Kinetic Molecular Theory
- Particles are in constant motion
- No attraction/repulsion between particles
- Greater distance between particles than its size.
- Speed of particles increases with increasing
temperature.
●Pressure
▪ Force exerted on the walls of a container per area
▪ Units: Pascal (Pa), atmosphere (atm), Torr,
millimeter of mercury (mmHg)
▪ Unit conversion:
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 760 Torr ≈ 760 mmHg
●Boyle’s Law: PiVi = PfVf
- pressure is inversely proportional to volume
●Charles’s Law: Vi/Ti = Vf/ Tf
- volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature
●Gay-Lussac’s Law: Pi/Ti = Pf/ Tf
- pressure is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature
●Avogadro’s Law: Vi/ni = Vf/nf
-volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
amount of gas
●Ideal Gas Equation: PV = nRT
where:R=ideal gas constant =0.08206 L atm/mol K
●Standard Time and Pressure
▪Standard P= 1 atm=760 torr=76- mmHg
▪Standard T= 0 C° = 273 K
▪Standard Molar Volume of Ideal Gas: 22.4 L
Density
P=Mass/Volume
Quiz Problem Steps (Density)
1. PV=nRT 2. Remove n 3. MW÷computed value
Check ionic formula: electronegativity values
 Molar Volume:RT/P; at STP=22.4 L
Intermolecular Forces Of Attraction
▪Intramolecular Forces (Stronger)- within a molecule
▪Intermolecular Forces (Weaker)- between molecules
▪Ion2x-IonDipole-HydrogenB-Dipole(2x)-LondonD▪
●LONDON DISPERSION
-instantaneous, or momentary, dipole moment.
-instantaneous attraction is called dispersion force;
occurs only when molecules are very close together.
-Strength depends on: Polarizability/Molecular Shape
- greater polarizability, the more easily the electron
cloud can be distorted, larger the dispersion force.
- Increased strength with increasing molecular weight
and size.
●DIPOLE-DIPOLE
- permanent dipole moment in polar molecules
- Electrostatic interaction between δ+ end of one
molecule and δ- end of one molecule.
- Increasing polarity, Increasing strength of DDF
●HYDROGEN BONDING
- Dipole-dipole interaction present between H atom in
a polar bond (H-F, H-O, H-N) and non-bonding
electron pair on a nearby small electronegative ion
(usually F, O, N) in another molecule.
- H-bonds are much weaker than covalent bonds.
●ION-DIPOLE
- ions- atoms/molecules that have net charge
- ions will stick to + or - side of dipoles
Cations- positive (+) ; Anions- Negative (-)
- Stronger attraction:
▪charge in cations are more concentrated
▪smaller; can interact more with the polar molecule
-Increases as ionic charge and magnitude(size) of
dipole increases.
Chemical Bonding and Chemical Structure
●Valence Electrons: Outermost electrons
- s and p electrons for main group elements
- Responsible for chemical properties & reactions
●Reactivity: indicates how likely an element is
to undergo a chemical change
▪Most reactive: Group 1 and 17 ▪Least reactive: G 18
●Octet Rule:The tendency for atoms to seek 8
electrons in their outer shells
– Done by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons
– Increases stability – H and He seek a “Duet”
●Ionic Bonding
Anion: (-) charged atom / Cation: (+) charged atom
- Ionic Bond: a bond formed through the transfer of
electrons - omni-directional
- Can dissociate into free ions
●Covalent Compounds
- compounds composed of atoms bonded to each
other through the sharing of electrons
- No + or – charges on atoms
- Non-metal + Non-metal - Also called “molecules”
●Electronegativity
- The ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself
– Increases across period (left to right) and
– Decreases down group (top to bottom)
– F is the most electronegative/ Fr is the least
●Types of Bonding
1) Non-Polar Covalent Bond:
- Difference in EN is 0.0 – 0.4
- Electrons in molecule are equally shared
2) Polar Covalent Bond: Difference in EN is 0.4 – 1.7.
- not equally shared - The atom with the higher EN
value pulls the electron cloud towards itself
-Partial charges
3) Ionic Bond: Difference in EN above 1.7-2.0
- Complete transfer of electron(s) - Whole charges
●Lewis Dot Structure:
1) Count the number of valence electrons present.
2) Arrange atoms. Center= least occuring
3) Place any remaining electrons around the terminal
atoms to satisfy the octet rule. ▪Exception: Hydrogen
4) Satisfy the octet rule.
5. Check. If central atom does not satisfy octet rule
change single bonds to multiple bonds.
●What Things Like To Do
1) Halogens - Terminal -1 bonding pair & 3 lone pairs
2) Carbon- 4 bonding pairs & no lone pairs
- Likes to bond to other carbons - Likes to be central
3) Silicon-Likes to do what carbon does
4) Oxygen- 2 bonding pairs & 2 lone pair
5) Sulfur: Likes to do what O does
6) Nitrogen- 3 bonding pairs & 1 lone pair
7) Phosphorous: Likes to do what N does
8) Hydrogen- Terminal with 1 bond - No lone pairs
9) Boron - 3 bonds and no lone pairs - sextet (6 ve)
10) *Note: ▪A double bond = 2 bonding pairs
▪A triple bond = 3 bonding pairs
●Drawing Resonance Structures
1. Draw first Lewis structure that maximizes octets.
2. Assign formal charges
3. Move electron pairs from atoms with (-) formal
charge toward atoms with (+) formal charge
●Formal Charge
- Assigned charge for each atom in a molecule/ion
– Sum must equal the total charge of molecule/ion
▪FC= Valence e-’s – Lone Pair e-’s – 1⁄2 bonding e-‘s
Properties of Liquids
1.1 Surface Tension- is the energy, or work, required
to increase the surface area of a liquid. It can also be
described as the tendency of a liquid’s surface to
resist rupture when placed under tension or stress.
▪Cohesion - attraction of molecules to same kind.
▪Adhesion - attraction of molecules to different kind.
▪Capillary Action- upward motion against gravity
1.2 Viscosity- a liquid’s resistance to flow.
▪Stronger the InterM forces, the greater the viscosity.
1.3 Enthalpy of Vaporization
▪Vaporization or Evaporation- passage from the
surface of a liquid into the gaseous, or vapor, state.
▪Vaporization occurs more readily with:
- increased temperature & surface area of the liquid
- decreased strength of intermolecular forces
▪Enthalpy of Vaporization (∆vapH)- quantity of heat
that must be absorbed to vaporize one mole of liquid
at constant T&P. - uses kJ mol−1
▪Condensation- conversion of a gas/vapor to a liquid.
1.4 Vapor Pressure
▪Dynamic Equilibrium- a condition in which the
amount of vapor remains constant.
- always implies that two opposing processes are
occurring simultaneously and at equal rates.
▪Vapor Pressure- pressure exerted by a vapor in
dynamic equilibrium with its liquid. High=Volatile.
▪The weaker these InterM Forces, the more volatile
the liquid (the higher its vapor pressure).
▪Vapor pressure increases with temperature.
1.5 Boiling- occurs when the pressure exerted by
escaping molecules equals that exerted by molecules
of the atmosphere.
▪Boiling Point - is the temperature at which its vapor
pressure is equal to the pressure of the gas above it.
1.6 Critical Point- is the point at which the liquid and
vapor become indistinguishable.
▪The density of liquid decreases, that of the vapor
increases, and the two densities become equal.
▪The surfac
e tension of the liquid approaches zero. ▪The interface
between the liquid and vapor becomes less distinct
and eventually disappears.
●Properties of Solids
2.1 Melting- the process of a solid becoming a liquid.
- occurs when the molecules of a solid speed up
enough that the motion overcomes the attractions so
the molecules can move past each other as liquid.
▪Melting point-the temp at which melting occurs
▪Freezing: the reverse of melting
▪Freezing point: the temp at which freezing occurs
▪Enthalpy of fusion, ∆fusH: the quantity of heat
required to melt a solid.
▪Cooling/Heating curve: plot of temp against time.
2.2 Sublimation and Deposition
▪Sublimation: from the solid to the vapor state.
▪Deposition: from the vapor to the solid state
▪Enthalpy of sublimation, ∆subH: the quantity of heat
needed to convert a solid to vapor.
▪Triple Point-3 states of matter coexist in equilibrium.
1. Solutions - homogeneous- uniformcomposition
and properties; mixture- contains two or more
substances in proportions
▪Solvent- the component that is present in the
greatest quantity or that determines state of matter.
▪Solute- is a substance dissolved in the solvent.
• Concentrated solution: contains a relatively large
quantity of dissolved solute(s)
• Dilute solution: small quantity of dissolved solute(s)
2. Solution Concentration- amount of solute present.
▪Concentration =amount of solute/amount of solution
2.1 Molarity- molar concentration, M, is the number
of moles of solute per liter of solution.
▪M = mol solute/L solution
Steps: Molar Concentration
1. grams x 1 mol/(g/mol) 2. Divide by volume (L)
Steps: Preparation
1. Multiply L to molarity given 2. Multiply to molar
mass 3. Divide if not whole liter.
2.2 Molality- the number of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent (not of solution).
▪M =mol solute/kg solvent
Steps: Molality
1. grams x molecular weight 2. Divide by solvent
2.3 Percent Concentration
weight percent (w/w)= weight solute/weight solution
volume percent (v/v)=volume solute/volume solution
weight/volume percent (w/v) = weight solute, g/
volume solution, mL
 Solution Dilution
1. Dilution - is the process whereby the concentration
of a solution is reduced by the addition of solvent.
▪Stock Solutions-fairly concentrated solutions
▪When a volume of a solution is diluted, the amount
of solute remains constant:
M1V1 = M2V2
where M = molar concentration, V = volume, and the
subscripts 1 and 2 indicate initial (stock)
and final (dilute) solutions, respectively.
Gabriel Angelo E. San Jose
STEM 12-1
-Lesson
-How to; Steps