12,
1994). The Tomatis method has also been used to remediate
short attention span, lack of concentration, poor organization­
al skills, impaired memory, and problems with motor func­
tioning and balance (Gilmour, et al., 1989).
Compositions and Specific Sound Combinations For Healing
Traditionally ancient and indigenous cultures used specific
musical compositions especially songs and chants as the tools
for healing. This tradition of medicine songs is still prominent
in the work of traditional healers in native north and south
American tribes, India, Korea, Africa, and Tibet (Cook, 1995).
In the medicine song tradition, both the words used and the
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musical intervals, pitches, and sound timbre produced are im­
portant in the effectiveness of the healing.
Related to some degree to the medicine song tradition and
to self-generated sounds for healing, a modern technique
called Therapeutic Voice Work is being used by a number of
practitioners including Molly Scott, Persus Ensor, and Sarah
Bensen (Goldman, 1992). The various forms of this technique
encourage clients to use their voice to sing openly and freely.
Musicians such as Susan Osborne (Hale, 1995) and Bobby
McFerrin (as he reported during a concert attended by the
senior author December, 1993 in Phoenix, Arizona) have also
done work in encouraging people to sing for release of emo­
tions and for personal empowerment.
Another group of sound healing methods is based on the
belief that specific frequencies or frequency combinations can
have healing benefits. The work of Sharry Edwards (1992) in
replacing missing frequencies and the tuning forks based on
the Pythagorean scale developed by John Beaulieu (1987)
have already been mentioned. Much interest has been focused
in sound healing on the tuning system developed by the Greek
mathematician and philosopher, Pythagoras. Because of ex­
tensive publication and lecturing, the most prominent individ­
ual working with the Pythagorean tuning may be Barbara
Hero who has done research in this area for over twenty years.
She claims to have rediscovered the Pythagorean Lambdoma
which is a mathematical table of ratios based on the overtone
series. In her opinion, the Lambdoma is a formula for healing
with sound. The table corresponds to specific frequencies that
are used to balance the chakras and energy systems of the
body and to resonate specific organs (Hero, 1992).
Another specific sound input used for healing is rhythm/
drumming. Drummer Mickey Hart (1990), community drum
group facilitator Arthur Hull, indigenous drummers such as
Babatunde Olatundje, and Western drummers such as Rein­
hard Flatischer (1992) have been promoting this form of sound
healing for a number of years. This belief in the importance
of rhythmic input as a basis for healing is based on the idea
that all organisms, including humans, are intrinsically pro­
grammed for rhythm. Evidence for this includes the innate
rhythmicity of human bodily processes, the rhythms of nature,
26
the rhythmic patterns of neural firings (Leng & Wright, 1990),
and the existence of personal tempo (Radocy & Boyle, 1979).
According to Reinhard Flatischer (1992), non-physical, phys­
ical, and neurological rhythms are closely interrelated. He be­
lieves that an awake, active rhythmic consciousness can
strengthen body rhythms and promote physical and psycho­
logical well being. The externalization of this rhythmic state
in musical rhythms and rhythmic performance then becomes
the vehicle for healing (Flatischer, 1992). Though grounded in
traditional music therapy practice, the current work of the
Rhythm for Life organization which promotes drumming and
group percussion experiences, even for individuals with se­
vere cognitive impairment such as dementia patients, is based
on the belief of the importance of involvement in external
rhythmic activity (Clair, et al., 1995).
Another use of external rhythmic input, especially monot­
onous steady beat, is entrainment of brain waves. Mutual
phase-locking or entrainment is a phenomena whereby two
vibrating sources in close physical proximity will synchronize
their vibrations (Berendt, 1987). Leonard (1978) reports that
this phenomenon was first noticed in 1665 by the Dutch sci­
entist Christian Huygens when the swinging pendulums of two
clocks were placed in the same room and synchronization of
the rhythm of the swing occurred. According to Berendt
(1987), “...this phenomenon is universal. Two oscillators
pulsating in the same field in almost identical rhythm will tend
to ‘lock-in,’ with the result that eventually their vibrations will
become precisely synchronous” (p. 116).
This effect of mutual phase-locking is applied to synchro­
nizing the brain waves of the two hemispheres of the cerebral
cortex as a form of healing. Advocates of this technique claim
that it increases mental alertness and efficiency, improves
problem solving, positively affects the general sense of well­
being, alters consciousness, and stimulates creativity (Malik,
1995; Goldman, 1992; McClellan, 1991). In traditional sha­
manic practices a monotonous, steady drum beat is used to
entrain the brain wave activity of the two hemispheres creat­
ing an altered state of consciousness (Harner, 1990). However,
in these practices it is primarily the practitioner not the client
who experiences an altered state of consciousness because of
the steady drumming (Winn, et al., 1989).
In his 1985 study, music therapist Mark Rider concluded
that the most effective musical intervention for pain and EMG
reduction was the entrainment technique. This technique for
improving communication with the endorphin system was
,l
based on entrainment mechanisms, in which stimuli, par­
ticularly periodic phenomena, time lock and therefore affect
similar behaviors or actions” (Rider, 1985, p, 184). Rider and
Eagle (1985) also postulate that rhythmic entrainment can be
a mechanism for learning. Rhythmic phase-locking may be a
factor in the positive effects of rhythmic stimulus in regaining
gait in stroke patients reported by Thaut, et al. (1993).
The most commercially successful technique currently em­
ploying brain synchronization or mutual phase-locking of the
Music Therapy Perspectives (1996), Vol. 14
electrical activity of the cerebral hemispheres for health is the
HemiSync work of the Monroe Institute located in Virginia
(Malik, 1995). Based on over thirty years of research on the
effects of sound on brain wave production, the HemiSync
method utilizes different frequencies fed into the ears to create
a beat frequency that serves to synchronize the brain waves
of both hemispheres, a phenomenon termed “frequency fol­
lowing” in the Monroe Method (Malik, 1995). For example,
a Monroe tape contains quiet, soothing music with the addi­
tion of a frequency pulse of 100 HZ in one ear and 108 HZ
in the other. Proponents of the Monroe Method claim that the
beat frequency of 8 HZ thus produced synchronizes the speed
of the brain waves of both hemispheres at that Alpha brain
wave rate which is associated with the relaxation (Malik,
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1995). The Monroe Institute markets tapes for a variety of pur­
poses including weight loss, sleep induction, relaxation, and
heightened mental clarity.
Another example of the traditional use of specific sounds
for healing is the ancient belief that the sounds of certain in­
struments have healing properties. Traditional Peruvian heal­
ers employed healing whistles which produce high pitched
tones of slightly different frequency creating a phenomena
much like HemiSync (Campbell, 1992). Other instruments for
healing include Oriental singing bowls, especially those from
Tibet, which are made from seven “holy” metals and are ex­
traordinarily vibrant. “The Tibetan singing bowl is one of the
most powerful healing instruments of sound and vibration.
It is generally recognized that it was created specifically to
elicit tones for healing and ritual” (Andrews, 1992, p. 157).
Meditation gongs from Burma and Indonesia and Chinese
temple bells are other examples of these types of instruments.
Claims for exposure to these particular sounds include calm­
ing the brain, increasing mental awareness, and promoting
relaxation (Cook, 1995). Music therapist Joseph Moreno
(1989) suggested uses for gongs in music therapy practice in­
cluding stimulation of imagery, free projection of feelings, and
free playing in improvisation.
Finally, a number of contemporary composers and musi­
cians are creating music which they claim is healing. These
artists include Steven Halperin, Ray Lynch, lasos, Boris Mour­
ashkin, Peter Kater, Kitaro, and Kay Gardner (Goldman, 1992).
Halperin, Lynch, and Kater write music to promote relaxation
(Halperin, 1985) while composers like Gardner (1990) and
Mourashkin (1995) claim specific effects of their music on
physiologic functioning. Boris Mourashkin composes his “Su­
per Bio-Energetic Psychotropic Music” to help regulate blood
pressure, reduce stress, relieve pain, normalize sleep, posi­
tively condition the immune system, and promote overall well
being (Mourashkin, 1995). He claims his music stimulates the
body’s natural electrochemical system so that it can regulate
itself and cope naturally with disease.
Sound Environments/fVibrotactile Apparatus
Sound environments or vibratory equipment is designed to
provide both auditory input and vibrotactile stimulation to the
Sound Healing
entire body. Much of this equipment takes the form of vibrat­
ing furniture-beds, pads, chairs, etc. The Somatron@ bed is
an example familiar to most music therapists because of their
support of music therapy through advertising and conference
exhibiting. Many inventors are now producing total environ­
ments that, in addition to the auditory and vibrotactile stim­
ulation, use color, sacred geometry, sensory deprivation, and
olfactory stimulation. The uses and purposes of the equipment
vary but include relaxation, increased ability to problem
solve, whole body stimulation for energy balancing, effects on
subtle energy systems of the body, improved sense of well
being, assisting the body’s innate capacity to heal itself, and
creation of major shifts in psychological attitude and response.
Over the last four years, the authors have met the developers
of ten such systems and have experienced each. It is our opin­
ion that most of this equipment is designed and built by elec­
tronic technicians who do not have musical or therapeutic
backgrounds. Of these ten individuals, only one, Barry Oser
who created a system he calls the “Om System”, is a musician
and composer (Oser, 1993). In reporting their development of
the “Music Vibration Table.” music educator Kris Chesky and
music therapist Donald Michel (1991) describe the use of this
equipment in pain management and discuss implications for
music therapy practice. As professionals aware of the potential
effects of music on individuals in deeply relaxed states (Bonny
& Savary, 1973), music therapists could be concerned that
there may be great potential for harm occurring with this
equipment when development and use is not as well ground­
ed in physiological and therapeutic theory as the Chesky and
Michel tool (1991). In discussions with most people creating
and marketing this type of equipment, the authors perceive
that they may not understand the physical and psychological
effects of sound and sound vibration and the potential physi­
cal and psychological impact involved.
implications for Music Therapy Practice
In reviewing the literature, the authors conclude that the
direct impact of sound vibration on client functioning has not
been the focus of the majority of music therapy techniques.
However, there are a number of notable exceptions including
Thaut’s work using external rhythmic stimulus to help stroke
patients regain walking gate (Thaut, et al., 1993). Mark Rider’s
research on music to stimulate production of certain hor­
mones (Rider, et al., 1985) and entrainment techniques for
pain reduction (Rider, 1985), and research-in-progress on the
effect of sound, classical music, and brain exercises on chil­
dren diagnosed “at-risk” by one of the authors of this article
may be examples that incorporate some methods used in var­
ious sound healing approaches. However, music therapists do
not normally take into account how specific sound vibration
patterns are affecting their clients’ physical and mental func­
tioning when planning a music therapy session and choosing
music to use. Certainly, music therapists are concerned with
the quality of music used including timbre of instruments,
27
quality of sound reproduction in stereo systems, and the mu­
sicality of the music performance (Bonny, 1978). If, however,
specific frequencies, overtones, instrument timbre, rhythms,
and sound combinations are affecting body structures, energy
systems, and brain waves of our clients, it would seem that
we as professionals would want to know how and if these
effects are occurring so that our work can be even more ef­
fective. What is also important to consider is that if the music
impacts our clients in this way then it must also be affecting
the therapist at the same time. This is a situation that has never
been adequately addressed by our profession (Kenney, 1989).
The implication of all this for the profession of music ther­
apy is that we may want and need to become much more
Downloaded from http://mtp.oxfordjournals.org/ at Brunel University on May 26, 2015
involved in research in the area of sound healing and its ap­
plication to clinical practice. If these effects are occurring,
they may be influencing or hindering the effectiveness of our
therapeutic interventions without us knowing it. There are a
number of potential research topics related to this approach
that could be of interest to music therapists. Some examples
might include a comparison of self-generated tone and exter­
nal tone projected into the body on some physiological mea­
surement to determine which has the greater effect. Controlled
studies of the behavioral changes reported for clients like chil­
dren with autism after treatment with the Tomatis method
could be conducted. Analysis of sound combinations used in
traditional healing songs could be done and tested for any
consistent behavioral, emotional, or physiological changes in
subjects. Research on the application of the sound healing
methods of Sharry Edwards to a population with learning dis­
abilities is being completed by one of the authors. After find­
ing the missing keynote of a client (Edwards, 1992) music in
that keynote was incorporated in a traditional music therapy
session to see if music in the client’s keynote provided addi­
tional benefit when used with other music therapy interven­
tions. The addition of awareness of sound healing principles
would not replace our current phenomenological, behavioral,
psychodynamic approaches but could, in fact, make all our
work more effective, consistent, and replicable.
It is the opinion of the authors that music therapy and sound
healing are related and may be two facets of a continuum of
healing with sound and music. Currently, there is a growing
interest in sound healing methods in this country and a pro­
liferation of sound healing practitioners. The Sound Healers
Association was founded in 1984 to support and promote
sound healing practices. Initial organizational meetings of the
Sound Healers Association held in New England as early as
1992 attracted over three hundred people. With a current
membership of two hundred and fifty people, they have re­
cently published a Sound Healers Association international
Directory (1995) which contains over three hundred entries.
Executive Director, Jonathan Goldman, estimates that this re­
flects less than a tenth of the sound healing practitioners in
the United States (J. Goldman, personal communication, De­
cember 16, 1995). The Institute for Music, Health, and Edu-
28 Music Therapy Perspectives (1996), Vol. 14

Becker, R. 0., & Selden. G. (1985). The body electric. New York: Quill.
cation, founded by Don Campbell, now has over eight hun­
Benor, D. J. (1994). Healing research: Holistic energy medicine and spirituality
dred students in toning courses and mystery sound schools
Great Britain: Helix Editions.
and over fourteen hundred individuals on their mailing list. Berendt, J. E. (1987). Nada Brahma. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books
Executive Director Christine Harris estimates that 10% of Bonny, H., & Savary. L. (1973). Music and your mind. New York: Station Hill
these individuals are music therapists (C. Harris, personal Press

communication, December 16, 1995). Bonny, H. (1978). The role of taped music programs in the GIM process. Mono­
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Borg, S. G. (1994). Resonant kinesiology Paper presented a, the Second Annual
Sound Healers Colloquium, Epping, NH
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and sound healing are related and may be two fac­ Schneider (Ed.), Music therapy 1961. Lawrence, KS. National Association for Music

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England. Nevelle Spearman Publications.
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denced by the number of conferences related to sound heal­ Sounds.

ing occurring over the last several years. The co-authors of Campbell, D. (1992). Music and miracles. Wheaton, IL. Quest Books.
Campbell, D. (1994, June). Analysis and application of tone and breath. Paper
this article have attended and presented at the three “Sound
presented at the annual meeting of the Institute for Music, Health. and Education,
Healers Colloquium” held each fall since 1993 in New
Boulder, CO.
Hampshire and other similar conferences including “Healing Chesky, C.. & Michel. D. (1991). The Music Vibration Table (MTVm): Developing
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Christine Harris, co-director of the Colloquium, reports that 32-38

80% of the six hundred people who have attended the three Clair, A, Bernstein, B, & Johnson. G. (1995). Rhythm playing characteristics in
persons with severe dementia including those with probable Alzheimer’s disease.
conferences are practicing sound healers (C. Harris, personal
Journal Music Therapy, 32(2), 113-l30.
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a wide variety of literature and advertising brochures are avail­ nous people. Paper presented at the annual conference of the National Association
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programs in sound healing, and instruments and electronic Edwards, S. (1992). Signature sound technologies Athens, OH, Signature Sound

equipment designed for healing purposes. Similarly, the Ome­ Works.

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Forinash, M. (1995). Phenomenological research. In B. Wheeler (Ed.), Music ther­
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