Whitetopping - State of Practice

Whitetopping—
State of the Practice
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
> Benefits of Whitetopping 1
> Serviceability and Life 1
> Cost Benefits 1
> Remedy for Asphalt Pavement Distress 2
> Safety 3
> Environmental Friendliness 4
Chapter 2 History and Performance 7
Chapter 3 Design Practices, Conventional Whitetopping 19

> Concrete Quality 19
> Slab Thickness Design 20
> Support by the Existing Asphalt Pavement 20
> Design Flexural Strength 21
> Truck Traffic 22
> Design Period 23
> Pavement Thickness 23
> Minimum Slab Thickness 23
> Joint Design 24
> Types of Joints 26
> Load Transfer 26
> Aggregate Interlock 26
> Dowel Bars 26
> Transverse Contraction Joints 27
> Plain Slabs 27
> Reinforced Slabs 28
> Transverse Construction Joints 28
> Longitudinal Contraction Joints 28
> Longitudinal Construction Joints 29
> Isolation and Expansion Joints 30
> Isolation Joints 30
> Expansion Joints 31
> Transitions from Concrete to Asphalt 32
> Inlays 32
Chapter 4 Construction Practices, Conventional Whitetopping 33
> Pre-Overlay Preparation 33
> Direct Placement 33
> Milling Existing Asphalt 34
> Inlays 34
> Leveling Course 34
> Water Fogging and Whitewashing 35
> Placing and Finishing Concrete 36
> Texturing 37
> Protection from Rain 38
> Curing 38
> Plastic Shrinkage Cracking 38
> Joint Construction 39
> Timing of Joint Sawing 39
> Joint Depth 40
> Sealing 40
> Fast Track Construction 40
> Job Site Considerations 40
> Overhead Structures 40
> On-Line Bridges 41
> Shoulders 41
> Fill for Slope Flattening 42
> Traffic Control 42
> Payment 43
> Cubic Meter (Cubic Yard) Payment 43
> Square Meter (Square Yard) Payment 44
Chapter 5 Ultra-Thin Whitetopping 45

> History and Growth 45
> Materials 45
> Current UTW Research and Performance Data 48
> Thickness Design 49
> Mechanistic Analysis 49
> Load-Carrying Capacity and Service Life 51
> Roads, Streets, and Parking Areas 51
> General Aviation Airport Pavements 56
> Joint Design 61
> Construction 61
References 62
The purpose of this publication is to describe the "state-of- Application of this concept to whitetopping construction is
the-practice" for the design and construction of concrete discussed in Chapter 4.
overlays on existing asphalt pavements commonly known
as whitetopping. Variations of whitetopping include:
Benefits Of Whitetopping
• Conventional whitetopping—a concrete overlay, For the construction agency or owner and the public,
usually of a thickness of 100 mm (4 in.) or more, whitetopping an existing asphalt pavement provides many
placed directly on top of an old asphalt pavement. benefits, including superior service, long life, low mainte-
• Concrete inlay—a concrete overlay placed in a trench nance, low life-cycle cost, improved safety, and environ-
milled out of a thick asphalt pavement. mental benefits.
• Ultra-thin whitetopping (UTW)—a concrete overlay,
usually 100 mm (4 in.) thick or less placed on an old Serviceability and Life
asphalt surface that is prepared to enhance the bond Serviceability is a measure of a pavement's ability to carry
between concrete and asphalt. traffic. It is a function of structural integrity (absence of
pavement distresses such as rutting and cracking) and
Whitetopping overlays have been built dating back to smoothness of ride. As shown in Fig. 1, asphalt overlays
1918(1) on all types of pavements, including highways, exhibit a more rapid loss of serviceability than concrete
primary and secondary roads, city streets and intersections, whitetopping.(3) The whitetopping alternative maintains
parking areas, and airport pavements. A partial list* of serviceability and requires significantly less maintenance.
whitetopping projects, along with pertinent data on use, Experience on highway and airport pavements indicates
design, construction, and performance, is presented in that, after the first overlay, the lives of successive asphalt
Table 1, Chapter 2. Of the 189 projects listed, by far the overlays become progressively shorter, whereas
most (158) were constructed as jointed plain whitetopping improves structural capacity. The concrete
(unreinforced) concrete pavements (JPCP). The list also overlay reacts structurally as if built on a strong base
includes: seven jointed reinforced concrete pavements course, and it impedes structural distresses. In an ACPA
(JRCP), all built before 1958; 14 continuously reinforced survey of whitetopping overlays in six states, no signs of
projects (CRCP); and 10 fiber reinforced concrete pave- structural distress were found.
ments (FRC) used mostly on ultra-thin projects. For concrete overlays, NCHRP synthesis 99 (2) states that
In this publication, design and construction practices are a relatively low-maintenance service life of 20 years can be
covered separately for conventional whitetopping (Chapter expected and that many projects have provided 30 to 40
3 and Chapter 4) and ultra-thin whitetopping (Chapter 5) years of service.
because of the unique features associated with ultra-thin
overlays. Cost Benefits
An advance in technology is the use of fast track con- A concrete surface drastically reduces time and delays
crete construction. Originated in Iowa in the mid 1980s, accompanying the frequent high maintenance require-
this method uses high-early-strength concrete mixes to ments of an asphalt surface(1,4,5). Rutting, shoving, tempera-
reduce traffic closure times to 1 or 2 days, or even less. ture cracking, alligator (fatigue) cracking, and weathering
*List derived from NCHRP Syntheses dated 1994 and 1982,

References 1 and 2.
A concrete overlay will bridge isolated problems that
would be reflected through a flexible overlay. An asphalt
overlay of old asphalt pavement requires significant repair
work, because in any flexible system, the underlying layers
need to distribute a significant portion of the load. Since a
concrete overlay replaces the asphalt layers by carrying
load above the weakened asphalt, less asphalt repair is
needed.
A study(7) of pavement systems in several counties in
Iowa showed that whitetopping was the rehabilitation
method of choice. A long-term program of whitetopping
old asphalt pavements as each neared the end of its design
life resulted in the system giving better service at half the
cost of asphalt (total maintenance and construction cost)
figured over a 40-year period.
With concrete inlays, significant economies result
because they do not raise roadway grade significantly. Costs
of peripheral items associated with an increase in grade are
eliminated, including: additional shoulder material, guard
rail adjustments, median barrier, signs, and vegetation; and
matching grade adjustments of intersections and ramps.
These associated costs can approach 33 percent of the
overall cost.(8)
Remedy for Asphalt Pavement Distress

Whitetop overlays do not develop the typical distresses
found on asphalt overlays. Experience has shown that once
rutting occurs on an asphalt pavement, placing an asphalt
overlay will not prevent its recurrence. Rutting reappears
because of asphalt's inability to get proper compaction in
the wheel ruts and to stand up to today's high tire pressures
Time (years)
and traffic loads. Concrete can uniformly fill asphalt ruts
and correct the surface profile.
Fig. 1. Whitetopping maintains serviceability far longer than
Reflective cracking is another form of asphalt overlay
does asphalt overlays. (a) Remove existing pavement and replace
with 320 mm (12.5 in.) new or recycled asphalt pavement. (b) distress that can significantly decrease expected pavement
Remove top 100 mm (4 in.) and replace with 225 mm (9 in.) of life(9). Because concrete stiffness is much greater than that
asphalt pavement. (c) 200 mm (8 in.) whitetop concrete overlay. of asphalt, reflective cracking does not occur.
Washboarding (transverse corrugations) and shoving
require frequent attention with crack sealing and surface (localized bulging) are forms of plastic flow of asphalt
treatments. A concrete surface is durable, long-lasting, and caused by horizontal vehicle forces. They usually occur at
requires far less maintenance time and money (5,6). intersections and other areas where heavy traffic stops and
Whitetopping is particularly effective where annual budget starts frequently, in sharp turning areas, and on hills where
constraints and high traffic levels make frequent traffic vehicles brake on the downgrade or accelerate slowly on
disruptions for maintenance intolerable. the upgrade. Since concrete does not exhibit plastic flow,
Fig. 3. An example of the weakening of asphalt roads during
spring months is found in the data from the AASHO Road Test.
Significantly more asphalt sections failed during the spring months
than did concrete sections.
Concrete is not affected by seasonal weakening of the

subgade during spring thaw(11). For local asphalt roads in
many areas of the country, load restricticns are applied to
prevent severe deterioration (Fig. 2). Restrictions on axle
(truck) weights of between 20 to 60 percent are attempted
by state agencies, but they are difficult to enforce and
Have load restrictions
trucks exceeding restricted weights often use the roads. As
Fig. 2. Load restrictions are used in 19 states, primarily during
the spring and early summer. stated in the article "Spring Use Restrictions," another
option is to "design, construct, or modify the pavement to
washboarding and shoving are permanently corrected by prevent or reduce pavement weakening."(12) This is done
whitetopping. using a concrete overlay, which is not affected by spring
Concrete overlays of existing asphalt pavements also have thaw periods.
been used as an alternative to flexible pavement "staged A study of test pavements at the AASHO Road Test(13) also
construction." This is a strategy in which, for various shows that "seasonal variations have much less effect on
reasons, a pavement is initially constructed with less performance of concrete pavements" than on asphalt
structural capacity than needed, then is overlaid some (Fig. 3). Nearly 61 percent of all asphalt test sections failed
years later. In most cases, the underdesigned first-stage during spring months, compared with just 5.5 percent of
asphalt pavement deteriorates somewhat before the first the concrete sections. Concrete pavement is resilient
planned overlay. Subsequent asphalt overlays do not throughout the entire year.
perform as well because the original asphalt's distresses
rapidly reflect through the overlay. Even if a thicker asphalt Safety
overlay is specified, results are not much better. In fact, it A whitetop concrete overlay improves the safety of a
has been shown that thicker asphalt overlays rut more than pavement surface. Heavy loads rut and shove asphalt,
thin asphalt overlays(10). Analysis of the long-term rehabili- which can be dangerous(14 16) at intersections, toll plazas,
tation and maintenance costs of "staged construction" ramps, and airport apron areas where traffic is often
versus concrete overlay reveals that a concrete overlay is starting and stopping. Rain-filled ruts in these areas can
the low-risk, long-lasting solution(2). cause skidding and loss of vehicle control, leading to
accidents and personal injury(14,15). Hydroplaning is also a streets with a concrete surface, reducing kilowatt usage and
serious problem on rutted roads and airfields. In the study saving taxpayer dollars.
"Safety Considerations of Rutting and Washboarding Second, whitetopping is cool. In urban areas, whitetopped
Asphalt Road Surfaces,"(14) measured data show that the pavements and trees can reduce temperatures by 5°C (10°F),
stopping distances for concrete surfaces are much shorter thereby conserving energy needed for air-conditioning.
than for asphalt surfaces, especially when asphalt is wet Whitetopping is a natural for "Cool Communities," the federal
and rutted (Fig. 4). program aimed at reducing urban heat islands (see Fig. 5).
The values in Fig. 4 do not take hydroplaning into Third, a comparison of fuel consumption of trucks
account, which, would increase stopping distances for traveling on concrete and asphalt pavements in a report of
rutted asphalt. the Federal Highway Administration(18,19) shows a fuel
savings up to 20 percent for concrete. As indicated in Fig.
Environmental Friendliness 6, the savings increase as truck weights increase. Logic
The environmental benefits of whitetopping are many. supports this conclusion since trucks cause more deflection
First, whitetopping, because of its pale color, reflects light on flexible pavements than on rigid pavements; deflecting
rather than absorbing it. Studies(17) have shown that the the pavement absorbs part of the vehicle energy that would
number of street lights can be reduced by one-third on otherwise be available to propel the vehicle.
Chevy - Dry / Smooth
Chevy - Wet / Smooth
Chevy - Wet / Rutted*
Buick - Dry / Smooth
Buick - Wet / Smooth
Buick - Wet / Rutted*
Stopping distance, m
*Concrete does not rut
Fig. 4. Measured stopping distances of two different vehicles on various surface conditions. Note that
since concrete does not rut, data for the wet-rutted condition are the same as for wet smooth condition.
Fig. 5. A Cool Community, Jordan Commons, Florida. The use of

0 50 100 150 200 250
concrete pavements and trees can reduce temperatures by 5°C (10°F).
Vehicle gross weight, kN
Fig. 6. Fuel savings for trucks travelling on concrete.
History and Performance
The projects listed in Table 1 * represent a fair summary of resurfacings were constructed with skewed transverse
experience with whitetopping. By far, most of the projects joints, generally randomly spaced 4.0-5.8-5.5-3.7 m (13-
have been constructed as jointed, plain (unreinforced) 19-18-12 ft) and undoweled. These projects were reported
pavements (JPCP). Less-used pavement designs have been to have a good to very good serviceability rating in 1977(20).
jointed reinforced (JRCP), continuously reinforced (CRCP), In 1981 Lokken(2l) reported, "Plain concrete resurfacings
and fiber reinforced (FRC). without dowels or reinforcement have given excellent
Various concrete thicknesses are used depending on the service in California." In September 1981, Ames,
traffic load expected. They generally range from 100 to 175 Woodstrom, and Neal (Calrans) indicated that the perfor-
mm (4 to 7 in.) for city streets, secondary roads, and small mance of the plain concrete resurfacings has been good,
airports; 175 to 280 mm (7 to 11 in.) for primary roads up and many, in fact, were still in service after 20 years.(2)
to interstate highways; and 200 to 460 mm (8 to 18 in.) for Between 1967 and 1975, several existing flexible
airports. In recent years, ultra-thin whitetopped pavements pavement highway sections were resurfaced with continu-
50 to 100 mm (2 to 4 in.) thick have been placed for light ously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP). These
traffic facilities. resurfacings ranged from 150 to 225 mm (6 to 9 in.) in
The first use of whitetopping according to NCHRP thickness with from 0.5 to 0.6 percent longitudinal steel.
Synthesis 204(1) was in 1918 on South 7th Street in Terre Most of the overlays contained light (0.05 to 0.07 percent)
Haute, Indiana (Project 1 in Table 1). The existing flexible transverse steel reinforcement. Generally, a minimum
pavement was overlaid with 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in.) of thickness of asphalt concrete was used on the existing
reinforced concrete. flexible pavement as a leveling course before whitetopping.
During the 1940s and 1950s, plain concrete resurfacings Some of these CRCP projects were reported in 1975(22) to
were used extensively to upgrade existing flexible pave- be in excellent condition after 2 to 6 years of service.
ments at both military and civil airports as aircraft loads Lokken(21) confirmed the excellent condition of these CRCP
and traffic increased. According to Synthesis 99(2), the whitetopping projects in 1980.
performance of many of the concrete resurfacings of Since 1977 Iowa has used plain concrete extensively for
flexible pavements at military airfields was monitored by whitetopping, especially on the county road system.
the Corps of Engineers. A review of the condition survey Schnoor and Renier(6) discussed the design and construc-
reports on file at the installation (WES) shows that these tion details for many of these projects. The plain concrete
concrete resurfacings performed very well, and many are overlays range in thickness from 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8
still in service. in.). According to Knutson (ICPA) in October 1981, many
Plain concrete has been used extensively for overlaying of the county engineers were considering thicknesses of
existing flexible pavement since 1960, especially in Califor- 100 to 125 mm (4 to 5 in.) based on the excellent perfor-
nia, Iowa, and Utah. During the 1960s and 1970s, Califor- mance of the overlays to date. For some early projects, the
nia used 175 to 225 mm (7 to 9 in.) of plain concrete to asphalt wearing course was removed and the concrete
resurface several sections of highway pavements. A mini- constructed on the granular base course. In later projects,
mum thickness of asphalt concrete was generally used to seal coats and/or high spots were removed using road
level the existing pavement surface. The plain concrete planers or cold-milling equipment. For projects where the
*Table 1 is a chronological compilation of data from whitetopping projects

taken from NCHRP Synthesis 99 (Ref. 2), Table A-6 (1982), and NCHRP
Synthesis 204 (Ref. 1), Table A-3 (1994). Additional information on joint
details and reinforcement, if used, is given in Synthesis 99.
existing pavement was not badly rutted, no preparation evident in the number of projects in service. Documented
was required before whitetopping. Schnoor and Renier projects (Table 1) increased from 81 in 1982(2) to 189 in
indicated that all of the concrete overlays on existing 1993(1). In addition, more than 100 ultra-thin
flexible pavements were performing well. whitctopping projects were constructed between 1992 and
That the growth of whitetopping has been impressive is 1996 (see Chapter 5, Ultra-Thin Whitetopping).
TABLE 1. PARTIAL LIST OF WHITETOPPING PROJECTS (1918-1992)

Overlay Existing Pavement
Syn. 204 Location State Use Built Thick., in Type Built Thick., in Type
Proj.
1 South 7th St., Terre Haute IN S 1918 3-4 JRCP - - F
2 Cleveland to Berea OH H 1926 6 JRCP 1901-04 - Brick

3 Center Rd., Cleveland to Akron OH H 1926 6 JRCP - - Brick
4 W. Fourth St., Williamson WV S 1928 4 JRCP 1912 - Brick
5 Fullerton St., Chicago IL s 1931 5 JPCP - - Base
6 South Chicago Ave., Chicago IL s 1931 5 JPCP - - Base
7 4th Ave., Portland OR s 1935 3.5 -10 JPCP - - Base
8 Runway, Offutt AFB NE A 1944 7&9 JPCP 1941 - F
9 Second Ave., Seattle WA S 1944 6.5 JPCP - - Brick
10 Apron, Davis-Monthan AFB AZ A 1945 12 JPCP - - F
11 Dye Road, Miller Rd. to Corunna Rd. .MI H 1953 8 JPCP - - F

12 Craig AFB AL A 1954 8 JPCP - 11.5 F
13 Runway, Dover AFB DE A 1954 16 JPCP 1941-43 29 F

14 Baton Rouge Municipal Airport LA A 1954 10 JPCP - 10 F
15 Apron, taxiway, Castle AFB CA A 1955 16 & 18 JPCP 1942 10 F
16 US-99,Hwy 119 to Hwy CA H 1956 8 JPCP 1936 - F

65,Bakersfield
17 US-99, Union Ave. off ramp CA H 1956 8 JRCP 1938-48 9.5-11.5 F
18 Taxiway, Columbus AFB MS A 1956 16 JPCP - 17 F
19 Runway, O'Hare Int. Airport IL A 1958 9 & 11 JPCP - 24 F
20 Runway, Selfridge AFB Ml A 1958 13 JPCP 1951 34 F
21 Taxiway, Glasgow AFB MI A 1958 15 JRCP - 55 F
22 Runway, Kincheloe AFB MI A 1958 12 JRCP 1942 9 F
23 I-5, Near Gorman CA H 1959 8 JPCP 1949 - F
24 Runway, Los Angeles Int. Airport CA A 1960 10.5 & 15 JPCP - - F
25 Woodbury Co. IA H 1960 6 JPCP - - F
26 US-99, Kern Co. CA H 1964 7 JPCP 1922-48 9.5-13 F
27 US-101, Los Angeles Co. CA H 1966 7 JPCP F
28 US-91, Orange Co. CA H 1966 8 JPCP F

Construction and Performance Status in 1982 Status in 1992 Syn. 99 Syn. 204
Remarks Proj. Proj.
Strengthen and correct distortion and Excellent condition after 8 yrs. service No new information. 5 1
cracking .
Correct for uneveness and roughness. .\'o info No new information. 19 2
Rideability improvement. No info No new information. 22 3
Strengthen and correct roughness. No info No new information. 29 4
Wood block surfacing and brick failed No info No new information 38 5
and removed.
Wood block surfacing and brick failed No info No new information 40 6
and removed.
AC & wood block surface failed and No info No new information 55 7
removed.
Correct structural distress. No info Extended and reconstructed 84 8
in 1958.
Correct roughness and unsatisfactory No info No new information 82 9
service from brick.
Strengthening program. Existing No info No new information 89 10
pavement surface distr.
Existing AC deteriorated. Still in service in 1977 after 24 years No new information. 146 11
Strengthen and resurface deteriorated Excellent condition in 1964 after 10 No new information. 161 12
AC pavement. years
Strengthening program Still in service after 27 years No new information. 165 13
Strengthen and resurface deteriorated Good condition after 9 years. Some No new information. 162 14
AC pavement. cracking.
Upgrade and strengthen. Existing AC Still in service after 26 years. No new information. 177 15
poor to fair.
Correct surface distortion and Excellent condition after 8 years. Digout, 1977-78. 191 16
strengthen.
Correct distortion and surface No info No new information (none 189 17
roughness. Strengthen. kept on ramps).
Strengthening program. Existing AC Excellent after 10 years. Still in service (USAF). 188 18
good.
Strengthen and repair damaged Good condition after 6 years. No new information. I'M 19
pavement.
Strengthening program. Existing AC Syn. 99, Table A-l. No new information. 205 20
fair.
Strengthening program. Existing AC Still in service after 22 years. No new information. 203 21
fair.
Strengthen and upgrade. Existing AC No info No new information. 201 22
fair.
Upgrade and correct for surface Excellent in 1964 after 5 years. No new information, Caltrans 209 23
distortion and roughness. could not locate.
Upgrade and correct surface distortion Excellent in 1964 after 4 years. No new information. 217 24
and cracking.
Strengthen and improve rideability, No info No report from IDOT in 1992. 215 25
gravel leveling course
Upgrade and improve serviceability. Very good condition in 1977 after 13 No new information, Caltrans 227 26
vears. could not locate.
Upgrade and improve serviceability. Very good condition in 1977 after 11 In 1990, PSR = 4.1, corner 234 27
years brks., avg. fault = .08", 9.5 m
ESAL.
Upgrade and improve serviceability. Very good condition in 1977 after 11 Some struct, problems. 233 28
years PSR=4.0 in 1990, Avg. Fault =
0.11, 4.0 mill. ESAL.
TABLE 1. C O N T I N U E D .
Proj.
29 Midway Airport, Chicago IL A 1967 8 CRCP F
30 I-5, Project City CA H 1968 6 JPCP 1950-54 8 & 12 AC/CTB

31 Storm Lake Airport IA A 1971 5 JPCP 1963 2-4 F
32 Woodbury Co. IA H 1971 6 JPCP - - F
33 I-5,S. of Portland (4 projects) OR H 1971 7&9 CRCP 1950 - F
34 I-80, Near Ladd OR H 1971 7&9 CRCP - - F
35 I-40, Potter Co. TX H 1971 8 CRCP - 12-16 F
36 Fifth Ave., S.E., Cedar Rapids IA S 1972 2.5 FRC - - AC/Brick
37 I-205, E. of Portland OR H 1972 7&9 CRCP - - -

38 I-40, W. of Bushland TX H 1972 8 CRCP 1953 16+ F
39 I-30, Little Rock AR H 1973 6 CRCP - - F
40 I-5, Siskiyou Co. CA H 1973 8.5 JPCP 1971 5.5 F
41 I-29, Walsh Co. ND H 1973 6 CRCP - - F
42 I-205 E. of Portland OR H 1973 7&9 CRCP 1959 - F
43 Taxiway, Moody AFB GA A 1974 6 CRCP - - F
44 Y 34, Clinton Co. IA H 1974 6 JPCP F
45 Plank Rd., Peru IL H 1974 5 JPCP - 8 F
46 Tank Apron, Ft. Hood TX S 1974 4 FRC - 17-19 F
47 I-80 OR H 1975 7&9 CRCP - - F
48 I-5 OR H 1975 - CRCP - - F
49 Newark Int. Airport NJ A 1976 4 FRC - - F
50 Apron, McCarran Field, Las Vegas NV A 1976 6 FRC 18 F
51 I-84, Hansel Vally Jet., Snowville UT H 1976 9 JPCP 1966 - F

52 Route 163, San Diego CA H 1977 9 JPCP - - F
53 Dallas Co. IA H 1977 5 JPCP 1955 11 F
54 Z40 or X46, Clinton Co. IA H 1977 6 JPCP - - F
55 R-18, from E-57 S. 3 mi., Boone Co. IA H 1977 5 JPCP 1957 11 F
56 X-40, Cedar Co. IA H 1977 6 JPCP 1955 - F
57 Washington Co. IA H 1977 5 JPCP 1958 12.5 F
58 Apron, La Guardia Int. Airport NY A 1977 6 FRC F
59 T-55,175 S. 2.4 mi., Grundy Co. IA H 1978 5 JPCP - - F

Remarks Proj. Proj.
Strengthen and correct distorted No info Overlaid in 1988 - 1992, see 237 24
existing pavement. 1992 project below, Airport
Auth.
Strengthen and improve rideability. Syn. 99, Table A-l. No new information. 243 30
Strengthen and correct surface No info In service (Iowa Conc. 250 31
distortion. Paving Assoc, DOT)
Strengthen and improve rideability. Trimmed high spots with grader. No report from IDOT in 1992. 248 32
Trimmed high spots.
Upgrade existing F to Interstate Excellent in 1975 after 1-6 years. Good to Exc. 1987. ACPA 247 33
standards. TB009.
Upgrade existing pavement to No info No new information. 253 34
Interstate standards.
Upgrade existing pavement to No info No new information. 254 35
Resurface distorted surface. Good condition after 5 years In service (Iowa Concrete 264 36
Paving Assoc).
- Syn. 99, Table A-l. No new information 261 37
Upgrade existing pavement to Excellent in 1979 after 3 years. No new information 269 38
Upgrade existing pavement to No info Old Data in Error and Shoulc 279 39
Interstate standards. be Deleted
Upgrade existing pavement to No info ACOL 1986-89 due to 282 40
Interstate standards. structural problems.
Upgrade existing pavement to No info No new information 278 41
Upgrade existing pavement to Excellent in 1975 after 2 years. No new information 275 42
Strengthen and resurface deteriorated No info No new information 290 43
pavement.
Strengthen and improve rideability. A No info Minimal long.& trans, crk., 287 44
wearing course removed. outside corner breaks, randorr
crks.
Strengthen and improve rideability. Excellent in 1981 after 7 years. In 1990, PSR=3.7, avg. fault = 289 45
0.13", 0.7 mill. ESAL.
Resurface distressed AC for tank No info No new information 284 46
parking.
Upgrade existing pavement to No info No new information 293 47
Interstate standards,
Upgrade existing pavement to No info Exc. 1987. ACPA TB009. 299 48
Remove existing distorted AC and No info Overlaid in 1980 by project 307 49
resurface with FC. shown below as RW 22R End
Upgrade deteriorated pavement Excellent in 1981 after 5 years. Half has been replaced, the 306 50
rest is ready due to
cracking(Auth.)
Strengthen and improve rideability. Very good in 1981 after 5 years. 2800 ADT, 25% trucks. 308 51
Improve serviceability. No info No new information 310 32
Strengthen and improve rideability. No info No trans, crk., few corner 312 33
Trimmed high spots. breaks, 60' of long, crk., good
Strengthen and improve rideability. A No info 40' slabs, most have mid-slab 309 54
wearing course removed. trans crks., AC & PC patches
Strengthen and improve rideability. No info Looks good,minimal 1 /4 pt. 314 55
Trimmed high spots. crk.,some mid-panel crk. ,40'
slabs
Strengthen and improve rideability. No info Approx. 100' long. crk. per 311 56
Removed seal coat. mi., minor corner
Some bonding between overlay and old No info. 40' long slabs, a few with mi 313 57
AC noted. panel breaks, few crks, good.
Remove distorted AC and resurface No info Removed from service or 315 58
with FC. rebuilt prior to 1992 (Port
Auth.).
Strengthen and improve rideability. No info Looks good, minimal trans. 321 59
crk, 1000-1500' of long. crk.
TABLE 1. C O N T I N U E D . Overlay Existing Pavement
Proj.
60 I-80, W. of Des Moines,one lane WE IA H 1979 10 JPCP 1959-72 37 F
61 Centerville Airport 1A A 1979 5 JPCP 1966 2.5 F
62 Apron, McCarran Fid., Las Vegas NV A 1979 7 JPCP - 14 F
63 I-80, Wyo. Line to Wahsatch UT H 1979 10 JPCP 1964 5.5 F
64 F-31 West from Granger, Dallas Co IA H 1980 4 JPCP - - F
65 Clayton Co. IA H 1980 6 JPCP - - F
66 I-84.SW of Boise, MP 70.2-82.3 ID H 1980 7 JPCP - 14 F
67 1-80, Wahsatch to Castle Rock UT H 1980 10 JPCP 1964 - F
68 Apron, Stapleton Airport, Denver CO A 1981 4&7 FRC - - -

69 E-57, Luther east, Boone Co. IA H 1981 6 JPCP - - F
70 J-20,Jct. 218,W to Salem, Henry Co. IA H 1981 7 JPCP - - F
71 F-31, Dallas Co. IA H 1981 5 JPCP - - F
72 Sec. Rd. G36,Washington Co.,2.0 mi. . IA H 1981 8 JPCP - - F

73 Greene Co. Line, Greene Co. IA H 1981 6 JPCP - - F
74 F-41,lst. St. Long Grove E. to #61 IA H 1981 6 JPCP - - F
75 IA-92 to ]ct. 114, Washington Co. IA H 1981 7 JPCP - - F
76 I-80,Adair ,1/2 width WBL MP 85- IA H 1981 10 JPCP 1959-72 - F

94
77 IA-92 to Wellman, Washington Co. IA H 1981 8 JPCP F
78 R-18, Boone Co.,1 mi. S-30 to E-57 IA H 1981 6 JPCP - - F
79 C-38, Cherokee, Plymouth CL E. 3 IA H 1981 6 JPCP - - F

80 X-23, Henry Co., 28 N. 2 mi. IA H 1981 5 JPCP - - F
81 Apron, Salt Lake City Airport UT A 1981 8 FRC - - F
82 1-80, Salt Air- WBL,W. of S.L.City UT H 1981 11 JPCP - - F

83 Sec. Rd. D15, Sac Co., 3.0 mi. IA H 1982 5 JPCP - - F
84 Clarion Airport, 24,200 sy IA A 1982 5 JPCP 1965 2 F
85 Sec. Rd. @ SE Corner Sect. 5-86-36 IA H 1982 6 JPCP - - F

86 Sec. Rd. E18, Boone co., 5.8 mi. IA H 1982 7 JPCP - - F
87 Sec. Rd. X52,Allamakee Co.,2.0 mi. IA H 1982 8 JPCP - - F
88 Olmstead County, Olmstead MN S 1982 6 IPCP - - AC
89 CR-10, Chatfield, Olmstead Co. MN H 1982 6 JPCP - - ACP
90 Belvidere N. & S., MP 17.00-22.02 NE H 1982 9 IPCP 1972-75 8-12 HMAC

91 Sec. Rd. VI8, Chickasaw Co.,8.7 mi. . IA H 1983 6.5 JPCP - - F
92 Sec. Rd. T38, Mitchell Co., 4.3 mi. IA H 1983 6,7 JPCP - - F
93 County Road, Davenport Co. IA H 1983 7 IPCP - - ACP
94 Sec. Rd. R22, Dallas Co., 8.6 mi. IA H 1983 5 JPCP - - F
95 Sec. Rd. L36, Cherokee Co., 4.0 mi. IA H 1983 6.5 JPCP - - F
96 Waverly Airport, Bremer Co. IA A 1983 5 JPCP - - F
97 1-70, Sherman Co., 10.24 mi. KS H 1983 8 JPCP 1969 10 HMAC
98 S. of David City & 4th St. NE H 1983 9 JPCP 1972 3 HMAC

Remarks Proj. Proj.
Correct AC distortion and Excellent in 1981 after 2 years. No cracks or patching. 331 60
cracking,10"old pavement removed.
Strengthen and restore serviceability. No info In service (Iowa Concrete 333 61
Paving Assoc, DOT.).
Strengthen and correct distortion and Excellent in 1981 after 2 years. No new information. 334 62
cracking.
Strengthen and improve service. Very good in 1981 after 2 years. 4500 ADT, 36% trucks. 327 63
Shoving and rutting .
Strengthen and correct surface Excellent after 1 year. Minimal cracking, performing 342 64
distortion and cracking. very well (Writer Observed)
Strengthen, correct surface distortion, No info Location unknown to DOT in 343 65
cracking. Removed seal coats. 1992.
To replace distorted and cracked AC. Inlay — 5" seal coat removed to CTB. Extensive longitudinal 336 66
cracking.
Strengthen and restore service.Shoving Excellent in 1981 after 1 year. 4500 ADT, 36% trucks. 335 67
and rutting.
- Syn. 99, Table A-l No new information. 375 68
Strengthen and improve rideability. New — excellent condition Looks very good, minimal 336 69
cracking.
Strengthen and improve rideability. New — excellent condition Few trans, crks., About 500' 363 70
long. crk. per mi.,perf. OK
Strengthen and improve rideability. New — excellent condition Minimal cracking, performing 361 71
well.(Writer Observed).
No information on this item. New - excellent condition No new information. - 72
Strengthen and improve rideability. New — excellent condition Location unknown to DOT in 357 73
1992.
Strengthen and improve rideability. New — excellent condition Minimal cracking, 365 74
performance very good.
Strengthen and improve rideability. New — excellent condition Minimal cracking, project 367 73
performing well.
To replace distorted and cracked New - slightly rough 2 trans, crks., 9-2sq.ft. patche 354 76
AC,10" removed. @ interior joint corners.
Strengthen and improve rideability. New - excellent condition Minimal long. & random 366 77
cracking, performance very
good
Strengthen and improve rideability. New - excellent condition Looks very good, minimal 338 78
cracking.
Strengthen and improve rideability. New - excellent condition 19 Long, cracks, no patches. 360 79
Strengthen and improve rideability. New - excellent condition No cracks, performance very 362 80
good.
Apron reconst. - strengthen and correct New — excellent condition No new information. 373 81
structural distress.
Strengthen and restore serviceability. Not in Syn. 99 No new information. 82
In service. Not in Syn. 99 No new information. 83
Clean and fill cracks with Not in Syn. 99 In service (Iowa DOT). 84
cement/sand/water grout.overlay.
In service. Not in Svn. 99 No new information. 85
- Not in Syn. 99 In service. PSR = 4.0 in 1990. 88
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 In service. Excellent, 1990. 89
ACPA TB009.
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 In service. 90
In service. Not in Syn. 99 In service. 91
Scarified and compacted old sealcoats, Not in Syn. 99 In service (Iowa DOT). 96
slipform paving.
4" of ACC milled before PCC overlay Not in Syn. 99 Some faulting, long, cracking, 97
was placed patching. Ride good to fair.
ACPA TB009.
TABLE 1. CONTINUED.
Proj.
99 I-215, Salt Lake City UT H 1983 10 JPCP - - ACP
100 USH-151,Min. Pt.-Dodgeville Rd. WI H 1983 8 JPCP - 3 AC

101 Sec. Rd. V56 @NW cor. sect 15-95-1 IA H 1984 6 JPCP - - F
102 Sec. Rd. D55, Hardin Co., 6.9 mi. IA H 1984 4 JPCP - - F
103 Sec. Rd. V56 to Jet. IA24,Chickasav IA H 1984 6 JPCP - - F
104 Sec. Rd. A52, Allamakee Co. IA H 1984 5 JPCP - - F
105 Sec. Rd. V56 Fr. Bremer IA H 1984 6 JPCP - - F
106 Sec. Rd. X42, Allamakee Co. IA H 1984 5 JPCP - - F
107 Sec. Rd. L51, Cherokee Co.,3.2 mi. IA H 1984 5 JPCP - - F
108 York, North, MP 64.11-74.42 NE H 1984 9 JPCP 1974 3.5 HMAC
109 Sec. Rd. F31, Dallas Co., 2.5 mi. IA H 1985 6 JPCP - - F
110 County Road, Hampton Co. IA H 1985 6 JPCP - - ACP
111 Sec. Rd. G62, Louisa Co., 4.6 mi. IA H 1985 6 JPCP - - F
112 Sec. Rd. X37, Louisa Co., 7.4 mi. IA H 1985 6 JPCP - - F
113 1-70, Sherman Co., 17.047 mi. KS H 1985 8 JPCP 1970 10 HMAC
114 1-80, 3.50 mi. NV H 1985 8 JPCP 1953 2.5 HMAC

115 1-215, I-15 to 2200 N., 2.8 mi. UT H 1985 11 JPCP 1969 5.5 AC
116 Sec. Rd. N14, Dickinson Co.,8.6 mi. IA H 1986 6 JPCP - - F
117 Sec. Rd. G62, Washington Co. IA H 1986 7 JPCP - - F
118 1-55, SBL, Pemiscot Co., 7.96 mi. MO H 1986 9 JRCP 1953-1976 12 HMAC
119 Benedict - Osceola.MP 162.01-168.9; NE H 1986 9 JPCP 1962 3.5 HMAC

120 Stromburg, N. & S., MP 72.91-82.92 NE H 1986 9 IPCP 1974 4.8 HMAC
121 1-80, 12.5 mi. NV H 1986 8 JPCP 1972 9 HMAC
122 1-80,15 mi. NV H 1986 8 JPCP 1956-59 3.5 HMAC
123 1-30, Royce City TX H 1986 11 JPCP - - AC
124 1-30, Royce City, Rockwall Co. TX H 1986 11 JPCP - - ACP
125 1-80, Cole Point to Blackrock UT H 1986 10 JPCP 1965 - AC

126 1-15, N. Beaver to Wildcat, 8.8 mi. UT H 1986 10 JPCP 1967 5.5 AC
127 1-80, Point of Rocks, 8.0 mi.,(Inlay) WY H 1986 10 JPCP • - F
128 Sec. Rd. C62, Louisa Co., 3.2 mi. IA H 1987 7-5-7 JPCP - - F
129 Corning Airport, 0.5 mi. IA A 1987 5 JPCP - 4 F
130 Sec. R18 near sect 23-83-27, Boone IA H 1987 7 JPCP - - F

131 Sec. R18 near sect 25-82-27, Boone IA H 1987 7 JPCP - - F
132 Sec. Rd. V18, Chickasaw Co.,2.3 m . IA H 1987 6 JPCP - - F
133 Sec. Rd. W66, Louisa Co., 2.9 mi. IA H 1987 7-5-7 JPCP - - F
134 Sec. Rd. X42 & X52, Allamakee Co . IA H 1987 6 JPCP - - F
135 Sec. Rd. X37, Louisa Co., 5.8 mi. IA H 1987 7-5-7 IPCP - - F
136 Sec. Rd. A52,Winneshiek Co.,0.7 m . IA H 1987 6 JPCP - - F
137 Sec. Rd. G52, Louisa Co., 2.3 mi. IA H 1987 7-5-7 JPCP - - F
138 1-80, 13 mi. NV H 1987 9 JPCP 1965-66 5 HMAC
139 1-80, 7 mi. NV H 1987 9 JPCP 1965 3.5 HMAC
140 1-35, Gainesville TX H 1987 10 CRCP - - AC
141 1-35, Gainesville, Cooke Co. TX H 1987 10 CRCP - - ACP

142 Dane Co. Airport WI A 1987 15 JRCP - - ACP
143 US Rte.l,Bet.Titusville&Day. Beach FL H 1988 8 JPCP - - HMAC
146 Sec. Rd. P58, Dallas Co., 6.0 mi. IA H 1988 5 JPCP - - F
147 Carroll Airport, 0.8 mi. IA A 1988 5 JPCP 1972 2 F
148 Sec. Rd. B25, Allamakee Co.,6.3 mi IA H 1988 7 JPCP - - F
149 I-80,Bigelow Bench ,MP 22.7 - 28.0 WY H 1988 10.5 JPCP - - F
Remarks Proj. Proj.
ACPA TB009.
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 ln service. 102
\'o information on (his item, Not in Syn. 99 In service. 111
4" of AC milled before PCC overlay w Not in Syn. 99 Some faulting, long, cracking 113
placed. patching. Ride good to fair,
DOT.
Faulting, PSI = 2.5 Not in Syn. 99 In service. Faulting, PSI = 2.5 114
No information on this item. Not in Svn. 99 In service. 115
Project has 61.5' long slabs. No reporti Not in Syn. 99 61.5' slabs. No reported 118
problems. problems.
Wide (2") long, joints, slab breakups. Not in Syn. 99 Wide (2") long., ts., slab 121
breakups.
Small corner breaks occured at 1 year. Not in Syn. 99 In service. Small corner 122
breakst at 1 year.
PSR = 4.3 in 1990, 0 faulting, 3.7 mill. Not in Syn. 99 In service. PSR 4.3 in 1990, 0 123
ESAL's carried. fault, 3.7 mill. ESAL.
ACPA TB009.
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 In service, average 3.0 mm 127
faulting.
Granular layer used to correct grade, Not in Syn. 99 In service (Iowa DOT). 129
paved.
— Not in Syn. 99 In service. PSI = 3.5 138
PSR = 4.1 in 1990, 2.6 mill. ESAL's Not in Syn 99 In service 140
carried.
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 ln service. 141
WT,16,18,& 20'slabs,two dowel layout Not in Syn. 99 In service. Excellent 3 year 143
perf.
WT,16,18,& 20'slabs,two dowel layout ;Not in Syn. 99 In service. Excellent 3 year 144
perf.
WT,16,18,& 20'slabs,two dowel layout Not in Syn. 99 In service. Excellent 3 yr. 145
perf.
Standard slipform. Not in Syn. 99 In service (Iowa DOT). 147
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 In service, average 1 mm 149
faulting.
Proj.
150 1-80, Elk Mountain, EBL, (Inlay) WY H 1988 10 JPCP - - F
151 Thayer-Fillmore CL.,7.5 mi. NE H 1988 9 JPCP 1975 3 HMAC

152 Sec. Rd. P46 @ NCL Redfield, Dallas IA H 1989 5 JPCP - - F
153 Sec. Rd. L-401, Dickinson Co. IA H 1989 6 JPCP - - F
154 Sec. Rd. B60, Floyd Co., 2.5 mi. IA H 1989 5 JPCP - - F
155 Sec. Rd. P46 @ lA44,Dallas,10.1 mi IA H 1989 5 JPCP - - F
156 Sec. Rd. D15, Hardin Co., 6.8 mi. IA H 1989 4.5 JPCP - - F
157 US-81,N-59 to N-84.MP 186.97- NE H 1989 9 JPCP 1989 11 HMAC
158 Taxiways R & D, Newark Int. M A 1989 10 FRC 1968 4 HMAC
159 I-80, 8 mi. NV H 1989 9 JPCP 1968 4 HMAC
160 I-80, 7 mi. NV H 1989 10 JPCP 1969 3 HMAC
161 1-15, 10 mi. NV H 1989 10.5 JPCP 1960 4 HMAC

162 I-80, Elk Mtn, East , EBL, (Inlay) WY H 1989 10 JPCP - - F
163 I-80, Elk Mtn, West , EBL, (Inlay) WY H 1989 10 JPCP - - F
164 SH 68, Harmony Rd. CO H 1990 3.5 & 5 JPCP - 4.75-7.25 AC
165 Sec. Rd. C54, Wright Co., 2.65 mi. IA H 1990 5 IPCP - - F
166 Sec. Rd. B60, Clayton Co., 1.45 mi. IA H 1990 6 JPCP - - F
167 HWY 281, Blue Hill N. NI- H 1990 9 JPCP 1954/1975 3 HMAC
168 US-81, Rising City N. NE H 1990 9 JPCP 1970-1980 2-3 HMAC
169 HWY N-2, Litchfield - Hazard NE H 1990 9 Il'CP 1943-1975 2-3 HMAC
170 I-80, 7 mi. NV H 1990 11 JPCP 1955 2.5 HMAC
171 Randell OK S 1990 6 JPCP/AC 1952 1.5 AC

St.,Betwn.3rd.&Walters,OKC
172 I-80, Elk Mountain, WBL, (Inlay) WY H 1990 10 JPCP - - F
173 I-80, Elk Mountain, MP 269.4-275.6 WY H 1990 10 JPCP - - F
17-1 Sec. Rd. D61, Jones Co., 1.65 mi. IA H 1991 7 JPCP - - F
173 Sec. Rd. R16, Dallas Co., 4.5 mi. IA H 1991 5 JPCP - - F
176 Sec. Rd. D61, Dubuque Co., 1.26 mi. IA H 1991 7 JPCP - - F
177 Sec. Rd. A34,Dickinson Co.,8.25 mi. IA H 1991 6 JPCP - - F
178 Fort Madison Municipal Airport IA A 1991 5 JPCP 1958 5 AC
179 Waste Management access road, KY S 1991 2 FRC AC
Louisville
180 Waste Management access KY S 1991 3.5 FRC - - AC

road.Louis.
18! US-81,US-20-N-59,MP 180.05-186.97 NE H 1991 9 JPCP 1972 3 HMAC
182 N-2, Anslev - Mason City NE H 1991 9 JPCP 1979 4 HMAC
183 I-80, Redwood Rd. to 1-15, 1.2 mi. UT H 1991 - JPCP 1966 5.5 AC
184 I-80, Utah State Line, MP 0.0 - 2.9 WY H 1991 11.5 JPCP - - AC
185 I-80, Evanston West, MP 17.7-22.7 WY H 1991 12.5 JPCP - - AC
186 Sec. Rd. A52,Allamakee Co.,0.94 rr .. IA II 1992 6 JPCP - - F

187 Reloc. Rd. F31,Dallas Co.,4.39 mi. IA H 1992 7 JPCP - - F
188 I-80, Burmester to 700 E. Int'l UT H 1992 11&13 JPCP - - AC
189 I-80, Evanston East, MP 6.9 -12.3 WY H 1992 12 JPCP - - AC
S = street; H = highway; A = airfield

JRCP = Jointed reinforced concrete pavement, JPCP = Joint Plain Concrete Pavement, CRCP = Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
FRC = Fiber Reinforced Concrete.
F = flexible; AC = asphalt concrete, HMAC = hot mix asphalt concrete.
Remarks Proj. Proj.
faulting.
No information on this item Not in Syn. 99 In service. 151
Slabs 26' x 50' Not in Syn. 99 Excellent condition 158
Shrinkage cracking associated w/ cold Not in Syn. 99 In service. 159
weather placement.
Has about 30,000 popouts due to soft Not in Syn. 99 In service. 160
particles.
Some difficulty w/ placing tiebars. Not in Syn. 99 In service. 161
faulting.
faulting.
300'section poly, fiber reinf.,very short Not in Syn. 99 In service. Good perf. 164
slabs in 3.5" sect.
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 In service 165
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 In service 166
No information on this item. Not in Sen. 99 In service. 168
Two pass construction, performing very Not in Syn. 99 In service. 170
well.
City well pleased with WT, another Not in Syn. 99 In service. 171
1.5mi. scheduled .
faulting.
faulting.
No information on this item. Not in Syn. 99 in service. 177
In service (Iowa DOT). Not in Syn. 99 In service. 178
Fast Track whitetopping with Not in Syn. 99 Surprisingly good 179
polypropylene fibers. performance after first two
years (PCA).
Fast Track whitetopping with Not in Syn. 99 In service. 180
polypropylene fibers.
faulting.
faulting.
No information on this item. Not in Svn. 99 In service 188
Metric conversion: faulting.
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 0.3 m
1 mi = 1.6 km
Design Practices,
Conventional Whitetopping
This chapter covers the requirements for quality concrete, 1. Preventing segregation
thickness design and jointing practices for conventional 2. Increasing workability
whitetopping projects including inlays. (See Chapter 5 for 3. Reducing bleeding
a discussion of ultra-thin whitetopping and how it differs 4. Reducing the amount of water required for satisfactory
from conventional whitetopping.) workability.
To ensure that an adequate pavement is designed and
constructed, it is essential to: Because of these beneficial and essential effects in both
1. Specify a quality of concrete with the required durabil- plastic and hardened concrete, it is wise to consider using
ity and strength entrained air even where freeze-thaw conditions do not exist.
2. Select a slab thickness that will keep pavement load The amount of mix water also has a critical effect on the
stresses within safe limits durability and weather resistance of concrete. The smallest
3. Use a joint design that will control unwanted cracking amount of mix water for a given cement content that will
and provide adequate load transfer. produce a plastic, workable mixture will result in the
greatest durability of the concrete. Satisfactory pavement
durability is generally achieved with the following param-
Concrete Quality eters: a water-cement plus pozzolan ratio not exceeding
Concrete paving mixes are designed to: 1) produce the 0.53 and the cement plus pozzolan content not less than
desired strength, and 2) to be durable under the load and 310 kg/m3 (520 lb/yd3) and, in areas of frequent freeze-
environmental conditions the pavement will endure. thaw and where deicing agents are commonly used, a
Compressive strength is the easiest concrete property to
measure and, as such, it is the property most commonly TABLE 2. RECOMMENDED TOTAL AIR CONTENTS
used to specify concrete. Concrete with a 28-day compres- Nominal
maximum size Target* percentage
sive strength of 30 MPa (4000 psi) often is recommended
aggregate air content for exposure
even when a lower compressive strength seems adequate. It mm (ir.) Severe** Moderate** Mild**
is important to remember, however, that strength is not the 37.5(1-1/2) 5.5 4.5 2.5
25(1) 6 4.5 3
only measure of concrete's durability. 5 3.5
19(3/4) 6
In frost-affected areas, concrete pavement must be durable 12.5(1/2) 7 5.5 4
enough to withstand many cycles of freezing and thawing 9.5 (3/8) 7.5 6 4.5
and possibly the effects of deicing salts. The mix must have a
*A tolerance of - 1 % to +2% from the target is typical for paving
low water-cement ratio, an adequate cement factor, sufficient
concrete.
quantities of entrained air, adequate curing time, and a **Severe exposure is an environment in which concrete pavement is
period of air drying. The amounts of entrained air needed for exposed to wet freeze-thaw conditions or deicers. Moderate exposure
weather-resistant concrete are given in Table 2. is an enviroment in which concrete pavement is exposed to freezing
but will no: be continually moist, nor exposed to water for long
In addition to making the hardened concrete pavement periods before freezing, and will not be in contact with deicers. Mild
weather resistant, recommended amounts of entrained air exposure is an environment in which concrete pavement is not
improve the concrete while it is still in a plastic state by: exposed to freezing conditions or deicers.
TABLE 3. SUBGRADE SOIL TYPES A N D APPROXIMATE K V A L U E
k
Type of Soil Support MPa/m CBR R
(pci)
Fine-grained soils in
which silt and clay-size Low 20-30 2.5-3.5 10-22
particles predominate (75-120)
Sand and sand-gravel
mixtures with moderate Medium 35-45 4.5-7.5 29-41
amounts of silt and clay (130-170)
Sand and sand-gravel
mixtures relatively free High 50-60 8.5-12 45-52
of plastic fines (180-220)
CBR=California Bearing Ratio, ASTM Dl 183
R=Resistance R-Value, ASTM D2844
water-cement plus pozzolan ratio not exceeding 0.49 with Support by the Existing
a minimum cement plus pozzolan content of 330 kg/m3 Asphalt Pavement
(560 lb/yd3). The support given to the concrete overlay by the existing
Additional information on mixture proportioning can be pavement is an important element in thickness design. The
found in Reference 23. degree of support is measured in terms of the Westergaard
As with all concrete pavements adequate slab thickness, modulus of subgrade reaction (k). The k-value is deter-
proper joint spacing, and load transfer are required to mined by a non-repetitive plate load test(32). Since the plate
ensure long life. A reliable design—one that addresses load test is both expensive and time consuming, the value
these factors—will provide excellent service past the of k is usually correlated to soil type or to other subgrade
intended design life (20 to 30 years or more). strength values (Table 3).
The steps in quantifying the support condition are:
1. Estimate the k-value of the subgrade (ks) (see Table 3)
Slab Thickness Design 2. Determine layer thicknesses of the existing asphalt (h1)
Several factors are involved in the structural design of and underlying base course (h2)
concrete pavements: 3. Use Fig. 7 (asphalt on granular base) or Fig. 8 (asphalt
• Supporting strength of the existing asphalt pavement on cement-treated base) to estimate the k-value on top
• Flexural strength of the concrete of the existing pavement (k).
• Design period—the expected service life of the pavement
before any major structural rehabilitation is required If the surface will be milled, h1 will be the remaining
• Amount of truck or aircraft traffic expected. asphalt thickness.
On major projects, the supporting strength of the
Slab thicknesses for roads, streets and parking areas may existing pavement may be determined by non-destructive
be determined by procedures of the Portland Cement deflection testing. With data from falling-weight
Association (PCA)(24) or the American Association of State deflectometer (FWD) tests, the strength of the pavement
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)(25) and system can be determined. The factors involved in deter-
corresponding software.(26,27) For airports, procedures of the mining k are the back-calculated subgrade resilient modu-
PCA(28,29) or Federal Aviation Administration(30) may be used. lus, the effective resilient modulus, and the total thickness
See Reference 31 for design of pavements to carry heavy of layers above the subgrade. See page 111-154 and Fig. 3.3
industrial vehicles such as straddle cranes and large fork lifts. in the AASHTO Design Guide(25).
Design Flexural Strength fr = flexural strength (modulus of rupture) MPa (psi)
Since the critical stresses in concrete pavements are flexural C = a constant, 0.75 metric (9 U.S.)
rather than compressive, flexural strength is used in f'cr = compressive strength, MPa (psi).
concrete pavement design. The following approximate Strength values reflecting this relationship are shown in
relationship between flexural and compressive strength* is Table 4.
often useful in design. Under average conditions, concrete that has a flexural
fr -C(' c r ) 0 5 strength of 3.8 to 4.6 MPa (550 to 650 psi) at 28 days is
where: most economical.
*Flexural strength by ASTM C78 (Canadian Standard Association, CSA

A23.2-8C); compressive strength by ASTM C39 (CSA A23.2-9C).
The average 28-day flexural strength value is recom the weight and the frequency of truck operations (passen-
mended as the design strength. This is considered a ger cars, pick-up trucks, and panel trucks are not heavy
conservative measure since concrete will continue to gain enough to be considered).
strength with age, and thus pavement strength will soon In parking areas and industrial facilities, certain sections
exceed and remain above the 28-day design value. (entrance/exit drives, loading dock areas, and truck
parking access lanes) may require greater pavement
Truck Traffic* thicknesses. Lifewise, if a particular area will not carry
Estimating the expected traffic is an important aspect of many heavy vehicles, a lesser slab thickness can be used,
pavement design. The required traffic information includes resulting in substantial savings on large projects.
*For airport pavement design, see References 28-30. For the thickness design
of pavements carrying industrial vehicles (lift trucks, straddle carriers, etc.) see
Reference 31.
TABLE 4. RELATIONSHIP B E T W E E N COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
AND FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Metric U.S.
Compressive, Flexural, Compressive, Flexural,
MPa MPa psi psi
24 3.7 3500 530
28 4.0 4000 570
32 4.2 4500 600
36 4.5 5000 640
Note: For individual concretes, the constant, C may vary by ± 10 percent; concretes made
with crushed aggregates usually have higher flexural strengths than those made with gravel
or rounded aggregate.
In the design tables, the average 28-day flexural strength

Design Period
should be used. Footnotes in the tables delineate load
The design period is the theoretical life of the pavement
transfer and edge support conditions.
before it will require major rehabilitation or reconstruction.
Minimum Slab Thickness.
It does not necessarily represent the actual pavement life,
Table 7 indicates the minimum recommended thickness for
which can be far longer than design, or shorter because of
standard concrete designs on asphalt. Thicknesses typically
unanticipated traffic increases. It is often taken as 20 years,
range from 200 to 300 mm (8 to 12 in.) on primary and
but may be longer or shorter depending on the expected
interstate highways. On secondary roads, most
duration of use of the facility.
whitetopping designs are between 130 and 180 mm (5 and
The design tables in this publication are for a 20-year
7 in.) thick, although some are as thin as 100 mm (4 in.).
period, but they can be used for other design periods by
Lesser thicknesses may be used for ultra-thin whitetopping
proportioning traffic accordingly. For example, for a 30-
projects as discussed in Chapter 5.
year design period, the allowable number of trucks per day
On secondary roads, the existing asphalt pavement often
given in the design tables is multiplied by 20/30.
has a higher crown (cross slope) than that needed for a
concrete overlay. This results in a tapered section of
Pavement Thickness
concrete, thicker at the outside edge. For example, if the
Tables 5a and 6a (metric), or Tables 5b and 6b (U.S.), are asphalt cross-slope exceeds that of the concrete by 0.5
used to determine the appropriate slab thickness for the percent, the increase in edge thickness is 18 mm (0.7 in.)
type and amount of truck traffic, concrete flexural strength, for a 3.6-m (12-ft) lane (Fig. 9). The thickened edge
and support (k-value). In these tables, trucks are defined as
vehicles with six tires or more.
There is one set of tables for each of two traffic categories:
1) light to medium truck traffic, and 2) heavy truck traffic.
These design tables* are for use when specific truck load
data are not available, which is usually the case. However,
if more detailed data (axle loads) are available, a more
precise pavement design analysis can be made with design
manuals(24,25) or computer software.(26,27)
In Tables 5 and 6, the number of trucks, expressed as
"trucks per day per lane," indicates how many load repeti-
tions per day are applied to a given spot on the pavement.
The tables have been prepared for 20-year designs, but
may be adapted for other design periods as described
Fig. 9. End view of paving on rural road. Note the thickened edge
previously. created by reducing the excessive crown on the old asphalt road.
*Tables are based on Reference 26: Tables 5a and 5b are for Axle Load Category
1, LSF = 1.0; Tables 6a and 6b are for Axle Load Category 3, LSF = 1.2.
increases pavement load-carrying capacity; for example, an functions. They:
edge thickness increase of 25 mm (1 in.) can nearly double 1. Prevent the formation of irregular cracks
the load carrying capacity of the overlay. 2. Provide load transfer to adjacent slabs
Design thickness on general aviation airports is generally 3. Divide the pavement into suitable increments for
from 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.). Thickness design on construction
major hub airports depends on the type of aircraft used. 4. Accommodate slab movements at fixed structures and
intersections.
Cracking of concrete pavements at regular intervals is a
Joint Design* natural phenomenon caused by frictional restraint of the
Pavement joints must be designed carefully to ensure good underlying pavement to concrete drying shrinkage, curling
performance. Properly designed joints serve several and warping stresses due to temperature and moisture
Dowels are not required.

Parenthesis = pavement with edge support (concrete shoulder, widened lane, curb and gutter,
or adjacent concrete lanes on both sides).
Minimum thickness = 100 mm.
Dowels are not required.

Minimum thickness = 4 in.
*This section describes joint design practices for conventional whitetopping

projects. See Chapter 5 for design considerations for ultra-thin whitetopping.
Shaded = doweled joints, unshaded = undoweled joints.
Parenthesis = pavement with edge support (concrete shoulder, widened lane, curb and
gutter, or adjacent concrete lanes on both sides).
Shaded = doweled joints, unshaded = undoweled joints.

T A B L E 7 . R E C O M M E N D E D M I N I M U M S L A B T H I C K N E S S FOR W H I T E T O P P I N G
Primary Low-volume
and and Auto General Major hub
interstate secondary parking aviation airports mm
roads roads areas mm airports mm (in.)
mm (in.) mm (in.) (in.) (in.)
Jointed 150(6.0) 100 (4.0) 100(4.0) 100 (4.0)* **
Continuously **
reinforced 150(6.0) 150(6.0) 150(6.0)*
* Aircraft of 5700 kg (12,500 lb) gross weight or less.

** Major hub airport thickness is dependent on design aircraft.
differential between top and bottom of the slab, and from
wheel load stresses. When these stresses exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete, it cracks. After some time a crack
pattern develops as shown in Fig. 10a. The crack spacing
depends on factors such as slab thickness, concrete shrinkage
properties, friction at the concrete-asphalt interface, and
climatic conditions. Fig. 10b shows the jointing system used
to control irregular cracking.
Types oj Joints
The most common types of joints in concrete pavements are:
• Transverse Contraction Joints: Joints that are con-
structed transverse to the centerline and spaced to
control cracking from stresses caused by shrinkage and
changes in moisture and temperature. Typically, trans-
verse contraction joints are oriented perpendicular to Fig. 10 (a) Crack pattern in unjointed concrete pavement as a
the centerline and the edges of the pavement lanes. result of environmental and load stresses, (b) Proper jointing in
• Transverse Construction Joints: Joints installed at the concrete pavements controls location and geometry of cracks.
end of a day-long paving operation, or at another
location where concrete placement was interrupted Minnesota DOT found that aggregate interlock load transfer
(e.g., bridge approach). These joints are installed at provides acceptable pavement performance when truck semi-
the location of a planned contraction joint whenever trailer volumes are fewer than 80 to 120 trucks per day per
possible. lane. In dry, non-freeze environments, greater truck volumes
• Longitudinal Contraction Joints: Joints that divide may be accommodated. Other studies have indicated that at
lanes of traffic and control cracking where two or least four to five million AASHTO 80 kN (18,000 lb) Equiva-
more lane widths are placed at one time. lent Single Axle Loads (ESALs) are required to produce
• Longitudinal Construction Joints: Joints that join objectionable faulting in undoweled pavements.
adjacent traffic lanes that are paved at different times. Dowel Bars.
• Isolation/Expansion Joints: Joints that are placed at Dowel bars are round, smooth, steel bars placed across
locations that allow the pavement to move without transverse joints to transfer loads without restricting
damaging adjacent structures (bridges, drainage horizontal joint movements due to thermal and moisture
structures, etc.) or intersecting pavements. contractions and expansions. They also keep slabs in
horizontal and vertical alignment. Dowels reduce deflec-
Load Transfer tions and stresses due to traffic loads. This in turn prevents
For jointed concrete pavements to perform adequately, or reduces faulting, pumping, and corner breaking on
traffic loadings must be transferred effectively from one roadways that carry a large number of trucks and/or have
side of the joint to the other. This is called load transfer. longer joint spacings.
Aggregate Interlock. The use of dowel bars for minimizing faulting and
Aggregate interlock is the interlocking action between pumping should be considered when the slabs are longer
aggregate particles at the face of the joint. It relies on the than (6.0m) 20 ft, when truck semi-trailer traffic exceeds 80
shear interaction between aggregate particles at the irregular to 120 per day per lane, or when the accumulated design
crack faces that form below the saw cut. This form of load traffic exceeds four to five million AASHTO ESALs per lane.
transfer has been found to be most effective on roadways with For light traffic pavements with joint spacings not exceed-
short spacings and low truck volumes. A 1985 study by the ing those shown in Table 9, dowels are not necessary.
Dowels are needed for reinforced pavements, regardless joint spacings for whitetopping are somewhat shorter than
of traffic volume, because longer joint spacings are used for pavements placed on untreated granular base or directly
and that causes the joint opening to be greater, making on the subgrade because asphalt increases the stresses that
load transfer by aggregate interlock less effective. cause cracking (concrete shrinkage and warping stresses),
Recommended dowel bar sizes and spacings are given in decreasing the natural crack interval.
Table 8. Pavement performance has demonstrated that panels
perform best when they have approximately equal transverse
Transverse Contraction Joints (Fig. 11a) and longitudinal joint spacings. When slabs are long and
Plain Slabs. narrow, they tend to crack under traffic into smaller slabs of
The objective of joint design, at least for plain (unreinforced) nearly equal dimensions. Some concrete design publications
pavements, is to have the cracks form at the weakened suggest that the length-to-width ratio for unreinforced
planes (joints). To do this, the joints must be spaced close pavements should not exceed 1.25. While this is good
enough to each other so that intermediate cracks do not practice, the performance of many miles of pavement shows
occur. A rule of thumb for whitetopping unreinforced that panels with length-to-width ratios up to 1.5 are satisfac-
concrete is that the joint spacing should not exceed 21 times tory, provided that the length-to-thickness rule given above
the slab thickness,* as shown in Table 9. The recommended is followed.
1
Joint spacing may also be based on local experience for pavements that have provided good service.
*See Chapter 5 for discussion of joint spacing for ultra-thin whitetopping.

When a reinforced overlay is designed, a longer trans-
verse joint spacing is generally used than for plain pave-
ments. For reinforced highway pavements, experience
indicates that transverse joint spacings in the range of
9 to 12 m (30 to 40 ft) perform best. It is suggested that
Type A - Contraction Type B - Keyed the optimum transverse joint spacing may be longer for
May be tied or doweled May be tied - see text thick pavements (major airport pavements 400 to 450 mm
- see text [16 to 18 in.] thick) and shorter for thin pavements
(car parking lots and residential streets 100 to 150 mm
[4 to 6 in.] thick).
For longer joint spacings used with reinforced pave-
ments, the joint opening is larger, making load transfer by
aggregate interlock less effective. As a result, dowel bars are
required (see previous section on Dowel Bars).
Type C - Butt Type D - Isolation The design engineer should always evaluate the cost of
May be thickened edge using mesh and dowels compared with that of a short,
or may be doweled unreinforced panel design.
- see text
Fig. 11. Types of pavement joints. Transverse Construction Joints (Fig. 11c)
These joints are installed at the end of a day's paving or at
Transverse joints of plain slabs may or may not be other interruptions of concrete placement, such as bridges,
doweled, depending on the amount of heavy traffic (see intersections, and emergency shutdowns. If possible, the
previous section on Dowel Bars). Dowels are installed at slab contractor should place a transverse construction joint
mid-depth with specified tolerances on alignment. (butt-type joint with dowels for load transfer) at the same
Reinforced Slabs. location where there would have been a transverse contrac-
Most whitetopping projects are built with plain, unreinforced tion joint. The same dowel sizing and placing recommen-
concrete. However, using reinforcing steel in the form of dations described for doweled contraction joints apply to
welded wire fabric (mesh) or bar mats permits the use of transverse construction joints.
longer transverse joint spacings. Since the joints must be free If it is not possible to place the construction joint at the
to open, reinforcement is interrupted at the joints. normal joint location, a keyed joint (Fig. 11b) with debars
The steel does not prevent cracking; intermediate cracks should be placed in the middle third of the normal joint
are expected to develop between the joints. The purpose of interval. This provides load transfer and prevents opening of
the steel is to hold the crack faces tightly together, providing the joint that would cause sympathetic cracking in adjacent
good load transfer by aggregate interlock. lanes. Tiebar requirements are given in Tables 10a and 10b.
Steel does not increase the pavement's structural capacity
because there is usually not enough of it and it is in the Longitudinal Contraction Joints (Fig. 11a)
wrong position (mid-depth or slightly above) to provide Longitudinal joints are parallel to the paving direction and
tensile reinforcement at slab bottom. As a result, pavement are installed where the width of concrete will exceed the
thickness is not reduced when using reinforced slabs. joint spacings shown in Table 9. Longitudinal contraction
Some engineers refer to this steel as "mesh," "distributed joints control cracking where two or more lanes are placed at
steel," or "temperature steel." The quantity of steel used can one time. They are usually sawed but, on small projects, they
vary from 0.1 to 0.3 percent of the cross-section area of the sometimes are formed with a premolded insert or grooving
pavement, depending on slab thickness, joint spacing, and tool. The depth of the joint should be one-third of the slab
other factors. (See Reference 28 for more information). thickness to ensure that the crack occurs at the joint.
Load transfer at longitudinal contraction joints is provided for the use of tiebars apply to longitudinal construction joints
by aggregate interlock. Except for wide expanses of pave- as well as to longitudinal contraction joints.
ment, deformed steel tiebars should be installed to hold the Tables 10a (metric) and 10b (U.S.) list recommended
joint fares together tightly Tiebars are placed at mid-depth of tiebar sizes and spacing*.
the slab. For wide areas—parking areas, airport aprons and
runways, and four or more adjacent lanes of highway—it is Longitudinal Construction Joints (Fig. 11b)
usually sufficient to tie only the first longitudinal joint in Longitudinal construction joints, located at the edge of
from the outside edge. Where there are curbs on both sides each construction lane, are often keyed joints. Keyways are
of the pavement, it is not necessary to tie the joints unless located at slab mid-depth and may be trapezoidal or half-
local experience indicates otherwise. These recommendations round; half-round are easier to construct and just as
Notes
1. Grade 400 steel. For other Grades, multiply spacing and length by (Grade/400).
2. For a size of tiebar different than shown in the table, bar spacing is proportional to the diameters squared. For
example, when changing from #19 bar to #13 bar, multiply spacing by 0.47 which is (13/19)2.
3. Expanse tied together is at least twice the distance (b), and can cause slab cracking.
effective. Where traffic loads are light, and pavements thin, Contraction or control joints also absorb some movement,
keyways may be omitted. If keyways are specified, proper but, their main function is to control the location and
dimensions are essential to avoid keyway failure. geometry of the natural cracking pattern. Because pavement
The situations for which tiebars are recommended in performance can be affected significantly by planned
longitudinal construction joints are the same as those isolation and expansion joints, care should be taken in their
discussed previously for longitudinal contraction joints. design. Though the terms are sometimes used interchange-
ably, isolation joints are not expansion joints.
Isolation and Expansion Joints (Fig. lid) Isolation Joints.
Isolation and expansion joints accommodate the anticipated Isolation joints isolate the pavement from a structure, another
differential horizontal and vertical movements that occur paved area, or an immovable object. They are full-depth, full-
between a pavement and a structure. Their purpose is to width joints found at bridge abutments and intersections, or
allow movement without damaging adjacent structures. between old and new pavements. The term isolation joint also
Notes
1. Grade 60 steel. For other Grades, multiply spacing and length by (Grade/60).
2. For a size of tiebar different than shown in the table, bar spacing is proportional to the diameters squared. For
example, when changing from #6 bar to #4 bar, multiply spacing by 0.44 which is (4/6)2.
3. Expanse tied together is at least twice the distance (b), and can cause slab cracking.
applies to joints around in-pavement structures such as Diagonal manhole boxout Circular manhole boxout
drainage inlets, manholes, footings, and lighting structures.
Isolation joints lessen compressive stresses that develop at
T- and unsymmetrical intersections, ramps, bridges, building
foundations, drainage inlets, manholes, and anywhere
differential movement between the pavement and a structure
may take place. They are also placed adjacent to existing
concrete pavements, especially when it is not possible or
desirable to match joint locations in the older pavement.
Isolation joints should be 12 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1 in.) wide;
greater widths may cause excessive movement. They are
filled with a pre-formed joint filler to prevent infiltration of
Manhole (no boxout) Telescoping manhole
incompressibles.
Isolation joints at structures such as bridges should use
dowels to provide load transfer. The end of the dowel must
have a closed-end expansion cap into which the dowel can
move as the joint expands and contracts. The cap must
cover 50 mm (2 in.) of the dowel and have a stop that
holds the end of the cap at least the width of the isolation
joint plus 6 mm (1/4 in.) away from the end of the dowel
bar. The cap must fit the dowel bar tightly and be water-
tight. The half of the dowel with the capped end must be
coated to prevent bond and permit horizontal movement.
Isolation joints at T- and unsymmetrical intersections or Square inlet (no boxout) Round inlet boxout
ramps are not doweled so that horizontal movement can occur
without damaging the abutting pavement. Undoweled
isolation joints are normally made with thickened edges to
reduce the stresses developed at the slab bottom. The abutting
edges of both pavements should be thickened by 20 percent
(150 mm (6 in.) minimum thickness), starting on a taper 1.5
m (5 ft) from the joint. The isolation joint filler material must
extend completely through the entire thickened-edge slab. Fig. 12. Isolation joints for boxed-out fixtures.
Isolation joints used at drainage inlets, manholes, and
lighting structures do not have thickened edges or dowels. may be recessed about 20 mm (3/4 in.) below the surface of
Fig 12 shows details of these joints. the slab to allow space for a joint sealant to be placed later.
The joint filler material, which occupies the gap between Expansion Joints.
the slabs, must be continuous from one pavement edge to Expansion joints are defined as full-depth, full-width joints
the other and through curb and gutter sections. The filler is placed at regular intervals of 15 to 150 m (50 to 500 ft) with
usually a non-absorbent, non-reactive, non-extruding contraction joints in between. This is an old practice that
material, typically made from either a closed-cell foam often caused joint pumping, spalling, and comer breaks.
rubber or a bitumen-treated fiber board. No plug or sliver Expansion joints are not needed and often create problems.
of concrete should extend over, under, through, around, or In the past, some engineers used variously spaced combi-
between sections of the filler, or it may cause spalling of the nations of expansion and contraction joints in an attempt to
concrete. After the concrete hardens, the top of the filler relieve compressive stresses in the pavement and to prevent
blow-ups that developed on hot summer days. Unfortunately, Inlays
this practice led to other distresses and general poor pave-
Concrete inlays, concrete pavements placed in a trench
ment performance. In 1940, the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads
milled out of a thick asphalt pavement, are used where it is
conducted a series of tests, which found that expansion joints
desired to remove and replace only the deteriorated lane(s)
progressively close over time causing openings to enlarge at
or where vertical clearances or other factors preclude
nearby contraction joints. This led to spalling, loss of aggre-
raising the grade with a conventional overlay. Sufficient
gate interlock, and sealant failure, which in turn allowed
depth of the old pavement is milled out so that the con-
water and incompressibles into the joint and caused pump-
crete is level with, or only slightly higher than, the existing
ing, faulting, and corner breaks. It was concluded that
shoulder or adjacent asphalt lane.
expansion joints should not be used in concrete pavements
For whitetopping in the form of inlays, thickness design
built with normal aggregates during normal temperatures
and jointing practices are the same as described previously.
with contraction joints spaced less than 18 m (60 ft) apart.
It should be noted that the whitetopping thickness design
Good design and construction of contraction joints have
procedure assumes that some depth of asphalt will exist
virtually eliminated the need for expansion joints, except
underneath the new concrete. If the full depth of asphalt is
under special conditions. The improper use of expansion
milled out, thickness design procedures(24,25,30) or soft-
joints can lead to high construction and maintenance costs,
ware(26,27,29) for new pavements placed on grade or on a
pavement growth, and other problems listed above. By
base course should be followed.
eliminating unnecessary expansion joints, failures can be
Some inlays with undoweled joints placed on interstate
minimized and the pavement will provide better performance.
highways have prematurely developed joint faulting
Expansion joints placed at regular intervals may be
thought to be due to the "bathtub effect" where water
needed when:
collects in the trench and can not drain away Therefore,
l.The pavement is divided into long panels (18 m [60
positive load transfer (dowels or continuously reinforced
ft]) without contraction joints in between
pavements) is recommended where heavy, one-directional
2. The concrete is placed when ambient temperatures are
traffic and wet climatic conditions exist.
below 4°C (40°F)
More information on inlays in existing pavements of
3. The contraction joints are allowed to be infiltrated by
both asphalt and concrete is given in the ACPA publication
large incompressible materials
Reconstruction Optimization Through Concrete Inlays(8).
4. The pavement is constructed of materials that have
shown high expansion characteristics in the past.
In most situations, these criteria do not apply and

expansion joints should not be used.
Transitions from Concrete to Asphalt

Where the concrete will abut existing asphalt pavement,
either at the ends or sides of the overlay, a thickened edge
should be used if traffic crossing the transition will be heavy.
Details of the thickened edge section are given in the
previous section. Isolation Joints.
Construction Practices,
Conventional Whitetopping*
Pre-Overlay Preparation are available: 1) sweeping and direct placement, 2) milling

to even surface distortions, and 3) placing a leveling
Table 11 provides guidelines for repairs required for (2,3,4,6)
existing asphalt distresses. Experience has shown that course
cracks in asphalt do not reflect through concrete overlays.
Direct Placement
As a result, it is usually not necessary to repair cracks or
In direct placement, ruts and surface irregularities are filled
use a synthetic fabric or stress-absorbent interlayer to
by the concrete overlay. No milling, finegrading, or other
prevent reflective cracks. Only serious asphalt distresses in
procedures are necessary. Direct placement is recom-
advanced stages, such as severe rutting, shoving, or
mended where rutting does not exceed 50-mm (2-in.)
potholes need to be repaired. Areas of subgrade failure that
maximum depth.
will not provide uniform support to the overlay should be
In order to determine the volume of concrete needed, a
removed and replaced.
survey crew should take cross-sections of the distorted
After repair, the agency must decide how to address a
profile(6). Typically, the crew should survey cross-sections at
distorted surface before placing the overlay. Several options
General pavement condition Repair work to be performed1
Rutting or shoving < 50 mm (2 in.) None 2

Rutting or shoving > 50 mm (2 in.) Milling or leveling
Potholes Fill with crushed stone,
cold mix or hot mix, and compact
Subgrade failure Remove and replace subgrade
Alligator cracking None
Block cracking None
Transverse cracking None
Longitudinal cracking None
Raveling None
Bleeding None
1
Other factors to consider: adding edge drains, costs of direct placement vs. milling vs. leveling.
2
Consider increased joint sawing depth.
*This chapter discusses construction practices for conventional whitetopping

projects including concrete inlays. See Chapter 5 for construction of ultra-thin
whitetopping.
every station (30 m [100 ft]) along vertical tangents and 7 to 9 elevations taken at each cross-section
large-radius vertical curves. More frequent intervals (8 m for a typical two-lane roadway.
[25 ft]) are necessary along short-radius curves or at the
discretion of the engineer. The cross-sections provide a
means to estimate the area of the overlay at each station.
Volume estimates over the length of the project provide a Fig. 13. Typical measurement locations for cross-sectioning
more accurate system for the agency and contractor to existing asphalt pavements.
estimate concrete quantities.
For each cross-section, elevations are taken wherever the An agency should consider the cost difference between
survey crew determines the surface is distorted. Typically milling and direct placement when planning a whitetopping
seven to nine points are necessary for a two-lane road (Fig. concrete overlay. Some agencies maximize the advantages of
13). Measurements at the pavement edges, center line, both milling and direct placement by milling only the high
wheel ruts, and quarter points are typical. A cross-sectional spots and leaving the rest of the surface intact.
area of the overlay is determined at each station using the Inlays:
measured elevations and a proposed surface elevation. The In cases where geometric, vertical clearance, or right-of-
proposed elevation should meet thickness requirements way constraints preclude raising the final surface elevation,
even over high spots in the existing surface. The calcula- the existing asphalt surface is milled deep enough to place
tions for cross-sectional areas are similar to those used in the concrete pavement. The advantages of using the
determining earthwork quantities. Most agencies can easily existing pavement as a construction platform remain. The
adapt their existing earthwork computer software to existing shoulders are left in place. Only the asphalt travel
provide the overlay quantity calculations. One county lanes are milled or, in some cases, only the deteriorated
highway department developed software specifically for lane of a two-lane asphalt pavement. The slipform paver
whitetopping calculations'6'. uses the shoulders as the trackline for constructing the
Certain automated distress surveying equipment also inlay (Fig. 15). When the inlay is placed across the full
can provide the existing surface profile. Typically this width of the pavement, the final grade is often set 40 to 50
equipment is used by highway departments for pavement mm (1-1/2 to 2 in.) above the shoulder grade. Then, after
management, but the information it yields also can be used placing the concrete inlay, the contractor can resurface the
to make volume estimates. existing shoulders or use milled material for granular
Because no surface preparation is necessary, direct shoulder fill.
placement is very cost effective. Engineering costs are Additional information on concrete inlays is given in
incurred for taking cross-sections, but they are generally Reference 8.
less than the cost of leveling the existing surface.
Leveling Course:
Milling Existing Asphalt Another way to create a uniform paving surface is to place
Surface distortions can be removed using a profile milling a leveling course(2,4). Typically, 25 to 50 mm (1 to 2 in.) of
or planing machine (Fig. 14)(2,4,6). Usually from 25 to 75 asphalt must be removed to eliminate distortions. The
mm (1 to 3 in.) of removal is required to produce a leveling course should be able to correct severe surface
uniform profile. Milling establishes the finished grade line deviations in the existing asphalt pavement(33). Typically, a
and adjusts the cross slope as needed. The overlay is hot-mix bituminous material is specified that meets
constructed as if atop a trimmed base course. This method standard design specifications and employs conventionally
requires less surveying time and expense than does direct graded aggregates.
placement, but incurs the cost of milling and, in certain A leveling course is usually more expensive than milling
cases, disposal of removed material. (Milled material can be or direct placement. One major reason is that, on average,
economically used for shoulder construction.) the volume cost of asphalt is higher than concrete. In a
Fig. 14. Cold-milling old asphalt. Fig. 15. Slipjorm paver riding existing shoulders. The dowel
baskets are in place as the inlay is paved.
side-by-side study, one state reported that a leveling course Likewise, a new asphalt leveling course will develop
cost nearly three times more than milling and overlaying more heat because of its darker color. Here, it may be
directly*3'". Because of its expense, this option should not be necessary to whitewash the pavement, so it will absorb less
considered where distortions are less than 50 mm (2 in.). heat from the sun.
Time and completion requirements also are factors. Whitewash is recommended when the temperature of
Placing a leveling course is an additional operation. Since the bituminous material is expected to exceed 45°C
concrete fills ruts while paving the overlay, direct place- (110°F). During the summer when ambient temperatures
ment requires less time. are greater than 32°C (90°F), the asphalt temperature can
These cost savings for materials enhance the economy of become excessive. On soft asphalt [above 45°C (110°F)]
direct placement of concrete on distorted asphalt. Also problems can arise such as bonding to the existing pave-
contributing to the overall economy of direct placement are ment and concrete shrinkage cracking(35). An application of
savings in additional equipment, material, labor, and whitewash will allow the material to cool and help prevent
mobilization needed for a leveling course. these problems. Temperature differences between a white-
washed surface and an untreated asphalt surface can be
Water Fogging and Whitewashing 10°C (20°F) or more.
Before concrete is placed it is advisable to consider the Whitewash consists of either white-pigmented curing
temperature of the asphalt surface. Because of its dark compound or lime slurry'33'. A lime slurry mixture is made
color, asphalt can absorb and store a considerable amount of water and hydrated lime which is readily available.
of heat from solar radiation. Mixing instructions are generally written on the packaging.
The heat of the asphalt on a hot, sunny day, plus the Although directions usually suggest it, do not add salt to a
heat of cement hydration combined can cause the pave- lime slurry for whitewashing. Salt can damage the overlay
ment to crack when it cools at night. concrete and steel. Fig. 16 shows lime slurry being sprayed
Water fogging and whitewashing are two methods used onto the surface of an existing asphalt pavement prior to
separately to reduce the asphalt temperature. Old asphalt concrete overlay. Curing compound should conform to
and milled old asphalt are not as dark as and absorb less AASHTO Specification M-148 for use as a whitewash.
heat than new asphalt so light water fogging before paving Whether using white curing compound or lime slurry, the
usually provides sufficient cooling. It is good practice to mixture and the rate of application should produce a uniform
water fog if the asphalt surface heat makes it uncomfortable color on the surface. Occasionally, job site conditions may call
to touch with an open palm. for a second application. Rain or construction traffic can fade
Fig. 16. Applying whitewash to a black surface. Fig. J17. Using existing road to haul concrete batches. Note the
truck depositing concrete in front of paver.
or wear away the white color. Some tracking by construction Slipform pavers spread, consolidate, screed, and float
traffic is not detrimental. However, if the whitewashed surface finish the freshly placed concrete in one pass without using
temperature exceeds 45°C (110°F), a second coat should be fixed forms. They usually operate from preset stringlines
applied. If reinforcement is in place during application of a for line and grade control. Usually, two construction
second coat, avoid significant contact of the whitewash with stringlines are established along the roadway. Dual
the deformed bars. The reinforcement should be cleaned if a stringlines provide excellent grade control and generally
significant amount of whitewash is inadvertently applied. result in a smooth pavement. However, project conditions
Excessive whitewash should not be applied to the paver often dictate construction procedures, so decisions should
trackline. On hills and superelevation sections, slipform be left to the discretion of the contractor. For further
paving equipment riding on whitewash curing compound information on smooth pavement construction, refer to
may loose traction and drift, resulting in a rough pavement American Concrete Pavement Association publication
profile until the paver regains traction. Constructing Smooth Concrete Pavements (TB006P).
For many projects, contractors may want to obtain
concrete from ready mix producers to eliminate the need
Placing and Finishing Concrete for batching and mixing equipment. If mixing is done at
Before concrete placement, the asphalt should be moistened the job site, the equipment should be inspected to ensure
so it does not absorb water from the concrete mix. When that batch size, mixing time, and mixer speed provide an
the concrete is placed from a ready mix truck, sprinkling adequate degree of mixing. Blade wear should not be
can be done with a hose from the truck's water tank. excessive and mixing should be uniform from batch to
Concrete pavement is placed either with fixed forms or a batch. The importance of maintaining uniform concrete
slipform paver. If fixed forms are used, they must be rigid consistency from batch to batch cannot be overempha-
and secured to adequately support the concrete equipment sized. Uniformity makes placing and finishing easier and
without springing or settling. Forms set to the required line helps ensure quality pavement with good riding qualities.
and grade ensure that the finished pavement will provide Concrete should be spread on the existing pavement as
both a smooth riding surface and proper surface water uniformly as possible to minimize segregation and the
drainage. Forms should be oiled before and cleaned after amount of additional spreading needed ahead of the
each use. They should be left in place until the concrete slipform paver. When side forms are used, concrete can be
has hardened, then removed carefully to prevent damage to spread with a mechanical spreader or a strike-off screed
the concrete edges and corners. that rides on the forms. Concrete must be placed to at least
Fig. 18. Where an adjacent haul road is not practical, dowel Fig. 19. Construction train: slip-form paver, texuring, and curing.
baskets can be moved into place after trucks deposit concrete.
the minimum thickness shown on the plans. Deviations for

Texturing
profile or cross-section adjustments should be above the
The timing of the texturing operation is important. If done
nominal thickness.
too early or too late, the desired skid resistance will not be
When finishing machines are not used, a vibrating
obtained. The best time for texturing is just after the water
screed or roller screed is used to strike off and consolidate
sheen has disappeared and just before the concrete be-
the concrete. With any finishing equipment, a uniform roll
comes non-plastic (Fig. 19).
or head of concrete must be maintained ahead of the
For low-speed, municipal or urban projects, a burlap
screed to ensure adequate consolidation and to prevent low
drag, turf drag, or coarse broom texture is sufficient (Fig.
spots. Vibration, either by internal vibrators or by surface
20). For high-speed interstate and other primary routes,
vibration, fosters good consolidation.
tining provides excellent long-term skid resistance (Fig. 21).
Floating, if necessary, follows the screeding operation, but
Successive positioning of the tining comb (Fig. 22) is
should be kept to a minimum. If the surface cannot be
critical because overlapping the striations can cause spalling
properly finished without the continuous use of floats,
later. The comb should be lifted up as it approaches the
corrections should be made in the concrete mix or in the
edge of the pavement to prevent edge damage. With heavy
adjustment of the finishing machines. The surface should be
tining, striations are often blanked out for a short distance
checked with a long-handled, 3-m (10-ft) straightedge for a
smooth surface. The straightedge can be scraped across the
surface to remove bumps and excess mortar, or it can be used
to check surface evenness. If side forms are used, the concrete
should be edged along the forms. (Detailed specifications for
concrete pavement construction are given in Reference 36).
For undoweled pavement, concrete can be placed on the
old surface directly in front of the paver (Fig. 17). When
dowel baskets are used, a side haul road will allow the
baskets to be placed ahead of paving. If a side haul road is
not practical, baskets can be moved into place after trucks
deliver the concrete (Fig. 18). Dowel bar insertion equip-
ment frees the entire road surface for concrete delivery in
front of the paver. Fig. 20. Burlap or turf drag.
Fig. 21. Transverse lining provides excellent long-term skid Fig. 22. Close-up of tining comb.
resistance.
(about 100 mm [4 in.]) where joints will be sawed to waterproof paper or plastic covers, such as polyethylene
reduce joint spalling and raveling. A strip of fabric, belt sheets, and 3) wet cotton mats or burlap.
material, or flexible metal band is used for the blank-outs. Liquid membrane curing compounds are recommended
Hand texturing is permitted on irregular areas. Texturing and should be white to reflect the sun and to make it easier to
equipment should be kept clean and replaced when worn. check for uniformity of coverage. The white pigment must be
kept in suspension by constant agitation during application to
prevent it from settling. Most applicators are equipped with
Protection from Rain mechanical agitators or compressed air. Windshields may be
Before paving operations begin, the contractor should necessary to prevent loss of compound during spraying. The
anticipate protective procedures to be followed in the event compound is sprayed on at the rate specified and it must cover
of rain. Rolls of protective covering should be installed on the entire surface including pavement edges.
the paving equipment for quick application when it rains, Waterproof covers, when used, should be inspected for
or located at the construction site and moved to the rips and holes that might permit loss of moisture. The sheets
placement area when rain appears likely. When rain is must overlap and should be held in position by mounds of
imminent, paving should be stopped. dirt or other weights.
Burlap or cotton mats used for curing, must be kept
moist continuously throughout the specified curing period
Curing because dry mats will remove moisture from the concrete
Concrete must be cured to ensure proper strength gain and surface by wicking action.
durability. Curing prevents rapid water loss, thereby During cold or hot weather, special methods may be
permitting cement hydration and controlling temperature. required to keep the concrete within the specified temperature
Usually curing can be undertaken after the watersheen has range. For details, see Reference 23, Chapters 11 and 12 on hot
left the surface and the surface texturing has been com- and cold weather concreting. Reference 37 also includes
pleted. All exposed surfaces, inlcuding edges and joints, valuable information on thermal effects on concrete pavements.
should be kept moist until the curing material is applied.
During rapid drying conditions, a light fogging may be
required until curing can take place. Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
The most common materials used for curing are: 1) On hot, dry, windy days it may be necessary to take precau-
liquid, white-pigmented, membrane curing compounds, 2) tions to avoid plastic shrinkage cracking, which is caused by
• Water mist aggregate stockpiles and asphalt surfaces
before paving
• Use an evaporative retardant (monomolecular com-
pound) on the concrete surface.
Joint Construction*
Concrete joints can be formed by sawing, tooling, or by
using inserts. On most projects the joints are sawed.
Timing of Joint Sawing

Transverse and longitudinal joints must be sawed as soon as
possible to relieve initial stresses and to ensure that cracking
will develop only at the joints. The timing of sawing is
critical and requires a fair amount of judgment and experi-
ence. Sawing too late can cause uncontrolled random
cracking, while sawing too early can cause excessive joint
raveling, because the concrete mortar has not gained suffi-
cient strength to hold the aggregate particles in place.
Weather conditions have a large influence on concrete
strength gain and the optimum time to begin sawing. Proper
timing also depends on the concrete mix design and type of
concrete coarse aggregate used; mixes with softer limestone
aggregates require less strength gain for sawcutting than do
those containing harder aggregates.
Under normal conditions, contractors begin sawing
transverse joints 4 to 12 hours after concrete placement.
Fig. 23. Chart to estimate evaporation rate under prevailing However, in very hot weather, sawing may need to be
environment and concrete temperature conditions. started in 4 hours or less, and a small amount of raveling
rapid evaporation of water from the slab surface(23). When may be unavoidable, and should be accepted. On the other
this occurs while concrete is in a plastic or semi-plastic hand, cold temperatures may retard concrete strength gain
state, it results in surface shrinkage. Air temperature, and prohibit sawing operations for up to 24 hours or more.
relative humidity, wind velocity, and concrete temperature For longitudinal joints, the timing of sawing operations is
influence the rate of evaporation. The tendency for rapid not as critical as for transverse joints. In many cases, longitudi-
evaporation increases when concrete temperature exceeds nal joint sawing can be effective up to 48 hours after concrete
air temperature(38). placement. However, it is recommended to saw the longitudi-
Using Fig. 23 it is possible to estimate the evaporation(39). nal joints as soon as possible after the transverse joints are cut.
When the evaporation rate exceeds 1.0 kg/m2/hr (0.2 lb/ft2/ This is especially important under the following conditions,
hr), plastic shrinkage cracking is likely. As a precaution, it is which could cause premature cracking: 1) for whitetopping
advisable to monitor and adjust field curing practice if the (compared to concrete built on a granular base) because the
evaporation rate exceeds 0.5 kg/m2/hr (0.1 lb/ft2/hr). asphalt offers a higher degree of friction and, because it is
There are several ways to moderate the environment and stiffer, higher warping stresses, and 2) during periods of large
cool concrete components (and thus reduce evaporation): temperature fluctuations (spring, fall, and sudden rainstorms),
• Pave during the evening or at night when higher-than-normal curling stresses are induced.
*The selection of joint spacing is discussed in Chapter 3.

Consider increased saw depth concrete. Fast track construction frequently is used to
over major distortions rehabilitate highways and busy street intersections.
One use of fast tracking is to accelerate sequential paving
pours for a wide expanse of pavement. After paving
alternate lanes with fast track concrete, the contractor does
not have to wait several days to slipform the fill-in lanes.
Other applications are concrete overlay projects or any
+ 50 mm (2 in.)
location where traffic disruption must be minimized.
Fig. 24. Consideration should be given to increase the depth of Often, normal construction is employed for most of the
sawing where distortions exceed two inches.
work and fast track paving is used only in critical areas.
Fast track concrete mixtures do not require special
Joint Depth materials. Usually, with local cements, aggregates, admix-
For whitetopping, the depth of saw cut for transverse or tures, and additives, mixtures can be designed to produce
longitudinal joints should be no less than one-third the the strength needed in a specified period of time. High
nominal overlay thickness. Recent developments in early- early strengths are obtained with greater-than-normal
age sawing techniques may allow a shallower saw cut. amounts of ordinary Type I and Type II cements or a
When adjustments are made to the slab thickness for normal amount of Type III (high early-strength cement),
profile or cross-slope, the contractor should pay careful with or without water reducing and accelerating admix-
attention to the sawing depth. A deeper cut should be tures as required. (Types I, II, and III correspond respec-
made where the overlay thickness varies more than 25 mm tively to Type 10, 20, and 30 as specified by the Canadian
(33)
(1 in.) over the nominal thickness , and even greater saw Standards Association.)
depths should be considered for joints on pavement placed Fast track paving operations are the same as described
over significant distortions (ruts) of 50 mm (2 in.) or more previously but require well-planned sequencing because
(Fig. 24). concrete hardens more quickly.
In addition to a curing compound, fast track concrete is
Sealing often covered with polystyrene foam insulation blankets to
An approved high-quality sealant seals joint reservoirs and retain the heat generated by cement hydration, which
prevents moisture and incompressible infiltration into the enhances early strength gain.
overlay system. Sealants should be installed following More detailed information is given in the ACPA publica-
manufacturer's instructions. tion Fast Track Concrete Pavements.
Recent research has demonstrated exceptional perfor-
mance of high-quality sealant materials, some lasting 10 to
15 years. However, all options should be considered and a Job-Site Considerations
life-cycle cost analysis of the joint sealing system should be
done to determine which sealant material will provide the Overhead Structures
lowest overall cost. Overhead structures may require special consideration for
concrete overlay design and construction. AASHTO
recommends a minimum vertical clearance of 4.3 m (14 ft)
Fast Track Construction over the entire roadway(36). Highway departments typically
Fast track concrete paving is a useful method when early specify up to 4.6m (15 ft) in anticipation of resurfacing.
opening to traffic is required. Experience in recent years Along interstate and other primary highways, a 4.9-m (16-
shows that, with special mixes and construction tech- ft) vertical clearance is usually specified. Because of slab
niques, fast track pavements can be put into use in as little thickness and clearance requirements, whitetopping
as 1 or 2 days, compared with about 7 days for normal projects may require short sections of reconstruction or
-Exist, pavement
-Overlay
Transition length +90 m (+300 ft.) typical
Increased thickness to -
account for reduced
support
Fig. 25. Taper sections can easily be made by milling the existing
pavement to the desired grade.
inlay under overhead structures, or raising bridges to

obtain clearance requirements.
Prudent design of taper sections (Fig. 25) between the
overlay and full-depth reconstruction sections will improve
construction efficiency and ride.
Raising bridges is another option to maintain clearance.
The bridges are jacked vertically and spacers are placed
above the piers and abutments. Figs. 26a and 26b show
spacers above piers—one made of cast concrete, the other
made of steel.
On-Line Bridges
Bridges on the route may also warrant special consider-
ation. The vertical transition from overlay to bridge deck
elevation can be made by milling a taper into the existing
pavement. The length of milling will depend on the Fig. 26b. Steel spacers used for the same purpose.
difference in elevation between the overlay and the deck or
approach slabs. Approximately 0.5m per mm (40 ft per in.)
of thickness reduction will provide a smooth transition(4).
Expansion joints at the bridge approaches must be estab-
lished in the overlay.
Shoulders
Except on inlay sections, concrete overlays of existing
asphalt necessitate construction of new shoulders or curb
and gutter. Where hard-surfaced shoulders are desired,
concrete should be considered for its lower cost, ease of
construction and benefits provided over bituminous
shoulders. When aggregate shoulders are appropriate, they
can be constructed economically using the milled material
Fig. 26a. Concrete placed on a pier to raise the bridge clearance. from surface corrections and transitions.
Fig. 27. Tied concrete shoulders provide a long service life with Fig. 28. Breaking the grade when filling side slopes can
minimal maintenance. Concrete shoulders also reduce edge stresses significantly reduce the volume of fill and work required.
and deflections in the overlay system. Detail A shows how to construct the break.
Concrete shoulders reduce structural stresses and When asphalt millings are available from surface correction
deflections in the overlay slabs and increase the life of the and hard surfaced shoulders are not required, it may be most
mainline pavement. Shoulders tied with deformed bars to economical to construct an asphalt shoulder because consid-
maximize structural benefit will provide service for as long erably less granular material will need to be shipped to the
as the mainline slabs (Fig. 27). Tiebar sizes and spacings job site. As with all designs, a full analysis of total construc-
are given in Tables 10a and 10b. The longitudinal joint tion operation and life-cycle costs should be performed.
between the concrete shoulder and the mainline can be
sealed very effectively, resulting in reduced water infiltra- Fill for Slope Flattening
tion at the lane edge. For flat rolling country, 6 to 1 slopes are recommended by
On primary and interstate routes, some agencies specify AASHTO for embankments less than 1.2 m (4 ft) high. For
a 0.6- or 0.9-m (2- or 3-ft) widened outer lane, which higher embankments, 4 to 1 slopes can be used. These
provides structural benefits similar to those of tied concrete standards are reduced for moderately steep or steep terrain.
shoulders. Many road agencies base local standards for appropriate
The structural capacity of the shoulder should be slopes on roadway design speeds. Because of the increase
considered. It is advisable to match the mainline thickness in slab elevation, fill is required along the overlay to meet
at the shoulder/slab interface. A 50-mm (2-in.) taper to the these requirements.
outside edge has been used by many agencies with much A practical solution used by some agencies to reduce the
success. The shoulder will be structurally adequate to carry volume of fill required for regrading is to break the slope.
traffic when needed, such as during maintenance periods Breaking the side slope requires less fill material and
for striping or joint sealing. construction time (Fig. 28) and is less costly than complete
Concrete will likely be the most cost-effective hard- regrading of the slopes.
surfaced shoulder, since the contractor can pave the
concrete shoulder integrally with the overlay. Concrete for Traffic Control
the shoulder is supplied from the central mix or ready mix During construction, traffic is often routed around the
operations used for the project, but bituminous shoulders construction zone. How traffic is handled depends on the
require additional materials, equipment, and crews. site conditions and should be based on a cost analysis. On
Generally, this also requires different construction sequenc- rural secondary and some urban routes, detours may be
ing and additional time. possible, but many times, this is not practical.
For primary and interstate routes with two or three lanes
and shoulders in each direction, traffic can usually be
routed around the work zone without crossovers(2). The
traffic is routed on a shoulder and an adjacent lane while
work is completed on the remaining lanes and shoulder.
Workers can be separated from traffic using plastic cones,
barrels, or portable concrete barriers.
Another option is to place crossovers and construct the
overlay full-width. On four-lane divided highways, traffic
can be routed to the opposing lanes(2). At least two cross-
overs would be required, one at each end of the work. The
crossovers should be placed far enough from the end of the
work area to allow the contractor to line up and stage
equipment during construction. Traffic will be operating
under two-lane, two-way conditions (Fig. 29). Separation
of traffic in the crossover areas should be accomplished
using a concrete median barrier. Along the length of two-
lane, two-way operation, when barrier separation is not
necessary, cones, drums or guide posts can be used.
Studies have shown that tubular guide posts are the most
economical in terms of cost and space.(40)
In urban areas, intersections will generally be recon-
structed or inlayed to meet grade requirements. Construc-
tion with fast track concrete should be evaluated in
determining construction sequencing and traffic handling.
Fast track pavement construction is a proven method for
minimizing traffic delay and user costs. Overnight or
weekend construction with fast track concrete should be
evaluated for intersection whitetopping or reconstruction. Fig. 29. Traffic operating in two-lane, two-way conditions can be
These methods minimize problems with construction separated using tubular guide posts.
sequencing and traffic handling.
especially in cases where the concrete overlay has been used
Payment to fill in ruts and other surface deviations in the existing
Payment for concrete overlays of existing asphalt pavements flexible pavement. Because of this, the most equitable and
should be made with two bid items. One item should economical basis of payment is to separate the cost of
account for the cubic meter (cubic yard) cost for supplying supplying the concrete and placing the overlay, as follows:
the concrete, and the second item should account for the
square meter (square yard) cost for placing the overlay. The Cubic Meter (Cubic Yard) Payment.
split payment allows equitable consideration of variations in The cost of materials, mixing the concrete, and trans-
overlay thickness. porting the concrete is included in the unit price per
These variations occur due to surface distortions in the cubic meter (cubic yard) for supplying the concrete. To
existing asphalt, vertical displacements and changes in determine the volume of concrete used, each concrete
cross-slope or grade. In most cases, the overlay thickness batch quantity should be recorded at the point of
will vary from the nominal thickness shown on the plans, placement. The engineer and contractor can then agree
on the actual volume of concrete placed by summing the The initial construction cost is reduced if a divided
volumes recorded on batch tickets for each batch payment method is used because the contractor does not
delivered and placed. have to estimate unknown quantities. Only the volume of
concrete actually used is paid for. Moreover, small increases
Square Meter (Square Yard) Payment. in thickness yield large benefits in load-carrying capacity of
The placement cost of the overlay includes concrete the concrete pavement. Gaining added life for the cost of
placing, finishing, curing, reinforcing, and sawing and the material is an excellent benefit to the agency and the
sealing joints. traveling public.
ULTRA-THIN
WHITETOPPING
Ultra-thin whitetopping (UTW) is a process where a thin layer procedures, which do not account for the beneficial effects
of concrete (50 to 100 mm [2 to 4 in.]), usually high strength of interlayer bond and small slabs(43,45).
and fiber reinforced, is placed over a prepared surface of The remarkable performance in Louisville generated
distressed asphalt. In addition to the thinness of the concrete, much interest in the UTW concept and has resulted in
other factors differentiate UTW from normal whitetopping. recent construction of many similar projects in the U.S.,
These are: 1) a substantial degree of bond is obtained between Mexico, Canada, and Sweden.
the concrete overlay and the existing asphalt pavement, and 2) The use of UTW has grown rapidly From 1992 through
joint spacings are much shorter than normal. 1996, more than 100 projects, representing about 1 million
Usually, UTW is applied where a substantial thickness of square meters (1 million plus sq yd), have been placed in
asphalt exists, such as full-depth asphalt pavements North America.(46) A partial list of projects is given in Table 12.
(asphalt surface on asphalt base) or where, multiple asphalt Data available from several projects (10 locations,(47)
overlays were placed over time. Iowa,(48) Florida,(49) and Sweden(50)) indicate good perfor-
UTW projects have provided durable wearing surfaces for mance of UTW.
normal traffic loads on residential and collector streets and
roads'4". Other applications include asphalt intersections
where rutting and washboarding is a problem, general Materials
aviation pavements(42), and parking areas. Many projects The concrete mix for a particular UTW project is often
have been fast-tracked and opened to traffic quickly. selected based on requirements for opening to traffic. A
normal mix design includes cement, coarse and fine
aggregate, air-entraining agent, admixtures (water reducers
History and Growth or plasticizers), fibers (as specified), and a low water-
Some of the innovative concepts of UTW were first em- cement ratio. Compared to aggregate used for thicker
ployed in 1988 in Kentucky where 90 mm (3.5 in.) of concrete pavements, the top-size of coarse aggregate for
concrete pavement was placed over existing asphalt on two UTW is reduced appropriately for thin pavements.
projects, and in 1990 in Colorado where sections of 90 and When fibers are used in UTW mixes, the fiber contents
125 mm (3.5 and 5.0 in.) were placed. are usually in the range appropriate for the specific type of
A notable early project was the 1991 Louisville, Ken- fiber. On some projects, higher-than-normal amounts of
tucky, overlay at a landfill access road(43). Fiber reinforced fiber have been used. The need for fibers and the optimum
concrete sections of 50- and 90-mm (2.0- and 3.5-in.) content have not been established.
thickness with 0.6- and 1.8-m (2- and 6-ft) joint spacings Many UTW projects have been paved with fast track
were slipformed on top of a deteriorated asphalt pavement. mixes. These typically use a higher cement content or high
The slabs were instrumented to measure strains and early-strength cement, and other adjustments in the mix to
deflections under the loads of many heavy refuse trucks for produce compressive strengths of at least 20 MPa (3000
which the weights were recorded. The performance of psi) in 24 hours. More information on mix design for fast-
these thin slabs was outstanding—much better than would track paving is given in Chapter 4 and in the ACPA
be predicted by conventional concrete pavement design publication, Fast Track Concrete Pavements (TB004P).
TABLE 1 2 . P A R T I A L L I S T O F U T W PROJECTS ( 1 9 9 1 - 1 9 9 6 )
Constr. Thickness Approx. Size

State Location Date mm in. m2 yd 2
Colorado Oxford area, Santa Fe Frontage 96 100 4 2,500 3,000
Rd., Region 6
Colorado Longmont, east of 96 100 4 18,700 22,300
SH-119,Region4
Colorado Intersection of Havana & 96 75 3 1,200 1,430
Parker, CDOT Reg. 6
Florida New Smyrna Beach GA Airport Dec 96 50,90 2,3.5 13,100 15,600
Apron
Georgia Truck scale near Lavonia, I-85 May 93 65 2.5 235 280
Georgia Marbut Rd., DeKalb Co. Sep 93 75 3 325 390
Georgia Wesley Chapel Rd., DeKalb Sep 93 75 3 170 200
County
Georgia Westview & Holderness, Jun 95 75 3 200 240
Atlanta
Illinois Holiday Inn Parking Lot, Oct 94 75 3 22,600 27,000
Decatur
Iowa Highway 21, Victor to Belle Jun 94 various 13,400 16,000
Plaine
Kansas 119th Street, Lea wood Apr 95 50 2 14,000 16,534
Kansas KCI Airport Loop Drives
(Landside):
Helsinki Drive Jul 96 50 2 2,100 2,497
Moscow Drive Jul 96 50 2 1,800 2,153
Kansas Lenexa, Olathe, Overland Park Sep 96 75 3 3,050 3,640
Inter., College & Pflum
Kansas Topeka, California St. Nov 96 50 2 11,300 13,515
Kansas Sedgwick County 96
Michigan Traverse City, Cornelius Sep 96 90 3.5 1,450 1,733
Concrete Entrance Rd.
Minnesota Trunk Hwy. 169, Mankato Jul 95 75 3 220 265
Minnesota North Mankato, LoRay Drive at Jun 96 75 3 5,930 7,082
US 169
Minnesota University of Minn., service Oct 96 90 3.5 1,690 2,023
drive & dock area
Mississippi Jackson area, I-55 Ramps at Oct 96 90 3.5 1,690 2,023
County Line Road
Missouri Spirit of St. Louis G.A. Apron, Dec 94 90 3.5 11,700 14,000
St. Louis
New Jersey I-295 Exit Ramp, Bordertown Aug 94 75 3 1,950 2,320
North Carolina Burlington, Morehead St. at S. Aug 96 50,75 2,3 170 200
Lexington Ave.
North Carolina Wrightsville Beach St. Jul 94 65 2.5 920 1,100
North Carolina Wrightsville Beach St. Jul 94 65 2.5 920 1,100
Constr. Thickness Approx. Size
State Location Date mm in. m2 yd 2
Ohio Taylor Station Rd., Franklin Jul 95 50 2 465 555
Co.
Ohio Hamilton County Jul 96 50 2 330 400
Ohio Brunswick, Medina Cty. Aug 96 50 2 330 400
Oklahoma Stillwater, bank parking lot 96 75 3 1,630 1,944
Pennsylvania 6th & Linden, Allentown Aug 94 75 3 225 270
Pennsylvania 8th & Linden, Allentown Aug 94 75 3 315 375
Pennsylvania Allentown Bethlehem Easton Nov 94 75 3 150 180
Airport
Pennsylvania Route 22 Ramp onto I-83 Oct 95 90 3.5 1,160 1,385
Pennsylvania Route 30, Lancaster Oct 95 90 3.5 334 400
South Dakota US Highway, West of Pierre Jul 96 65,90 2.5, 3.5 2,700 3,200
Tennessee First St. & Woodland, Nashville May 92 65 2.5 280 335
Tennessee S. Hickory & 28th St., Jul 92 75 3 210 250
Chattanooga
Tennessee Concord Rd. Knoxville Nov 92 90 3.5 135 160
Tennessee Cusick St., Maryville Aug 93 75 3 290 345
Tennessee Hwy. 56, McMinnville Oct 93 75 3 210 250
Tennessee Belvoir Ave., Chattanooga Nov 93 75 3 170 200
Tennessee Green St., Athens Jan 94 75 3 210 250
Tennessee Lamar Ave. & Winchester,
Memphis
Tennessee Lamar Ave. & Shelby Dr., Dec 94 90 3.5 2,700 3,200
Memphis
Tennessee Hwy. 51 & Watkins, Memphis Dec 94 90 3.5 2,300 2,800
Tennessee Poplar & Kirby, Memphis Dec 94 90 3.5 2,300 2,800
Tennessee US Hwy. 11, Paul Huff Pky., Aug 95 75 3 490 580
Cleveland
Tennessee Stage Road & Covington Pike, Dec 95 75 3 4,000 4,800
Memphis
Tennesse Six intersections in Memphis 96 75 3 13,400 16,000
Tennessee State Route 57 at Byhalia 96
Tennessee State Route 57 at German Town 96
Road
Tennessee State Route 3 at 96
Cuba/Millington
Tennessee State Route 4 at Knight-Arnold 96
Tennessee State Route 4 at Democrat 96
Tennessee State Route 6 at Pearson 96
Wyoming Gillette, 1st Street Oct 96 75, 100 3,4 178 213
Virginia St. Rt. 29, Albermarle Co Jun 95 50 2 4,500 5,300
Current UTW Research and Perfor- long enough to develop as much bending moment. Short
slabs also reduce curling and warping stresses.
mance Data
The Louisville project (project A)(43) surprised everyone
Important performance information is emerging from UTW by carrying many more heavy trucks than predicted. Strain
projects in service; but each project is only a single point of measurements showed considerable bond between con-
reference, usually not systematically quantifying compari- crete and asphalt.
sons of different design features. However, six comprehen- Completed on Iowa 21 in July 1994, the largest project is
sive research projects(14) (Table 13) are being analyzed to a seven-mile test pavement148' that includes 65 concrete
shed light on UTW design questions. All six projects have overlay sections with a wide assortment of thicknesses, joint
been, or will be, instrumented with strain gauges to spacings, and treatments of the existing asphalt (project B).
measure the effects of truck loads. Other tests at most of Pavement strains, deflections, and other data are being
the sites are: deflections measured by a falling weight studied over a five-year period by Iowa State University.
deflectometer, surface profile and temperature measure- In late 1994, instrumentation was installed in the
ments, condition surveys, and cores to measure bond general aviation apron at the St. Louis Airport (project
between concrete and asphalt. C).(42) The apron carries 500 to 600 aircraft per day with
The success of UTW is attributed to two factors: 1) loads up to 5700 kg (12,500 lb). Construction Technology
concrete bond to asphalt creating a monolithic section, and Laboratories (CTL) will monitor the data on how the UTW
2) the use of short joint spacings. The bond, or high friction, behaves over time under loads and thermal stresses. Initial
at the concrete-asphalt interface creates a composite section, strain measurements indicate high bond at the interface so
lowering the neutral axis so that load stresses in the concrete CTL has developed three-dimensional (3 D) finite element
are substantially reduced. Short joint spacings, much shorter software; conventional computer techniques can't model
than normal, also reduce stresses because the slabs are not variations of this condition.
TABLE 13. MAJOR UTW RESEARCH PROJECTS
Project
reference A B C D E F
Colorado,
Kentucky, Iowa, Rt. 21 Missouri, Denver area, Colorado, Colorado, SE
Location Louisville, Rd. between Spirit of W. of Santa Fe, Denver area, corner of state,
(Date) to Disposal Victor and St. Louis Frontage Rd. Colo. 119, E. U.S. 287, N. of
Facility Belie Plaine Airport of S. Santa Fe of Longmont Campo
(1991) (1994) (1994) Dr. (1996) (1996) (1996)
Concrete 50. 100.

thickness, 50, 90 150, 200 90 100, 125 100, 125, 150
mm (in.) (2, 3.5) (2, 4, 6, 8) (3.5) (4, 5) 150 (6)
(4, 5, 6)
Joint spacing, 0.6, 1.2, 1.8x1.8 3.0x3.6
m (ft) 0.6, 1.8 1.8, 3.6 1.2 1.2, 1.5, 1.7 1.8, 3.6 2.4x3.6 3.6x3.6
(2, 6) (2, 4, 6, 12) (4) (4, 5, 5.5) (6, 12) (6x6) (10x12)
squares squares square squares squares (8x12) (12x12)
Patch &
Asphalt Milled scarify, patch Lightly Milled, Milled, Milled
treatment only, cold in- milled unmilled unmilled
place
recycled
Fiber reinf. Yes Yes, No Yes No No No

PCC
Interim guidelines for estimating the load-carrying
capacity and service life of UTW are given later in this
chapter. Data from the research projects discussed in the
previous section, as well as the performance of many other
projects in service, are expected to lead to verification and
refinement of the interim guidelines.
Mechanistic Analysis
Normal whitetopping design procedures characterize the
support of the existing pavement by using an increased k-
value on top of the asphalt. Also, the composite action
between the concrete and asphalt is not recognized by
conventional procedures. For UTW, both of these assump-
Fig. 30. Short joint spacing of UTW on Iowa Route 21. tions result in considerable overestimation of computed
stresses and thickness requirements. This is illustrated in
For the Colorado Department of Transportation, con- Fig. 31, which compares pavement stresses computed by:
struction of three instrumented test projects was completed 1) conventional two-layer model, and 2) three-layer
(project D) in 1996. Instrumentation and data collection
for these projects was performed by CTL. Even though
some sections do not meet the definition of UTW (100 mm
[4 in.] or less), they should give information about the
interface condition.
CTL will use data from these projects, along with the 3D
computer model, to develop guidelines for UTW design.
Experience gained from these research efforts and the
performance of in-service projects will lead to the optimal
use of UTW.
Thickness Design
Design analysis of UTW is more complex(43,45,51,52,52) than
that of conventional design procedures and differs in the
following ways:
• Bond between concrete and asphalt creates a compos-
ite pavement, lowering the neutral axis so that load
stresses are substantially reduced
• Short joint spacing substantially reduces load and curling
stresses, and reduces or eliminates slab edge uplift
• Concrete strength is usually greater than that of
conventional concrete and, if fibers are used, fatigue
characteristics may be improved
• Asphalt layer provides a strong and non-erodible
support for the concrete. Fig. 31. Example of pavement stress distribution by two different
analyses.
analysis with a degree of composite action (a more realistic
model). The critical stress is the tension at the bottom of
the concrete, and in this example, the value is reduced by
about one half for the three layer analysis.
Measurements of the test sections discussed previously
indicate that there is a considerable bond or friction
between the concrete and asphalt layers. In this case, the
pavement should be analyzed as a composite system in
which the concrete and asphalt layers are characterized by
their thicknesses and elastic properties, all on top of a k-
value for the foundation (base course and subgrade).
The degree of composite action assigned in the analysis has
a great influence on the stresses computed as shown in Fig. 32.
At the research sites, strain gauges installed in the concrete
25 50 75 100 and asphalt layers and shear strength on cores should provide
Composite action, percent
guidance on what degree of composite action is sustained.
Fig. 32. Effect of composite action on stress in concrete and A mechanistic analysis of UTW also should include the
asphalt layers. 40 kN (9 kip) edge load, 100 mm (4 in.) concrete on effect of slab size (joint spacing). As shown in Fig. 33, there
100 mm (4 in.) asphalt on k 27 MPa (100 pci). is a substantial reduction in load stresses as slab size
decreases. This is also true for curling and warping stresses
that occur due to temperature and moisture gradients in
the concrete slab (Fig. 34).(53)
Although stress decreases with slab size, pavement
deflections increase. With very short slabs and without
Slab size, m (ft.)

Fig. 33 Effect of slab size on load stress. 40 kN (9 kip) edge load, Fig. 34. Effect of slab size on curling stress. 100 mm (4 in.)
100 mm (4 in.) concrete on 100 mm (4 in.) asphalt on k 27 MPa concrete on 100 mm (4 in.) asphalt on k 27 MPa (100 pci).
(100 pci).
substantial thickness of asphalt and base course, deflections correlation to the performance data available. Since UTW
and vertical strains are high. This could lead to excessive projects are only a few years old, long-term performance
permanent deformation in the foundation after many load data are not available. As a result, the guidelines given here
applications. Thus, there may be an optimum joint spacing to estimate load-carrying capacity and service life are
for which stresses are reduced but deflections are not considered to be preliminary.
excessive. Performance data from the research sites and In the tables, the following ranges of variables are
other UTW projects should help determine ideal slab size. covered:
Figs. 31 through 34 are not meant to quantify specific h 1 , UTW thickness—50, 75, 100 mm (2, 3, 4 in.)
values of stress reductions to use in mechanistic design, h 2 , asphalt thickness—75, 100, 125, 150 mm
but are used only to demonstrate that UTW has unique ( 3 , 4 , 5, 6 in.)
mechanistic features. The benefits of composite action and joint spacing—0.6, 0.9, 1.2, 1.8 m (2, 3, 4, 6 ft)
shorter-than-normal joint spacings help explain the design flexural strength—4.8, 5.5 MPa (700, 800 psi)
outstanding performance of very thin pavements that subgrade/subbase k value—27, 54 MPa/m
would not be predicted by conventional design analysis. (100, 200 pci)
The term ultra-thin whitetopping has been coined for
whitetoppings of a thickness of 100 mm (4 in.) or less. Roads, Streets and Parking Areas. Tables 15a-15d and
However, this definition is arbitrary because the same benefits Tables 16a-16d cover two truck categories shown in Table
should hold true for thicker whitetopping constructed with 17 which have load distributions up to the following
the materials and methods described in this chapter. maximums:
Axle load Maximum axle load, kN (kips)
Load-Carrying Capacity and Service Life Tables
category Single axle Tandem axle
The thickness design concept for UTW differs from the 15a-15d A 80(18) 160(36)
16a-16d B 116(26) 196 (44)
traditional design concept for other concrete pavements.
UTW is essentially a maintenance strategy, which is Axle Load Category A is intended for use when evaluat-
constrained by existing pavement factors, and not necessar- ing the load carrying capacity of low-truck-volume facili-
ily designed for a 20-30 year service life. The constraints ties. Category B is for medium-truck-volume facilities.
that limit and often prescribe the UTW thickness include: The tables give the allowable number of trucks per lane
elevation of an adjacent pavement lane or curb and gutter, in thousands (total in service life) of a given UTW design.
the depth of the existing asphalt and the depth of milling. For example, in Table 15a, for:
As a result, UTW thickness design becomes a process of Axle Load Category A
evaluation, rather than design, and involves determination subgrade/subbase k—27 MPa/m (100 pci)
of two important factors: flexural strength—4.8 MPa (700 psi)
• load-carrying capacity asphalt thickness—100 mm (4 in.)
• expected service life UTW thickness—75 mm (3 in.)
joint spacing—1.2 m (4 ft)
To provide guidance, tables have been prepared based 125 (125,000) trucks are shown
on a comprehensive mechanistic analysis of UTW54 and
the estimated service life of a road carrying 40 trucks (Axle
Load Category A) per day per lane would be 8.C years—
125,000/(40x365).
* Flexural strength by third-point loading, ASTM C78.

T A B L E 15a. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F T R U C K S P E R L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,
A X L E - L O A D CATEGORY A,
K = 27 MPA/M
Average h2, h 1 , U T W thickness
Flexural Asphalt 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm
strength, thickness, Joint spacing
MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 75 6 60 40 104 137 303
4.8 100 56 156 125 234 294 546
4.8 125 169 375 314 507 593 996
4.8 150 or more 433 850 726 1083 1227 1919
5.5 75 24 77 90 158 273 458
5.5 100 81 193 201 321 478 825
5.5 125 213 422 428 625 858 1290
5.5 150 or more 514 937 917 1282 1628 2360
T A B L E 15b. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F T R U C K S P E R L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,
AXLE-LOAD CATEGORY A,
K = 54 M P A / M
Average h2, h 1 , UTW thickness

MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 75 30 163 117 258 331 640
4.8 100 140 385 310 519 606 1045
4.8 125 384 842 664 1008 1099 1755
4.8 150 or more 894 1722 1349 1952 2016 3062
5.5 75 70 208 221 374 577 915
5.5 100 201 484 436 715 912 1606
5.5 125 480 938 840 1222 1487 2190
5.5 150 or more 1044 1884 1606 2265 2543 3658
T A B L E 15C. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F T R U C K S P E R L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,
K = 100 PCI
A veruge h2, h1, UTW thickness

Flexural Asphalt 2 in. 3 in. 4 in.
psi in. 3 ft 2 ft 4 ft 3 ft 6 ft 4 ft
700 3 6 60 40 104 137 303
700 4 56 156 125 234 294 546
700 5 169 375 314 507 593 996
700 6 or more 433 850 726 1083 1227 1919
800 3 24 77 90 158 273 458
800 4 81 193 201 321 478 825
800 5 213 422 428 625 858 1290
800 6 or more 514 937 917 1282 1628 2360
T A B L E I5d. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F TRUCKS PER L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,

K = 2 0 0 PCI
Average h2, h1, UTW thickness

strength, thickness, pacing
Joint Spacing
700 3 30 163 117 258 331 640
700 4 140 385 310 519 606 1045
700 5 384 842 664 1008 1099 1755
700 6 or more 894 1722 1349 1952 2016 3062
800 3 70 208 221 374 577 915
800 4 201 484 436 715 912 1606
800 5 480 938 840 1222 1487 2190
800 6 or more 1044 1884 1606 2265 2543 3658
T A B L E 16a. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F T R U C K S P E R L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,
A X L E - L O A D CATEGORY B,
K = 27 M P A / M
Average h2, h 1 .UTW thickness

MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 75 NR 29 1 38 8 136
4.8 100 15 90 43 122 98 299
4.8 125 90 228 167 301 273 593
4.8 150 or more 259 528 428 671 639 1177
5.5 75 2 43 31 84 106 268
5.5 100 39 110 98 188 238 471
5.5 125 129 264 252 406 501 845
5.5 150 or more 328 596 575 832 1006 1558
NR = not recommended
T A B L E 16b. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F T R U C K S P E R L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,
K = 54 M P A / M

MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 75 NR 75 6 102 56 298
4.8 100 55 216 110 284 230 578
4.8 125 197 497 331 620 553 1076
4.8 150 or more 511 1052 771 1221 1148 1915
5.5 75 9 111 79 197 266 551
5.5 100 101 261 221 398 502 875
5.5 125 277 573 495 778 922 1460
5.5 150 or more 638 1178 1002 1481 1583 2418
T A B L E 16C. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F T R U C K S P E R L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,
K = 10O P C I

700 3 NR 29 1 38 8 136
700 4 15 90 43 122 98 299
700 5 90 228 167 301 273 593
700 6 or more 259 528 428 671 639 1177
800 3 2 43 31 84 106 268
800 4 39 110 98 188 238 471
800 5 129 264 252 406 501 845
800 6 or more 328 596 575 832 1006 1558
T A B L E I6d. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F TRUCKS PER L A N E ( T O T A L I N T H O U S A N D S ) ,

K = 200 PCI

psi in. 3 ft 2ft 4ft 3 ft 6ft 4ft
700 3 NR 75 6 102 56 298
700 4 55 216 110 284 230 578
700 5 197 497 331 620 553 1076
700 6 or more 511 1052 771 1221 1148 1915
800 3 9 111 79 197 266 551
800 4 101 261 221 398 502 875
800 5 277 573 495 778 922 1460
800 6 or more 638 1178 1002 1481 1583 2418
T A B L E 17. A X L E - L O A D D I S T R I B U T I O N S U S E D General Aviation Airport Pavements. Tables 18a-18d
FOR P R E P A R I N G D E S I G N T A B L E S 15a-d, 16a-d and Tables 19a-19d cover the following aircraft weights
which include most of the aircraft in the general aviation
Axle load, Axles per 1000 trucks1 category.
kN (kips) Category A2 Category B 3
Single axles Aircraft gross weight
18 (4) 846.15 Tables Dual wheel gear Single wheel gear
27 (6) 369.97 kg lb kg lb
36 (8) 283.13 233.60 18a-18d 5.400 12,000 4,100 9,000
44 (10) 257.60 142.70 19a-19d 9,100 20,000 6,.600 14,500
53 (12) 103.40 116.76
62 (14) 39.07 47.76
71 (16) 20.87 23.88
80 (18) 11.57 16.61 The tables give the allowable number of channelized
89 (20) 6.63
98 (22) 2.60
passes of aircraft in thousands (total in service life) from
107 (24) 1.60 which the service life may be estimated. For example, in
116 (26) 0.07 Table 18a, for:
Tandem axles
5,400 kg (12,000 lb) gross weight aircraft with dual
18 (4) 15.12
36 (8) 39.21 47.01 wheel gear
53 (12) 48.34 91.15 subgrade/subbase k—27 MPa/m (100 pci)
71 (16) 72.69 59.25
89 (20) 64.33 45.00
flexural strength—4.8 MPa (700 psi)
107 (24) 42.24 30.74 asphalt thickness—75 mm (3 in.)
125 (28) 38.55 44.43 UTW thickness—50 mm (2 in.)
142 (32) 27.82 54.76
160 (36) 14.22 38.79 joint spacing—0.9 mm (3 ft)
178 (40) 7.76
196 (44) 1.16
1
42 thousand aircraft passes are shown.
Excludes two-axle, four-tire trucks.
2 Many general aviation aircraft are quite light in weight,
Category A is Category LR in ACPA publication,
Design of Concrete Pavements for City Streets. 2500 kg (5000 lb) or less, and therefore do not affect
3
Cate gory B is Category 2 in ACPA publication, concrete pavement thickness requirements. This applies to
Design of Concrete Pavements for City Streets. all single-engine aircraft and several light-weight twin-engine
aircraft. The minimum UTW design shown in the tables
50 mm (2 in.) of concrete
75 mm (3 in.) of asphalt
0.9 m (3 ft.) joint spacing
flexural strength = 4.8 MPa (700 psi)
k = 27 MPa/m (100 pci)
will carry an unlimited number of channelized passes of

these small airplanes.
T A B L E 18a. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
(TOTAL IN THOUSANDS)
5,400 KG G R O S S W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H D U A L W H E E L G E A R , OR
4,100 K G G R O S S W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H S I N G L E W H E E L G E A R
K = 27 MPA/M
MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 3 42 84 118 161 297 396
4.8 4 102 190 223 302 483 (unlim.)
4.8 5 233 426 437 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
4.8 6 or more (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
5.5 3 51 96 143 189 361 475
5.5 4 116 211 260 346 (unlim.) (unlim.)
Unlimited (unlim.). For practical purposes, 500,000 is taken as the upper limit of channelized passes of aircraft that are
heavy enough to affect thickness requirements of general aviation airport pavements.
T A B L E 18b. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
5,400 KG G R O S S W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H D U A L W H E E L G E A R , OR
4,100 K G G R O S S W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H S I N G L E W H E E L G E A R
K = 54 M P A / M

strength, thickness, Joint s pacing
MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 75 112 236 272 380 (unlim.) (unlim.)
4.8 125 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
5.5 75 136 269 326 430 (unlim.) (unlim.)
5.5 100 282 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
5.5 125 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
TABLE 18C. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
1 2 , 0 0 0 L B G R O S S W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H D U A L W H E E L G E A R , OR
9,000 L B GROSS W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H S I N G L E W H E E L G E A R
K = 100 P C I
Average h2, h 1 , UTVV thickness

strength, thickness Joint spacinq
700 3 42 84 118 161 297 396
700 4 102 190 223 302 483 (unlim.)
700 5 233 426 437 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
700 6 or more (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
800 3 51 96 143 189 361 475
800 4 116 211 260 346 (unlim.) (unlim.)
TABLE 18d. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
K = 200 PCI

700 3 112 236 272 380 (unlim.) (unlim.)
700 5 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
800 3 136 269 326 430 (unlim.) (unlim.)
800 4 282 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
800 5 (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.) (unlim.)
Unlimited (unlim.). For practical purposes. 500,000 is taken as the upper limit of channelized passes of aircraft that are
TABLE 19a. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
9,100 K G G R O S S W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H D U A L W H E E L G E A R , O R
6,600 KG GROSS W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H S I N G L E W H E E L G E A R
K = 27 MPA/M

strength, thickness, Joint spacing:
MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 75 4 11 15 23 44 65
4.8 100 13 29 32 46 75 107
4.8 125 35 70 67 95 133 188
4.8 150 or more 81 157 138 193 242 340
5.5 75 6 15 21 31 60 84
5.5 100 17 34 41 57 97 134
5.5 125 41 79 81 112 164 227
5.5 150 or more 93 175 162 221 289 401
T A B L E 19b. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
9,100 K G G R O S S W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H D U A L W H E E L G E A R , O R
6,600 KG GROSS W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H S I N G L E W H E E L G E A R
K = 54 M P A / M

strength, thickness, Joint s pacing
MPa mm 0.9 m 0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.8 m 1.2 m
4.8 75 8 31 32 52 83 126
4.8 100 31 73 64 98 132 195
4.8 125 74 158 126 183 218 316
4.8 150 or more 158 321 241 342 365 (unlim.)
5.5 75 15 39 46 69 113 162
5.5 100 39 85 83 121 169 241
5.5 125 87 178 153 216 266 379
5.5 150 or more 181 354 276 390 430 (unlim.)
T A B L E 19C. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
20,000 L B GROSS W E I G H T A I R C R A F T W I T H D U A L W H E E L G E A R , OR
K = 100 PCI

700 3 4 11 15 23 44 65
700 4 13 29 32 46 75 107
700 5 35 70 67 95 133 188
700 6 or more 81 157 138 193 242 340
800 3 6 15 21 31 60 84
800 4 17 34 41 57 97 134
800 5 41 79 81 112 164 227
800 6 or more 93 175 162 221 289 401
Unlimited (unlim.). For practical purposes, 500,000 is taken as the upper limit of channelized passes of
aircraft that are heavy enough to affect thickness requirements of general aviation airport pavements.
TABLE 19d. A L L O W A B L E N U M B E R O F C H A N N E L I Z E D P A S S E S O F A I R C R A F T
K = 2 0 0 PCI

psi in. 3 ft 2 ft 4 11 3 ft 6 ft 4 ft
700 3 8 31 32 52 83 126
700 4 31 73 64 98 132 195
700 5 74 158 126 183 218 316
700 6 or more 158 321 241 342 365 (unlim.)
800 3 15 39 46 69 113 162
800 4 39 85 83 121 169 241
800 5 87 178 153 216 266 379
800 6 or more 181 354 276 390 430 (unlim.)
Joint Design
Short joint spacing is critical for the good performance of
UTW projects. Acting like a paver block system, it reduces
curling stresses and bending stresses due to loads. Based on
current experience joint spacings about 12 to 15 times the
slab thickness are recommended. For example:
0.6 to 0.9 m (2 to 3 ft) for 50-mm (2-in.) thickness
0.9 to 1.2 m (3 to 4 ft) for 75-mm (3-in.) thickness
1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) for 100-mm (4-in.) thickness w = approx. 2 m (6 ft), extend over several slabs if necessary
As shown in Figs. 33 and 34, stresses are reduced by 25 h' = h + 75 mm (3 in.), minimum of 150 mm (6in.)
to 50 percent at these recommended joints spacings. The
Fig. 35. Transition from UTW to adjoining asphalt pavement.
joint spacings may be made slightly longer or shorter so
that their multiples delineate traffic lanes.
It is not practical to install dowels, tiebars, or keyways in Construction
pavements that are 100 mm (4 in.) thick or less. Load UTW is constructed with fixed forms or by slipform pavers
transfer is provided by aggregate interlock, which is in essentially the same way as conventional whitetopping
enhanced by short joint spacing and by the support of the (see Chapter 4), with some special provisions discussed here.
underlying pavement. Compared to conventional pave- The steps are: preparing the asphalt surface, placing the
ments, load transfer is not as critical for concrete overlays concrete, finishing, surface texturing, curing, and sawing
because the underlying pavement provides considerable the joints.
support to the joints. Milling, followed by cleaning with compressed air, is the
For ultra-thin whitetopping, extra concrete thickness is best way to prepare the asphalt surface. If water blasting or
needed at the transition to the asphalt roadway. The washing operations are used, the surface must be allowed
suggested transition detail shown in Fig. 35 is for a section to dry so that good bond to the concrete can be obtained.
transverse to the pavement at the end of the overlay. After the concrete is placed, finished, and textured, a
The same detail applies at the longitudinal (outside) curing compound should be applied at twice the normal
edge if channelized traffic will frequently cross from the rate because thin concrete slabs can lose water rapidly. If
concrete overlay onto adjacent asphalt, which might be the surface runoff of the compound occurs, it can be applied in
case for some areas of a parking lot or airport apron. two separate coats.
Joint depths in transition slabs should be no less than It is also necessary to saw joints before the internal stresses
one-third slab thickness. of cement hydration begin. For that reason, it is recom-
mended that green cut concrete saw equipment be used as
soon as possible. Saw depth criteria have not been estab-
lished, but the usual 25-mm (1-in.) cut made with green cut
saws has served satisfactorily. Usually joints are not sealed
because with the short joint spacings, openings are very
narrow. Depending on local requirements and climate,
working joints that appear at saw cuts can be sealed.
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Whitetopping - State of Practice

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Whitetopping—

State of the Practice

Chapter 2 History and Performance 7

Chapter 3 Design Practices, Conventional Whitetopping 19

Chapter 5 Ultra-Thin Whitetopping 45

*List derived from NCHRP Syntheses dated 1994 and 1982,

Remedy for Asphalt Pavement Distress

Concrete is not affected by seasonal weakening of the

Chevy - Wet / Smooth

Chevy - Wet / Rutted*

Buick - Dry / Smooth

Buick - Wet / Smooth

Buick - Wet / Rutted*

*Concrete does not rut

Fig. 5. A Cool Community, Jordan Commons, Florida. The use of

*Table 1 is a chronological compilation of data from whitetopping projects

TABLE 1. PARTIAL LIST OF WHITETOPPING PROJECTS (1918-1992)

2 Cleveland to Berea OH H 1926 6 JRCP 1901-04 - Brick

6 South Chicago Ave., Chicago IL s 1931 5 JPCP - - Base

7 4th Ave., Portland OR s 1935 3.5 -10 JPCP - - Base

8 Runway, Offutt AFB NE A 1944 7&9 JPCP 1941 - F

9 Second Ave., Seattle WA S 1944 6.5 JPCP - - Brick

10 Apron, Davis-Monthan AFB AZ A 1945 12 JPCP - - F

11 Dye Road, Miller Rd. to Corunna Rd. .MI H 1953 8 JPCP - - F

13 Runway, Dover AFB DE A 1954 16 JPCP 1941-43 29 F

15 Apron, taxiway, Castle AFB CA A 1955 16 & 18 JPCP 1942 10 F

16 US-99,Hwy 119 to Hwy CA H 1956 8 JPCP 1936 - F

18 Taxiway, Columbus AFB MS A 1956 16 JPCP - 17 F

19 Runway, O'Hare Int. Airport IL A 1958 9 & 11 JPCP - 24 F

20 Runway, Selfridge AFB Ml A 1958 13 JPCP 1951 34 F

21 Taxiway, Glasgow AFB MI A 1958 15 JRCP - 55 F

22 Runway, Kincheloe AFB MI A 1958 12 JRCP 1942 9 F

23 I-5, Near Gorman CA H 1959 8 JPCP 1949 - F

24 Runway, Los Angeles Int. Airport CA A 1960 10.5 & 15 JPCP - - F

25 Woodbury Co. IA H 1960 6 JPCP - - F

26 US-99, Kern Co. CA H 1964 7 JPCP 1922-48 9.5-13 F

27 US-101, Los Angeles Co. CA H 1966 7 JPCP F

28 US-91, Orange Co. CA H 1966 8 JPCP F

30 I-5, Project City CA H 1968 6 JPCP 1950-54 8 & 12 AC/CTB

32 Woodbury Co. IA H 1971 6 JPCP - - F

33 I-5,S. of Portland (4 projects) OR H 1971 7&9 CRCP 1950 - F

34 I-80, Near Ladd OR H 1971 7&9 CRCP - - F

35 I-40, Potter Co. TX H 1971 8 CRCP - 12-16 F

36 Fifth Ave., S.E., Cedar Rapids IA S 1972 2.5 FRC - - AC/Brick

37 I-205, E. of Portland OR H 1972 7&9 CRCP - - -

39 I-30, Little Rock AR H 1973 6 CRCP - - F

40 I-5, Siskiyou Co. CA H 1973 8.5 JPCP 1971 5.5 F

41 I-29, Walsh Co. ND H 1973 6 CRCP - - F

42 I-205 E. of Portland OR H 1973 7&9 CRCP 1959 - F

43 Taxiway, Moody AFB GA A 1974 6 CRCP - - F

44 Y 34, Clinton Co. IA H 1974 6 JPCP F

45 Plank Rd., Peru IL H 1974 5 JPCP - 8 F

46 Tank Apron, Ft. Hood TX S 1974 4 FRC - 17-19 F

47 I-80 OR H 1975 7&9 CRCP - - F

48 I-5 OR H 1975 - CRCP - - F

49 Newark Int. Airport NJ A 1976 4 FRC - - F

50 Apron, McCarran Field, Las Vegas NV A 1976 6 FRC 18 F

51 I-84, Hansel Vally Jet., Snowville UT H 1976 9 JPCP 1966 - F

54 Z40 or X46, Clinton Co. IA H 1977 6 JPCP - - F

55 R-18, from E-57 S. 3 mi., Boone Co. IA H 1977 5 JPCP 1957 11 F

56 X-40, Cedar Co. IA H 1977 6 JPCP 1955 - F

57 Washington Co. IA H 1977 5 JPCP 1958 12.5 F

58 Apron, La Guardia Int. Airport NY A 1977 6 FRC F