PH-X NOTES

CHAPTER # 01
(General wave Properties)
WAVE
Definition:
“A pattern in which energy transfer from one point to another without transfer of
matter is called wave”
Properties:
 The source of any wave is vibration.
 Wave transfer from one point to another.
 Energy is transferred without transfer of matter.

FORMATION OF WAVES:
There are two ways to form a wave,

1) WAVE MOTION IN ROPE:

 Fixing one end of the rope to a wall and moving the other end up and
down
 These up and down movements produce vibrations.

 The rope waves travel towards the wall while the rope itself moves up
and down.
 The kinetic energy from the up and down movement is transferred from
one point to another.
 The rope itself however doesn’t move from one end to another.

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 2) WATER WAVES IN RIPPLE TANK:
 Water waves can be generated using a ripple tank
 A small dipper moves up and down
 The water particles at the surface are made to move up and down spreads
to other parts of the water surface.
 The kinetic energy is thus transferred to the water molecules at the surface.
 These water molecules in turn transfer to the neighboring water molecules.
 Though energy is passed but the water itself doesn’t move the dripler to
the edges.

CALSSIFICATION OF WAVE:
Waves are classified into two classes, transverse and longitudinal waves, and
mechanical and electromagnetic waves are as follow,

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 TRANSVERSE WAVES LONGITUDNAL WAVES

DEFINITION
Waves that travel perpendicular to Waves that travel parallel to the
the direction of wave motion is called direction of wave motion is called
transverse waves longitudinal waves
PROPERTIES
Displacement of particles in medium Displacement of particles in medium
in perpendicular to the wave motion in perpendicular to the wave motion

It contains crest and trough. It contains compression and

rarefaction.

EXAMPLES
Light waves, waves at the surface of Sound waves etc.
water, radio waves etc.

MECHANICAL WAVES ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

DEFINITION
Waves that need medium to Waves that do not need medium to
propagate is known as mechanical propagate is known as
waves. electromagnetic waves.
PRODUCTION OF WAVES
These waves are produced by These waves are produced by
vibratory motion in respective changing electric and magnetic fields.
medium.
SPEED OF WAVES
In vacuum, speed of mechanical In vacuum, speed of electromagnetic
waves is 0m/s means it does not waves is 3 ×108 m/s
travel in vacuum.
EXAMPLES

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 Sound waves, water waves, seismic Light waves, UV waves, radio waves
waves etc. etc.

CREST
Definition:
“The upper/positive part in known as crest”
TROUGH
Definition:
“The lower/negative part is known as trough”

COMPRESSION
Definition:
“Section where vibrating particles are closest to each other is known as
compression”
RAREFACTION
Definition:
“Section where vibrating particles are furthest a part is known as rarefaction”

WAVE CHARACTERISTICS
WAVE-SPEED:
Definition:
“The distance travelled by a wave in unit time is called wave speed”
Mathematically:

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As we know that, For linear motion
Velocity = distance / time
S
V=
t

For vibratory motion, ( S = λ , t = T )

λ
V=
T
1
V= ×λ
T
1
‫ ؞‬T =f
V =f λ

Where,
λ = wavelength
V = wave speed
f= frequency
Unit:
The S.I unit of wave speed is meter per second (m/sec).

WAVE-LENGTH:
Definition:
“The distance between two same phases is known as wave-length”
Mathematically:
V
λ=
f

Where,
λ = wavelength
V = wave speed
f= frequency
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Unit:
The S.I unit of wave-length is meter (m).

FREQUENCY:
Definition:
“Number of complete waves produce by a source per unit time”
Mathematically:
number of waves
f=
time

‫؞‬number of waves=1
‫ ؞‬time=T
1
f=
T

Where,
T = Time period
f= frequency
Unit:
The S.I unit of frequency is cycles/sec or 1/sec or Hertz (Hz).

TIME-PERIOD:
Definition:
“Time taken for one point on the wave to complete one oscillation is called time
period”
Mathematically:
1
T=
f

Where,
T = Time period
f= frequency
Unit:
The S.I unit of time period is second (sec).

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AMPLITUDE:
Definition:
“The maximum displacement move by a point on a vibrating body is known as
amplitude”
Unit:
The S.I unit of amplitude is meter (m).

PROPERTIES OF WAVES

REFLECTION OF WAVES:
Definition:
“Bouncing back of waves into the same medium after striking other medium
surface is called reflection of waves”
Explanation:
When the vertical vertical straight surface is placed
in the path of the incoming waves. The incident
waves are reflected from the surface at the same
angle as incident therefore, it obeys law of
reflection (angel of incident = angle of reflection)
without change in its velocity.

REFRACTION OF WAVES:
Definition:
” The change in direction and velocity of wave as it passes from one
medium to another medium is known as refraction of waves”
Explanation:
When waves enter from rare medium to denser medium or visa
versa, a change in its direction, wavelength and speed occurs
because to nature of medium.

DIFFRACTION OF WAVES:
Definition:
“Spreading of waves near an obstacle is known as diffraction of waves.”

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Explanation:
When wave passes through small obstacle, it spreads in all
direction. It is only significant when wavelength is equal to the size
of the small hole. Wider gap produce less diffraction.

PERIODIC MOTION:
Definition:
“A motion repeating itself in an equal interval of time is called periodic motion”

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Definition:
“When an objects oscillates about a fixed position (mean position) an acceleration
produced which is directly proportional to the displacement from its means
position and is always directed toward the mean position.”
Mathematically:
a α −x
a=−kx
Where,
a = acceleration
k = spring constant
x = displacement

SIMPLE PENDULUM
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Where,
T =2 π
√ L
g

T = time period of pendulum

L = length of string
G = acceleration due to gravity

NOTE:
The above formula shows that the time
period of simple pendulum depends upon
the length of string and acceleration due
to gravity and independent of its mass
and amplitude.

DAMPED OSCILLATION
Definition
” The oscillation of system in presence of some resistive forces is known as
damped oscillation”

CHAPTER # 02
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 (SOUND)
SOUND
Definition
“Sensation produced by vibration of object in the form of
energy that travel from one point to another point in
longitudinal form of wave without transfer of matter is called
sound”

ELECTRIC BELL JAR EXPERIMENT

INTRODUCTION:
The aim of the experiment is to show that sound is a
mechanical wave that required medium to propagate.

CONSTRUCTION:
Take an electric bell and an airtight glass bell jar and then suspend the electric bell
inside the jar. Connect the bell jar to a vacuum pump. Make sure that bell does
not touch the glass and that connecting wire used are thin. This prevent the
sound energy from being transmit through the glass and wires to outside of the
jar as hammer vibrates.

WORKING:
When you switch on the electric bell, you can hear the sound of the bell coming
from inside air and glass material. Now start the vacuum
pump. As the air in the jar is gradually pumped out, the
sound becomes fainter although the same current is
passing through the bell and hammer that strikes that
strikes the gong. After a while, you can hear the faintest
sound when there is less air. After all the air is removed
from the jar, sound disappear.

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CONCLUSION:
This experiment proved that sound is a mechanical wave that need medium to
propagate.

FACTOR AFFECTING SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound is affected by variety of factors. Two of the factors affecting
speed of sound are as follow,

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE:
As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of molecules increases, and they
can vibrate at higher rate which results increase in speed of sound. Therefore,
increase in temperature results the increase in velocity of sound.

Mathematically:

Where,
V T =V 0 ×
√ Tk
273

Vo = Velocity of sound at 0oC (331 m/s)

VT = Velocity of sound at any temperature (T)
Tk = Temperature in kelvin (k)

EFFECT OF HUMIDITY:
As humidity increases, the number of water molecules in the air increases,
resulting in a decrease in density. As water molecules replace oxygen and
nitrogen gases, the mass of the air reduces since water has less mass than
nitrogen and oxygen. Thus, humidity increases density of air decreases and sound
travel faster.

Mathematically:
1
Vα
√ϼ
Where,
V = velocity of sound
ϼ = density of medium

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 DISTINGUISHING DIFFERENT SOUNDS

LOUDNESS:
Definition
“The ability to distinguish between a loud and quiet sound is called loudness and it
depends upon the amplitude ”

PITCH:
Definition
“The quality of sound that distinguish between shrill and flat sound is called pitch
of the sound and it depends upon the frequency”

QUALITY
Definition:
“T he
characteristics

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of sound by which we can distinguish between two sounds
of the same loudness and pitch is called quality of sound”

SOUND
INTENSITY:
Definition
“Power carried by sound waves per unit area in the direction perpendicular to that
area”
Unit
The S.I unit of sound intensity is watt / square meter (W/m2)

MUSICAL SOUND
Definition
“The sound that are pleasant to our ears are called musical sound and it is formed
by regular repeating of sound waves”
NOISE
Definition
“Sound which has an unpleasant effect on our ears is called noise it is formed by
irregular repeating of sound waves”

ECHO:
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 Definition:
“The repetition of sound after reflection is known as echo”

ULTRASOUND
Definition:
“The sound with the frequency above the upper limit of the human range of
audibility is known as ultrasound and having frequency above 20,000Hz”
AUDIBLE SOUND
Definition
“The sound audible to human ear is called audible sound and having frequency
between 20Hz and 20,000Hz”
INFRASONIC SOUND
Definition
“The sound with the frequency below the lower limit of the human range of
audibility is known as infrasonic sound and having frequency less than
20Hz”

APPLICATION OF ULTRASOUND TECHNIQUES

1) CLEANSING
Ultrasound is commonly used to clean many objects even in hard-to-
reach places, including jewelry, dental and surgical instruments,
musical instruments. In this process, objects to be cleansed are placed
in a cleaning solution, and ultrasonic waves are sent into the solution.
Due to its high frequency, dust, greases, and containment particles
detached and dropped. The object thus get cleaned.

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 2) QUALITY CONTROL
Ultrasound has high penetrating power due to its high frequency. Thus,
ultrasound is also used to detect crack, cavities, and flaws in metal and
concrete blocks. These cracks decrease the strength of the material.
3) SONAR
SONAR is extensively used in marine application. Due to their high
frequency, ultrasound waves can travel greater distances. In this
method, the transmitter sends out ultrasound pulses and measures the
time takes for the pulses to reflect off a distant object and return to the
source. The position of the object can be identified and its movement
can be tracked.

CHAPTER # 03
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 (Electromagnetic Spectrum)

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
Definition
“Splitting of white light into its constituent colors when it passes through a glass
prism is called dispersion of light”

SPECTRUM OF LIGHT
Definition
” The color pattern produced in the dispersion of is called spectrum of light”
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Some of the characteristics of electromagnetic waves are as given below,

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  Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature as they propagate by
varying the electric and magnetic fields such that the two fields are
perpendicular to each other.
 It cannot carry electric charge.
 It can travel through space with the speed of 3 × 108 m/s.
 It follows the laws of reflection, refraction, and diffraction.
 Its frequency depends upon the source that produce the wave.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Definition
“The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire distribution of electromagnetic
waves to their frequency and wavelength”

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

There are many uses of electromagnetic waves, some of them are given below.

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1. RADIO WAVES:
A radio wave has a much longer wavelength than visible light. Humans use
radio waves extensively for communications. Very High Frequency (VHF) and
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) are used to telecast the television program
because electromagnetic radiation travels in free space in straight lines and
cannot reflected by ionosphere.
Radio waves are generated by oscillating the current in transmitting antenna
and microphone controls the current to antenna.
Radio wave frequencies can range anywhere from 3kHz to 300GHz. Radio
waves are sent and received by antennas. The source of a radio wave is called
the transmitter and the receiving end is called the receiver.
2. MICROWAVES:
Microwaves have shorter wavelength in micrometer range and higher
frequency than all radio waves. These are used for communication, and
satellite television uses microwaves to receive satellite television program.
Low to medium frequency radio waves get reflected off the ionosphere, so it is
possible to receive radio signals from far away that have bounced their way to
us. But microwaves can cut right through the ionosphere, so they are good for
communicating with satellites.
These are usually generated inside the specialize oven by electron tube.
3. INFRA-RED WAVES:
Infrared (IR) is a electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer
than visible light.
These are absorbed or radiated by molecules when the change their
rotational-vibrational movements. Human body also radiate infrared waves.
For that it is used for security purpose, detecting the radiations of approaching
person.
When infrared radiation strikes biological tissue or any material, it causes
molecules to vibrate, producing heat and causing the temperature to rise.

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4. ULTRAVIOLET WAVES:
Very hot bodies like Sun emits UV rays. They are produced by passing electric
current through mercury vapors in the tube.
They are divided into three types of UV-A(315-399nm), UV-B(280-314nm), and
UV-C(100-279nm).
UV-A and UV-B are emitted by UV lamps used for Sunbeds for artificial tanning.
Fluorescence material is used which absorb UV rays and its get glow that’s why
it is used in shops, houses etc. for decoration purpose.
UV-B and UV-C are used for sterilization as it kills the bacteria in food.
5. X-RAYS:
X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons lose their energy quickly after
hitting any surface.
They have high penetrating power that’s why it is used for taking medical
images of human bones.
Computational Tomography (CT) scan utilizes X-Rays for detecting diseases and
injuries.
Radiation Therapy is a cancer treatment that uses controlled doses of high
frequency X-Ray to kill cancerous cell and shrink tumors.
6. GAMA-RAYS:
They come from radioactive material. They are producing from nuclei of
unstable atom decaying into stable nucleus and lose energy.
They are used to treat cancer and to kill cancer cells.
The Gama Knife Radiosurgery is a medical procedure that uses gamma rays to
destroy small tumors in brain.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a functional imaging method used to
generate images that highlights the location of biological process being
examined.

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They have high penetrating power that’s why it is used to detect defects in
metal casting and other structural parts.

CHAPTER # 04
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 (Geometrical Optics)

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Definition
” Bouncing back of light after striking on the surface of medium to the same
medium is called reflection of light”
LAWS OF REFLECTION
1st Law of reflection of light:
“The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection”
2nd Law of reflection of light:
“The incident ray, reflected ray and normal ray all lie on the same plane”

SPHERICAL MIRROR
Definition
“It is mirror with curved reflecting surface. Most curved mirrors have
surfaces that are shaped like a part of sphere.”
CONVEX MIRROR
Definition
“A convex mirror is a spherical mirror in which the reflective surface
bulges toward the light source and reflect light outwards.”
CONCAVE MIRROR
Definition
“A concave mirror is a spherical mirror in which the reflective surface
bulges away the light source and reflect light inwards.”

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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR

USES OF SPHERICAL MIRROR

Spherical mirrors have various application in our everyday life such as rear-view
mirrors, shaving mirrors etc. Some of them are listed below,

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USES OF CONVEX MIRROR
 They are used as rear-view mirrors or wing mirrors in vehicles.
These mirrors are fitted in sides of vehicle so the driver can see
larger are behind them for safe driving.
 They are also used for Traffic Safety Purposes to see the behind
turns on the road. Wide angle vision allows drivers to see around
blind corners and into hidden corners.

USES OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Concave mirrors also used by dentists, can see the tooth clearly and
diagnose any infection or germs attack.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Definition
” The bending effect of light as it passes from one transparent medium to
another is knowns as refraction of light”
LAWS OF REFRECTION
1st Law of refraction of light:
“The incident ray, reflected ray and normal ray all lie on the same plane”
2nd Law of refraction of light (SNELL’S LAW)
“The refractive index is the ratio of sine of angle on
incident to reflection.”

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TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Definition
” If a ray passes from a dense medium to a rare medium and its angle of
incident is greater than critical angle, the incident ray is reflected into the
dense medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.”
CRITICAL ANGLE
Definition
” The angle of incident that cause the refracted ray in the rare medium to
bend through 900 is called critical angle.
POWER OF LENS
Definition
“It is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length measure in meter inverse.”
Formula

Unit:
The S.I unit of power of lens is diopter (D).

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IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX LENS

USES OF CONVEX LENS

THE MAGNIFYING GLASS
Definition
“A magnifying glass is a thin converging lens that can be used to make objects
look bigger.”

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 Object distance should be less than focal length. (p<f). if object place closer
to the convex lens than the image will form magnified.
THE CAMERA
A camera uses a convex lens to reproduce a small inverted and small image on
photographic film that is placed on the back inside the diaphragm.
Object should be placed at focal length of lens.
THE PROJECTOR
A projector uses a convex lens as a projection lens and pair of condenser
lenses to produce a large, inverted, and real image on a screen.
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGER
The photographic enlarger uses a convex lens to produce an inverted, real and
magnified image of the film on photographic paper.

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