BUGEMA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT

INSTITUTE OF PROFESSIONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

IN SERVICE PROGRAMM

PAPER : ORAL LITERATURE AND POETRY

COURSE CODE : BPLE 252

SESSION : SECOND YEAR SEMETER TWO

INSTRUCTOR : NANSUBUGA MAYI

(0772633825)
Definition
Oral literature, sometimes called orature, verbal arts or oral tradition is a spoken, acted or
performed art whose media is words. It is passed on from one generation to the other by word of
mouth.

0r

Definition: oral literature is Spoken, acted and performed art whose main focus is presentation
or performance.

Folklore and oral tradition

folk literature, also called folklore or oral tradition, the lore (traditional knowledge and
beliefs) of cultures having no written language. It is transmitted by word of mouth and consists,
as does written literature, of both prose and verse narratives, poems and songs, myths, dramas,
rituals, proverbs, riddles, and the like. Nearly all known peoples, now or in the past, have
produced it.

The nature of oral traditions

Nor can any evolution in folk literature or any overall developments be spoken of explicitly.
Each group of people, no matter how small or large, has handled its folk literature in its own
way. Depending as it does upon the transmission from person to person and being subject to the
skill or the lack of skill of those who pass it on and to the many influences, physical or social,
that consciously or unconsciously affect a tradition, what may be observed is a history of
continual change. An item of folk literature sometimes shows relative stability and sometimes
undergoes drastic transformations. If these changes are looked at from a modern Western point
of view, ethnocentric judgments can be made as to whether they are on the whole favourable or
unfavourable. But it must be remembered that the folk listening to or participating in its oral
literature have completely different standards from those of their interpreters.

Characteristics/Features of Oral Literature 

The concept of an oral literature is an unfamiliar one to most people brought up in cultures

which, like those of contemporary Europe, lay stress on the idea of literacy and written tradition.
Nevertheless, there are certain definite characteristics of this form of art which arise from its oral
nature, and it is important at the outset to point to the implications of these. They need to be
understood before we can appreciate the status and qualities of many of these African literary
forms;
 1. Oral literature is based on the actual performance. Oral literature is by definition
dependent on a performer who formulates it in words on a specific occasion—there is no
other way in which it can be realized as a literary product. This point is obvious if we
consider literary forms designed to be delivered to an audience even in more familiar
literate cultures. If we take forms like a play/drama, we understand that they become
effective if presented on stage than read as a book.

2.       Oral literature is transmitted through words of mouth. The term ‘oral’ by itself means
spoken rather than written. So Oral Literature uses the words of mouth (spoken form) as its
medium of presenting the message to the audience. The audience receive the message by
listening and watching.
3.       In oral literature the artist and the audience have a face to face contact. Since the artist
meets with his public face to face he can take advantage of this to enhance the impact as well
as be influenced by. Sometimes he chooses to involve his listeners directly, as in story-telling
situations where it is common for the narrator to open with a phrase which arouses his
audience’s attention; he  also often expects them to participate actively in the narration and,
in particular, to join in the choruses of songs which he introduces into the narrative.

4.       Oral literature is contextual. It improvises the local environment and the time in which it
is presented. The narrator telling a story around Lake zone may say “the hippo disappeared
into the lake” but the same story may use the clause “the hippo disappeared into the sea” if
told in Dar-es-Salaam. Even within the same culture there may be many set styles of
performance designed to suit the different literary genres recognized in the culture. Indeed,
these genres are sometimes primarily distinguished from each other in terms of their media of
performance rather than their content or purpose.

5.       Oral literature is born, grows, lives and dies. Due to the development of science and
technology, oral literature is affected dramatically in its lifespan. While it is true that oral
literature is older than its written counterpart, it faces tremendous threats from the rapid
development of science and technology in its growth, spread and survival. As most oral
literature works are being preserved in other forms than human memory, they begin to lose
 their oral flavour. Today we have works stored in CDs, DVDs, Tapes, Computers, memory
cards, books, etc. so oral literature has lost its oral quality and some works are now extinct.

6.       Oral literature is performed in special venues like theatres. This can be a building or an
outdoor area where plays and similar types of entertainment are performed. These are used
for live performances by live actors to a live audience. This is one of the things that are at
risk of extinction since there are hardly any theatres in most contemporary societies today.
People sit at home and watch TV dramas, movies and films than going to the theatres for live
performances.

DEFFERENCE BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN LITERATURE

ORAL LITERATURE WRITTEN LITERATURE

        It presented/delivered through the words of It presented/delivered in written document.

mouth. It is given orally It involves writing.

        Is not selective exact both literate and Is selective only educated one’s are
deliterate one’s are involved and enjoyed. It involved. It is not a property of whole
is property of whole society. society.

        Must be done when there is an audience It can be done even by one person that is
the speaker and hearer. writer.

        Is older than written literature. It passed It is not older. It comes after the invention
generation to generation from the time of science and technology.
ancestors

        It is flexible, that it can undergo changes Is not flexible and cannot undergo changes
easily in the cause of speaking. easily.

        It less expensive, it does not need any cost Is expensive, it presented by using written
when somebody speaks. document, one’s needs to buy like pens,
papers, or text book.

There are various advantages of oral literature:

  It can be given anywhere and at any time. This form of literature is transmitted
from one person to another by any adult who has knowledge of some historical
facts.

 Oral literature is less expensive form of literature as compared to other sources

of historical information such as books and museums. The main reason behind
this is that for this kind of literature, one does not need to sell or buy any kind of
information.

 For oral literature, the speakers as well as the listeners do not necessarily master
themselves in reading and writing.

 While narrating stories, if certain questions arise in the minds of the listeners, the
latter can ask questions to the speakers in order to gain in-depth information.

Functions of oral literature

1. For entertainment

2. To create self-awareness—oral literature makes us understand ourselves.

3. Oral literature teaches us about our history and this enables us to understand and
interpret it.

4. The teaching of Oral literature promotes nation building and intercultural

understanding, thus helping creating harmony in a nation.

5. Oral literature sharpens and develops language skills such as speech, listening,
creativity, wit etc.

Major Forms of Oral literature

There are various kinds of oral literature
1. Mythological stories that explain objects or events in the natural world
as resulting from the action of a supernatural force or entity (a god).
2. Legends are stories coming down from the past, often based on real
events. These are also often regarded as historical. Sometimes they may
have certain parts that are fantastic or unverifiable.
Folk Tales are brief stories passed by word of mouth from generation to generation.
Tell Tales are also folk tales. They are often light hearted as well as
humorous in tone. They contain highly exaggerated unrealistic elements.
Fairly Tales are stories that deal with mischievous spirits and other
supernatural occurrences, often in a medieval setting.
Parables are very brief stories which are told with the purpose of
teaching a moral lesson to the younger generation.

Ogre/ monster narratives

 Involve interaction between ogres/ monsters and human beings.

 Involve creatures from human imagination and fantasy (unreality).
 Creatures have the ability turn themselves into human forms.
 Creatures always take advantage of the vulnerable/ weak in the society.
 Monsters/ ogres are pursued/ hunted by heroes/ heroines.
 Teach a moral lesson.

Fables

 Involve animal characters.

 The animal characters give human qualities and attributes (traits) – personified.
 Derived from particular backgrounds.
 Politely teach social norms/ standards/ rules.
 Teach a moral lesson.
Spirituals: They are the religious songs which are a part of African- American
traditions.
 3. Epics: An epic is a long story which is often told in verse. An epic
includes heroes and gods. Epics have often been passed on orally from
one generation to another. There are no known authors of these epics.
These stories are penned down by anonymous authors. They are grand in
length as well as in scope. An epic provides a portrait of legends, beliefs,
laws, arts and ways of life of people.
4. Proverbs: Proverbs are traditional sayings that do not simply have a
surface level meaning but also a hidden meaning.
Short Fixed Form

The Fixed forms include:

1. Metaphor

Metaphors, also known as direct comparisons, are one of the most common literary devices. A
metaphor is a statement in which two objects, often unrelated, are compared to each other.

Example of metaphor: This tree is the god of the forest.

Obviously, the tree is not a god—it is, in fact, a tree. However, by stating that the tree is the god,
the reader is given the image of something strong, large, and immovable. Additionally, using
“god” to describe the tree, rather than a word like “giant” or “gargantuan,” makes the tree feel
like a spiritual center of the forest.

Metaphors allow the writer to pack multiple descriptions and images into one short sentence. The
metaphor has much more weight and value than a direct description. If the writer chose to
describe the tree as “the large, spiritual center of the forest,” the reader won’t understand the full
importance of the tree’s size and scope.

2. Simile

Similes, also known as indirect comparisons, are similar in construction to metaphors, but they
imply a different meaning. Like metaphors, two unrelated objects are being compared to each
other. Unlike a metaphor, the comparison relies on the words “like” or “as.”

Example of simile: This tree is like the god of the forest.

OR: This tree acts as the god of the forest.

What is the difference between a simile and a metaphor?

The obvious difference between these two common literary devices is that a simile uses “like” or
“as,” whereas a metaphor never uses these comparison words.

Additionally, in reference to the above examples, the insertion of “like” or “as” creates a degree
of separation between both elements of the device. In a simile, the reader understands that,
although the tree is certainly large, it isn’t large enough to be a god; the tree’s “godhood” is
simply a description, not a relevant piece of information to the poem or story.

Simply put, metaphors are better to use as a central device within the poem/story, encompassing
the core of what you are trying to say. Similes are better as a supporting device.

Does that mean metaphors are better than similes? Absolutely not. Consider Louise Gluck’s
poem “The Past.” Gluck uses both a simile and a metaphor to describe the sound of the wind: it
is like shadows moving, but is her mother’s voice. Both devices are equally haunting, and ending
the poem on the mother’s voice tells us the central emotion of the poem.

Learn more about the difference between similes and metaphors here:

Simile and Metaphor Writing Exercise: Tenors and Vehicles

Most metaphors and similes have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor refers to the
subject being described, and the vehicle refers to the image that describes the tenor.

So, in the metaphor “the tree is a god of the forest,” the tenor is the tree and the vehicle is “god
of the forest.”

To practice writing metaphors and similes, let’s create some literary device lists. grab a sheet of
paper and write down two lists. In the first list, write down “concept words”—words that cannot
be physically touched. Love, hate, peace, war, happiness, and anger are all concepts because they
can all be described but are not physical objects in themselves.

In the second list, write down only  concrete objects—trees, clouds, the moon, Jupiter, New York
brownstones, uncut sapphires, etc.

Your concepts are your tenors, and your concrete objects are your vehicles. Now, randomly draw
a one between each tenor and each vehicle, then write an explanation for your metaphor/simile.
You might write, say:

“Peace, like an uncut sapphire, gleams with labor.”

Have fun, write interesting literary devices, and try to incorporate them into a future poem or
story!
Riddles

A riddle is a question, statement or description in a figurative language that is intended to test the
listener’s ability to use their wits to unravel the meaning.
Riddles are words puzzles in which familiar objects or situation are referred to in a figurative
terms for us to decipher what is actually meant.

Characteristics of Riddles

✤ Riddles are word puzzles: a game where you have to think about carefully in order to Answer.

✤ They have an opening formula ‘riddle riddle’

✤ Riddles are short witty statements usually clever and amusing.

✤ Riddles use the question—Answer format e.g. q..I have a riddle?

Classification of Riddles

1. Declarative riddles are described in form of a statement. E.g. Catch my tail and
we go. Ans.

A jembe.

2. Interogative riddles poses questions to be  Answered e.g. What is bouncing in the

house? Ans. A churning gourd.

3. Idiophonic/ sound riddles—it employs idiophones that should be unravelled. E.g.

Huyu huyu poa!

Ans. A night runner.

4. Simple riddles. They are brief e.g. Water standing up?  Ans. Sugarcane.

5. Epigrammatic/ Complex riddles—Such riddles are presented as a series of

puzzles. E.g.

- The four-legged sitting on the four-legged waiting for the four-legged.  Ans. A cat
sitting on a table waiting for a rat.

6. Riddles on people e.g. Best food for a baby.  Ans. Sleep.

7. Riddles on plants. E.g. What tree has only one thorn?  Ans. A sisal plant.

8. Riddles on parts of the body. E.g.

- Thirty-two seated, one lady dancing.  Ans. Teeth and the tongue.

- Four gates that produce water. Ans. A cow’s udder.

9. Riddles on waste products. E.g. A hill on the veranda.  Ans. Excrement.

10. Riddles on modern technology. E.g. A camera on my body.  Ans. Eyes.

11. Riddles on natural phenomena. E.g. When dressed she isn’t as beautiful as when
naked. Ans. The moon.

12. Riddles on animals. E.g. The white lady in the office.  Ans. The jigger.

Functions of Riddles

✤ For entertainment or fun and humour

✤ For sharpening wit/ to enlarge our imagination

✤ To expand our knowledge of the environment

✤ To enhance our figurative use of language or creativity e.g. describing things

without naming them

✤ To teach values and morals

✤ To pass a secret message by old people

Tongue Twisters

✤ A tongue twister is a word game that is intended to test a speaker’s fluency to utter

without hesitation or faltering a sequence of words with particular problems of articulation.

Characteristics of Tongue Twisters

 A tongue twister is a word game that plays on words with problems of articulation

It employs alliteration, assonance and consonance

✤ They are mostly ungrammatical or they need not make sense.

✤ They are brief

Functions of Tongue Twisters

✤ They entertain or create fun

✤ They aid in learning pronunciation

✤ Enhances confidence by helping one overcome shyness and enjoy communication

✤ They help train concentration and memorization

✤ They promote creativity

✤ They help develop one’s ability to recite

✤ They help one to learn a foreign language with particular problems of articulation

Examples of Tongue Twisters

 She sells sea shells on the sea shore

 A disorganised organizer cannot organize a disorganized organization

✤ The red long lorry rolled down the long Limuru road

✤ Four hundred and forty four frightened fools fought for food

✤ Peter Piper picked a peck of speckled pepper

✤ How high up has he heaved his heavy hoe?

Songs and Recitations/oral poems

Highlight Features of Songs and Oral Poetry

 Repetition
 Transliteration/ direct translation
 Direct address/ Apostrophe
 Short stanzas/ lines
 Parallelism; uniformity in structure
 Simple vocabulary.
 Figurative language.
 Stylistic Devices Used in Songs
Describe the Poetic Language/Structure Evident in Songs

 Repetition/ refrain
 Rhetorical/ rhetoric questions
 Similes
 Metaphors
 Rhythm
 Rhyme
 Verse form
 Apostrophe/ Direct Address

Categories or Genres of Songs and Oral Poems

 Work songs
 Love songs
 Political songs
 Religious/ sacred songs
 Wedding songs
 Topical songs.
 Initiation/ circumcision songs
 Funeral songs/ dirges
 War songs
 Teasing/ satirical songs
 Praise/ panegyric songs.
 Lullaby songs
 Children’s play songs/ singing games

 Child naming songs

 Love Songs

 Express love for the opposite sex; woo them.

 They can express sorrow at being rejected.
 Either performed by a group or individual.
 They are romantic in nature.
 They can involve dialogue between lovers.

Wedding Songs

 They are sung by the bride and/ or her companions.

 They are characterized by pomp/ show and celebration.
 They are usually accompanied by drums, shakers, jingles etc
 Praise the pride and groom and their family.
 Express the role of the bride and that of the groom.
 Express sorrow of leaving home and parting with friends.
 Warn of the challenges likely to be faced at groom’s place.
 Enhance happy mood during the wedding time.

War Songs

 They are sung in preparation for, during and after war by warriors.
 They are highly repetitive.
 Express fighter’s prowess/ heroism and courage.
 Are exaggerated.
 May scorn/ condemn opponent.
 Praise political leaders.
 Sung with lots of gusto/ enthusiasm/ passion/ enjoyment/ delight/ pleasure/ zest.

Sacred Songs

 They have stanzas and a chorus.

 They are structurally repetitive.
 They are slow and solemn.
 They have steady rhythm.
 They address a supreme being and emphasize people’s helplessness.

Work Songs

 They are hardly accompanied except with sounds of work tools.

 They are fast so as to create rhythm for work.
 They are repeated over to last the duration of the job at hand.
 They may extol/ praise hardwork and denounce/ condemn laziness.
 They may ridicule/ condemn/ deride a known miser or lazy person in the community.

Initiation/ Circumcision Songs

 They are sung by initiates and elders.

 They have elaborate accompaniments like shakers, horns, drums etc
 They encourage the initiates to be brave.
 They mock cowardice.
 They emphasize the new roles of the initiates as men and women the community.
 They appreciate forefathers of the community for upholding and bequeathing/ living this
tradition for them.
 They raise the bravery of the initiates.

Dirges/ Funeral Songs

 They are sung by mourners.

 They are somber/ sad/ melancholic.
 They are repetitive.
 They may be fast or slow.
 They are accompanied with a lot of drumming and dancing to cheer up the bereaved.
 They express sorrow and disbelief at the loss of loved one.
 They praise the achievement and virtues of the dead.

Lullabies

 They are sung softly.

 Are repetitive.
 Have slow rocking rhythm.
 Have soothing words that even lying to the child. Some lie that mother has gone away to
bring the child a tantalizing/ enticing/alluring gift.

Singing Games

 They are short and quick-changing from song to song to avoid children getting bored.
 They are repetitive.
 They are characterized with mockery/ ridicule.
 Are highly playful.

 Are rhythmic.

INTRODUCTION TO POETRY
 This refers to literary work in which the expression of feelings and ideas is given
intensity by the use of distinctive style and rhythm, poems collectively or as a genre of
literature.
 Poetry is a form of literature that uses authentic and often rhythmic qualities of language
Elements/ forms of Poetry
 Meter
 Rhythm(timing)
 Form
 Sound
 Rhyme

Poetic Devices
The term "poetic device" refers to anything used by a poet—including sounds, shapes, rhythms,
phrases, and words—to enhance the literal meaning of their poem

1: Fixed Verse
Fixed verse poems follow traditional forms, based on formal rhyme schemes and specific
patterns of stanza, refrain, and meter.
Types of fixed verse include limerick, haiku, ballad, villanelle, sestina, and rondeau. The most
used, however, are odes and sonnets.

Odes

Odes are short, lyrical poems that are used to express emotions and praise. The Ode originated in
ancient Greece as a way of praising an athletic victory, but later was adopted by the Romantics to
convey emotion through intense or lofty language

Sonnets

Perhaps the most famous type of fixed verse, the sonnet uses iambic pentameter in a fourteen-
line poem, with a rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg.

2: Blank verse
Blank verse poems comprise unrhymed lines that use a regular meter—basically, a non-rhyming
iambic pentameter.

Blank verse is the most influential of all English poetical forms and has regularly been used by
all the great poets throughout the centuries.

 Free Verse
Free verse poems remove the need for both formal rhyme and formal metric rhythm schemes.
This allows the poem to be shaped completely by the poet. Removing this formality often allows
the poet a far greater canvas on which to play.

Poetic Devices—Diction
Next, we’ll look at devices of poetic diction. "Poetic diction" means the sounds, meanings,
and rhythms that make up the language or "operating system" of poetry. These types of devices
are what the poet uses to establish the feel and atmosphere of the poem.

Poetic Devices of Sound

These are poetic devices that use specific sonic effects to evoke emotions or thoughts, in the
readers of the poem. The following examples represent some of the most common sonic literary
devices in poetry:

#4. Alliteration
Alliteration is when two or more words start with the same consonant sound are used to
emphasize an idea or action and create an emotional response.

5. Assonance
 Whereas alliteration repeats the same consonant sounds at the start of words, assonance is
repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere within the word) on the same or following lines of a poem
to give a musical, internal rhyme. The sound will be a vowel sound, but doesn’t have to use a
vowel, meaning you could rhyme some and mud, for example.

6: Consonance
Consonance is a similar device to alliteration and assonance in that it involves repetition of
sounds. But consonance consists of repeating consonant sounds at the end (and sometimes
middle) rather than beginning of words.

7: Cacophony
Cacophony involves the use of unpleasant, nasty, or harsh sounds (mainly consonants) to give
the impression of chaos, disorder or dread, as in Lewis Carroll’s poem Jabberwocky:

Beware the Jabberwock, my son!

The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!

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BlogThe Writing ProcessThe 27 Poetic Devices You Need to Know

The 27 Poetic Devices You Need to Know

Alex Simmonds
Freelance Copywriter

Published Apr 27, 2022

 TAGS:
writing fiction
writing style
literary devices

The term "poetic device" refers to anything used by a poet—including sounds, shapes, rhythms,
phrases, and words—to enhance the literal meaning of their poem. This could mean using
rhythm and sound to pull the reader into the world of the poem, or adding figurative meaning to
their literal words.

Contents:

1. How Many Poetic Devices Are There?

2. Poetic Devices—Form
3. Poetic Devices—Diction
4. Poetic Devices—Punctuation
5. How to Identify Poetic Devices
How Many Poetic Devices Are There?
There are hundreds, possibly even thousands, of different literary devices open to poets, some of
them very obscure having not been used for centuries, and so this article will divide them into
categories—Poetic Form, Poetic Diction, and Poetic Punctuation—and concentrate on the
most used poetic devices, with examples, in each category.

Poetic Devices—Form
First, we’ll look at poetic devices relating to form. Poetic form refers to how the poem is
structured using stanzas, line length, rhyme, and rhythm. Clever use of poetic form can enhance
the meaning or emotion the poet is trying to achieve.

What Are the Basic Poetic Devices of Form?

Again, there are a huge variety of formal choices open to a poet, but for the purposes of this
article we can divide them into three categories: fixed verse, blank verse and free verse.

#1: Fixed Verse

Fixed verse poems follow traditional forms, based on formal rhyme schemes and specific
patterns of stanza, refrain, and meter.

Types of fixed verse include limerick, haiku, ballad, villanelle, sestina, and rondeau. The most

used, however, are odes and sonnets.

Odes

Odes are short, lyrical poems that are used to express emotions and praise. The Ode originated in
ancient Greece as a way of praising an athletic victory, but later was adopted by the Romantics to
convey emotion through intense or lofty language.

Odes vary in style and form but are nearly always formally structured. One of the most famous
examples is Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind which is a poem written in iambic pentameter
(combining an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable in groups of five.) The poem
praises the quality of the wind and is a strong invocation of the poet as bringer of political
change:
Sonnets

Perhaps the most famous type of fixed verse, the sonnet uses iambic pentameter in a fourteen-
line poem, with a rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg.

This fixed rhyme scheme can prompt unconventional phrasing, and gives the sonnet a sense of
superiority over conventional speech, whilst at the same time the rhythm of the iambic
pentameter keeps it feeling natural.

The sonnet has traditionally been used as a way of declaring love, most famously by Shakespeare
in his 154-sonnet sequence that dramatized love, beauty, and the passing of time.

Whilst the most famous of these is Sonnet 18 ("Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?")
Sonnet 60, which examines the nature of passing time and its effect on human life, is worth
looking at:
#2: Blank verse
Blank verse poems comprise unrhymed lines that use a regular meter—basically, a non-rhyming
iambic pentameter.

Blank verse is the most influential of all English poetical forms and has regularly been used by
all the great poets throughout the centuries.

Christopher Marlowe used blank verse first, but once again it was Shakespeare who made the
form his own. The most famous example in Shakespeare’s work is the "to be, or not to
be" soliloquy from Hamlet (although in this speech, he doesn’t stick religiously to the ten
syllables of iambic pentameter).

Notice how the rhythm accentuates the feeling of grandness as all of life and death are
considered:
#3: Free Verse
Free verse poems remove the need for both formal rhyme and formal metric rhythm schemes.
This allows the poem to be shaped completely by the poet. Removing this formality often allows
the poet a far greater canvas on which to play.

A fantastic example of free verse poetry is the short, imagist poem This Is Just to Say by William
Carlos Williams.
Poetic Devices—Diction
Next, we’ll look at devices of poetic diction. "Poetic diction" means the sounds, meanings,
and rhythms that make up the language or "operating system" of poetry. These types of devices
are what the poet uses to establish the feel and atmosphere of the poem.

Poetic Devices of Sound

These are poetic devices that use specific sonic effects to evoke emotions or thoughts, in the
readers of the poem. The following examples represent some of the most common sonic literary
devices in poetry:

#4. Alliteration
Alliteration is when two or more words start with the same consonant sound are used to
emphasize an idea or action and create an emotional response.

A snake, slithering slyly, for example, enhances the sense of the snake’s deviousness and danger.
Whereas if a poet uses p’s, d’s or b’s in a row, it gives their poem a strong, booming, drumbeat
like sound:
Bore up his branching head: scarce from his mould
Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved
His vastness

Paradise Lost: The Seventh Book—John Milton

#5. Assonance
Whereas alliteration repeats the same consonant sounds at the start of words, assonance is
repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere within the word) on the same or following lines of a poem
to give a musical, internal rhyme. The sound will be a vowel sound, but doesn’t have to use a
vowel, meaning you could rhyme some and mud, for example.

William Blake is well known for his use of assonance, such as the repeating “i” and “y” sounds
in The Tyger:

#6: Consonance
Consonance is a similar device to alliteration and assonance in that it involves repetition of
sounds. But consonance consists of repeating consonant sounds at the end (and sometimes
middle) rather than beginning of words.
Once again, we can look at The Tyger above, but this time considering the repeated “r” sounds
in burning, bright, and forests. Similarly, the “t” sound is also repeated throughout,
in night, bright, Tyger.

#7: Cacophony
Cacophony involves the use of unpleasant, nasty, or harsh sounds (mainly consonants) to give
the impression of chaos, disorder or dread, as in Lewis Carroll’s poem Jabberwocky:

Beware the Jabberwock, my son!

The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!

#8: Euphony
On the other hand, euphony is the repetition of harmonious, musical sounds that are pleasant to
read or hear. This is achieved through the use of soft consonant sounds such as m, n, w, r, f,
and h and through vibrating consonants such as s, sh, and th.

Poetic Devices of Meaning

Poets also have several poetic devices available which allow them to tease out the intended
meaning of the poem without having to be too literal.

#10: Allusion
Allusion is an indirect reference to a person, place, thing, history, mythology, or work of art, that
the poet wants to acknowledge as relevant to the poem’s meaning.

TS Eliot’s The Waste Land begins with an allusion (indeed the whole poem is packed with
them), announcing "April is the cruellest month, breeding / Lilacs out of the dead land" which
alludes to and contrasts the opening of The Canterbury Tales in which the coming of April is a
joyous occasion.

#11: Conceit
Conceit is an elaborate metaphor that runs throughout the entire poem to compare two things that
do not really belong together. In contrast to simple metaphors though, a conceit will be
something far more fanciful and unlikely.

In To the Harbormaster by Frank O’Hara, for example, the lover is the harbormaster and the
narrator a metaphysical seafarer, trying to reach his lover.

#12: Irony
Irony in poetry refers mainly to ‘dramatic irony’, in which the reader has important knowledge
that the characters do not. The most famous example of this is in Romeo and Juliet, in which
(spoiler alert), the audience knows Juliet isn’t dead, but can’t do anything about Romeo
committing suicide.

#13: Metaphor
Metaphor is used in poetry to directly compare people, objects or ideas. Whereas similes
compare using "like" or "as," metaphors declare that a thing "is" something else—he is the apple
of my eye, for example—in order to to reach for a deeper understanding of the comparison.

14: Paradox
As a poetic device, paradox refers to a phrase that is self-contradictory but reveals a larger truth.
In Julius Caesar, for example, Shakespeare wrote that "Cowards die many times before their
deaths / The valiant never taste of death but once."

#15: Personification
Personification is when an inanimate object, animal or idea is given human characteristics; for
example, "the wind whispered through the trees." Thus in Mirror, Silvia Plath writes from the
perspective of the mirror:

I am silver and exact. I have no preconceptions.

Whatever I see I swallow immediately.

#16: Rhetorical Question

In poetry and literature, a rhetorical question is a question that is not looking for an answer,
rather is being asked to make a point. In the poem cited earlier, Ode to the West Wind, Shelley
asks in the final line:

17: Simile
The simile, like the metaphor, offers another device for comparison. However, a simile is much
more blatant and uses like or as to draw the comparison. Robert Frost uses simile in his
poem Design:

8: Symbolism
Poets use symbolism to convey hidden meanings. Places, objects, and actions can all be symbols,
with many layers of meaning tied to them. Symbolism adds depth to the literal meaning of the
poem.

Thus, in The Pasture, by Robert Frost, "to clean the pasture spring" is to push sin away and "wait
to watch the water clear" is to wait until the heart is sin-free:
I’m going out to clean the pasture spring;
I’ll only stop to rake the leaves away
(And wait to watch the water clear, I may):
I sha’n’t be gone long.—You come too.

The Pasture—Robert Frost

Poetic Devices of Rhythm

Devices of rhythm are those that give the poem a rhythmic effect and in doing so allow the poet
to stress certain elements of meaning and emotion.

#19: Caesura
Caesura means a break or pause in the verse to allow one phrase to finish and another to begin.
This can be used both to allow a natural flow to the poem, or alternatively, to add dramatic
pauses, show contrast and create drama and tension.

For example, Emily Dickinson’s poem I’m Nobody! Who Are You? uses caesura in the
following places:

I’m nobody! || Who are you?

Are you nobody too?
Then there’s a pair of us || Don’t tell!
They’d banish us, || – you know!

#20: Enjambment
Enjambment is the continuation of a phrase or sentence beyond the poetic line break and
sometimes beyond the couplet or stanza, without the pause that you would expect from a full
stop or other punctuation.

It encourages the reader to keep reading, whilst controlling the rhythm and flow of their reading.
This is best exemplified in Between Walls by William Carlos Williams, in which the whole
poem consists of a single sentence split into 10 enjambed lines:

21: Meter
Meter is the rhythm of the poem itself, measured in the length and number of ‘feet’ in each line.
The most widely recognized of these is the iambic pentameter—which we discussed in the
section on sonnet—a form that replicates and amplifies the rhythm of natural speech and gives a
regular, heartbeat like feel to the verse.

The pattern of iambic pentameter—five feet, each containing a stressed and unstressed syllable
—goes like this:

Shall I |comp ARE |thee TO | a SUM| mers DAY?

As well as the iamb, other meters include the anapest (unstressed, unstressed, stressed),
the trochee (stressed, unstressed) and the dactyl (stressed, unstressed, unstressed).

#22: Rhyme
Rhyme is the most obvious of poetic devices, using repeating patterns of similar sounds, to
create musicality and rhythm and give the poem symmetry. One of the most common rhymes is
the couplet, which is two lines that rhyme together.

The following example is a simple two-line poem called The Cow by Ogden Nash:

The cow is of the bovine ilk;

One end is moo, the other, milk.

Whilst this end rhyme form is the most well-known, many poets also utilize internal rhymes. So,
in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Coleridge writes:

In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud

Whiles all the night through fog-smoke white

#23: Repetition
The repetition of certain words or phrases is a method of indirectly stressing emotions or ideas
and reinforcing the central point of the poem. Repetition can be used with words, phrases, lines,
and even full verses.

One of the most famous poems of the 20th century, Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night by
Dylan Thomas, repeats two lines throughout the poem. Here it is within ProWritingAid’s Echoes
report

Tone quality in poetry

the tone is a literary device that conveys the author’s attitude towards the subject they’re writing
about. It might also reflect how they feel about the intended audience.

The creation of tone in a literary work is incredibly important. Here are a few ways that writers
accomplish their desired tone:

 Word choice: for example, uses colloquial diction, slang words, formal language, or

even inside jokes.
 Figurative language: the use of metaphors, similes, hyperbole, etc. These can help the
reader understand how the speaker feels about something.
  Sentence structure: the length of sentences, whether they’re in passive or active voice,
and the arrangement of other words, can influence how the reader thinks about the
narrator/writer and then how they think about the subject.
 Punctuation: including periods, exclamation points, and the use of enjambment.
Common Examples of Tone

 Aggressive
 Appreciative
 Critical
 Defensive
 Depressing
 Evasive
 Formal
 Gullible
 Incredulous
 Ironic
 Sentimental
 World-weary

IMPORTANCES OF POETRY
 Enjoyment - You may simply wish for students to gain an overall appreciation of poetry,
so you can plan your lessons around enjoying the poetry you read.  Have fun with the
rhythm of the words, look for intriguing images, and find poems with inspiring messages
and themes. 
 Literary analysis - In many classes, poetry is studied with an eye on dissecting its
meaning.  The emphasis is on identifying literary techniques like simile and metaphor
and evaluating their effectiveness.  This analytical approach can sometimes hinder
students' enjoyment of poetry, but such analysis is also an important skill, so finding a
balance is key.  · 
  Creative writing, read and understand any text- The focus may also be on leading
students to create their own poetry.  Students experiment with a variety of forms of
poetry as a way of expressing themselves. However, this approach usually involves
reading a wide range of poetry for inspiration.
 Understanding different perspectives
 Can help students respect and understand the few points of people across the globe.
 Allows both students and adults to express emotions in a controlled way
 Poetry teaches us the impact of saying a lot in few words
 Developing the vocabulary in learners ·  
 Developing the skill of literal interpretation (i.e. reading comprehension)
 Poetry is used for advertisement in media and politics to manipulate the people to
make action

b. Specific principle. It includes the following points: ·

 Developing the skill of interaction

1. Exposure to language in conversation
2. Understanding what someone re ally means.
3. Ordering and sequencing in conversation
4. Finding status and relationship ·           
 Developing the skill of critical reading · 

             Developing the skill of critical thinking and creative writing (i.e. skill for imagination)

What can we do as teachers to encourage teaching poetry?

Strategies for Teaching Drama

Connect personal experiences to events in the drama (teachers can help by using good
questioning techniques).

Visualize the characters as you read stage directions.

Evaluate characters' words and actions and determine what motivates them.

Notice character changes.

Compare characters.

Make a three column chart - label the left column, character 1; the middle column, shared traits;
the right column, character

2. Fill in the chart as you read.

Analyze monologues and soliloquies.

Read the play aloud.

Identify the setting.

Evaluate how the setting affects the play's mood.

Identify major and minor conflicts.  

Teaching Prose Teaching prose focuses on increasing student's comprehension of the material
and establishing a personal connection to it. The key is to use a variety of strategies to keep
students interested and involved. "Teaching Strategies" author Leif Danielson states, "As an
overall teaching strategy: You should create the conditions that will elicit the behavior that you
want from your class or an individual student."   

STRATEGIES OF TEACHING A PROSE

1. Choosing Prose
Before you choose to teach anything, read it first. After you read the selection, take the
time to write down a response to it that qualifies how you felt about the piece. If a piece
of prose is unable to stimulate or interest you, it is unlikely to do so for your students.
Afterward, look at the piece from the point of view of your students based on their life
experiences, interests and ages. This helps you pick appropriate and engaging prose.
2. Read
Encourage students to read the material several times if needed. Repeated observation
reveals what they may have missed the first time. Introduce active reading strategies at
the beginning of the course. First, teach them to observe what is on the page -- the facts
and answers to "who, what, when, where, and how." Then encourage them to notice
patterns, connections, repetition or contradictions. Tell them to question everything and
 explain that a situation or item wouldn't be in the text if there wasn't a reason for it.
Lastly, teach students to discover the theme of the text -- what the author intended for
the reader to understand. At the beginning of the course, make sure students understand
literature terminology. They will need to know what the fiction elements are (point of
view, character, setting, plot, structure and theme) and why writers use them. Most
textbooks explain these terms, so have students read about the concepts and then
discuss them during class by using examples from the assigned readings.
3. Write
One of the best ways for students to increase comprehension is to write about the story
they've read. Require students to keep a journal during the course and have them
brainstorm, list or free-write a paragraph immediately after completing the reading.
Depending on the level of the class, create a form with questions to answer as
homework. Other writing assignments also enhance creative and critical thinking. Ask
students to write a continuation of a short story and imagine what would happens next.
Alternately, have them rewrite the ending of a short story, choosing a point in the
action and changing the direction of the plot. You can also require that they change the
gender, age, race or sexual orientation of a character from a story and rewrite the story
or a selected scene. Assign the students a character and have them write a letter to him
or her--or have the students write a letter to the author and tell him or her what they
think of the story.     
4. Discuss
Lecturing helps students understand the material, but creating a discussion involves
students more effectively. Hearing another point of view challenges them to
comprehend the material deeper. During class, ask questions. According to
Saskatchewan Education, "Effective teaching involves asking appropriate questions at
appropriate times and helping students ask their own questions." Small group
discussion gives shy students an opportunity to relate one-on-one. Group four or five
students together and give them a question to discuss. Let someone draw it randomly or
use a question-and-answer form. Bring the smaller discussions back to the class by
having one student report what was discussed.        
5. Integrate
 Technology Integrate technology into your teaching strategies. After reading and
discussing a work, watch the movie version in class. If a movie hasn't been made of
that book, watch a similar one to compare or contrast. View author broadcasts reading
their own work or commenting on it. Assign students to make a movie about the story
or novel. Patty Blome at Scholastic notes that "students develop comprehension and
increase learning while researching characters, storyboarding plots and learning the art
of film-making by translating a novel into a Hollywood-style digital movie."

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN TEACHING CHILDREN LITERATURE

• provide motivating and challenging experiences suitable for the learner’s age, ability and social
maturity

• elicit personal, thoughtful critical responses

• represent a range of styles and literary structures

• have literary merit

• use language effectively and responsibly, and use language that is essential to the work

• broaden students’ understanding of social, historical, geographical and cultural diversity

• develop sensitivity to and an understanding that reflects individual differences such as age,
gender, ethnicity, religion, disability, class and political/social values

While every book listed in this document has received a careful review according to the criteria
listed above, teachers should always exercise particular care in selecting or recommending texts
for classroom study and discussion. Teachers are in the best positions to know both their students
and the communities in which they live. The section entitled Resources in Foundation for the
Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum (pp. 54-56) provides further guidance to
teachers in the selection and presentation of learning resources.

The broad selection of literature listed in this document • includes prose and poetry that deal with
issues and ideas related to children’s experiences and their evolving understanding of themselves
and the world, texts that they perceive as relevant to their own lives
• balances traditional works with more contemporary ones, including works which bring new or
previously neglected voices into the classroom

• allows students to explore their own and others’ cultural and literary heritage

• includes works that can be paired or linked to provide for intertextuality connections

• provides support to each of the four main components of the grades 4 -6 reading program —
guided reading, shared reading, independent reading (at home and at school), and read aloud

• provides support to both the independent and the collaborative writing components of the
grades 4-6 curriculum

Teachers and administrators may continue to refer to An Annotated Bibliography of Children’s

Literature for additional assistance when selecting learning resources for their classrooms and
school resource centers.

References

Drake H B (1963) “An Approach to English Literature for Students Abroad” Oxford
University Press