EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Geological Processes
⁃ caused by forces from within the Earth are endogenous processes.
Exogenous Processes
⁃ come from forces on or above the Earth's surface such as weathering and erosion.

Weathering
breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact
with
the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters.

Types of Weathering

1. Physical weathering
⁃ known as mechanical weathering;

2. Chemical Weathering
⁃ the decomposition of rocks due to chemical reactions occurring between the
minerals in rocks and environment.

Processes that can cause Physical Weathering

1. Thermal and Pressure Change

⁃ rocks crumble and break into fragments because they are subjected to alternating
hot and cold temperature many times.

2. Wind and Waves

⁃ tiny grains of sand are picked up and carried off by the wind, which are blasted on
the surface of the rocks, smoothening them.
⁃ on the seashore, the action of the waves chips away and cracks the rock.

3. Freeze and Thaw

⁃ water expands when freezes
⁃ when water collects in the rock pores and slits, it expands when it freezes
⁃ the freezing creates cracks
⁃ when the ice thaws, the water seeps into new cracks and causes more cracks as it
freezes.

4. Organic Activity
⁃ weeds and plants grow in cracks
⁃ animals burrow into crack
 ANTROPOGENIC ACTIVITIES
1. Hydration
⁃ molecules of some substance in rocks chemically combine with water

2. Carbonation
⁃ process in which carbon dioxide bond with other substances.

A stalactite is a mineral formation that has its base on the ceiling of a cave, usually
forming a roughly conical shape pointing downward.

A stalagmite, on the other hand, is a mineral formation that has its base on the floor of a
cave. It usually takes a roughly conical shape, like a stalactite, but pointed upwards from
the floor instead.

3. Oxidation
⁃ occurs when oxygen combines with another substance like minerals in rocks,
yielding compounds called oxides.
⁃ this results to discoloration, weakening the rocks and making it to crumbles

Erosion
⁃ is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by
natural processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other
locatSions.
⁃ involves the movement of the weathered rock (now pebbles, sand or soil) from one
place to the other by the action of wind, ice, water and gravity.

Erosion vs Weathering
Weathering causes rocks to breakdown
Erosion (water) and transport moves the sediments downhill to another place

Transport by water
⁃ rainwater is the most important force or agent of erosion.
Gravity
⁃ driving force and it gives water the energy to erode and carry away rock materials.

Transport by wind
⁃ Erosion by wind is known as aeolian (or eolian) erosion (named after Aeolus, the
Greek god of winds) and occurs almost always in deserts.
⁃ Aeolian erosion of sand in the desert is partially responsible for the formation of
sand dunes. The power of the wind erodes rock and sand.
⁃ wind continuously blows away loose particles of rocks and soil from place to
place.

Mass wasting or Movement

⁃ type of erosion capable of making big changes to a mountain
⁃ the variety of the downslope mass movements reflects the diversity of factors that
are responsible for the origin

Types of Mass Wasting

⁃ some of the major forms of mass wasting, or the spontaneous movement of
material down a slope in response to gravity.

Rock fall
⁃ abrupt movement and free fall of solid blocks of rock

Creep
⁃ almost imperceptible downslope movement of soil particles and rock debris

Bulging
⁃ subsurface creep of rock material

Landslide
⁃ the multiplicity of downslope movement of bedrock and other debris caused by the
separation of a slope section along a plane of least resistance or slip surface

Slump
⁃ the separation of a mass moving down a curved slip and collecting at slope’s foot.

Earthflow
⁃ the saturation of debris and weathered materials by rainfall in the upper section of
a slope or valley causing a downslope movement.

Mudslide
⁃ rapidly moving earthflow containing higher water content

Avalanche
⁃ a fast-moving earthflow in a mountainous region

Subsidence
⁃ sinking mass movement that occurs in a relatively rapid fashion.
Settlement
⁃ a gradual movement
ENDOGENIC PROCESS
Magma
⁃ a mixture of molten rock, minerals and gases.
⁃ this mixture is usually made up of a hot liquid base called the melt, minerals
crystallized by the melt, solid rocks incorporated.
⁃ originates in the lower part of the earth’s crust and in the upper portion of the
mantle known as asthenosphere

How are Magmas Formed

⁃ at about 30 to 65 km below the earth’s surface, the temperature is high enough to
melt rocks into magma.
⁃ magma behaves like a solid (plasticity) because of the great pressure of layers
above it.
2. The melt flows very slowly because it is under intense pressure.

⁃ the formation of faults or breaks in rocks decreases the pressure, thus magma is
changed into liquid form and flows toward areas of low pressure.

Gases in Magma
3. magma contain gas dissolved in liquid.
4. as magma rises at the surface of the earth, pressure is decreased and the gas forms
a separate vapor phase similar to what happens in sodas.
5. carbonated beverages are bottled at high pressure, the high pressure keeps the gas
to be dissolved in the liquid solution.
⁃ When magma emerges on the surface of the Earth, it is now called as lava.
⁃ gas gives the magma its explosive character.

Viscosity of Magma
⁃ viscosity is the resistance to flow.
⁃ Magma with higher silica content has higher viscosity.
⁃ Magma with low temperature has higher viscosity.

Magma Escape Routes

Extrusion
Intrusion
⁃ magma can also extrude into the atmosphere as part of violent eruption. This
magma when solidifies in the air forms volcanic rock called “tephra’’

Magma Chamber
⁃ Magma collects in areas called magma chambers.
⁃ The pool of magma is layered.
⁃ if a magma chamber encounters an enormous amount of pressure, it may break the
rocks around it; the rocks are called vents and fissure.

Different Ways to Generate Magma

⁃ Decompression meeting
⁃ involves the upward movement of the earth’s mostly solid mantle

⁃ Transfer of Heat
⁃ magma can also be created when hot, liquid rock intrudes into the earth's crust.
⁃ as the liquid rock solidifies, it loses this heat and transfer it to the surrounding
crust.

⁃ Flux melting
⁃ occurs when water or carbon dioxide is added to rocks, the compounds cause the
rock to melt at lower temperature.

Types of Magma
-oxygen and silicon (collectively known as silica/ SiO2) are the most abundant elements
in the magma.

Felsic
⁃ has the highest silica content of all.
⁃ has the highest gas content and viscosity.
⁃ is extremely thick and volatile in nature.
⁃ felsic eruptions occur at temperatures between 1200°F to 1400°F.
⁃ felsic lava contains aluminum, potassium, sodium and calcium which form
feldspar and quartz.

Intermediate
⁃ have higher silica content than mafic.
⁃ compared to felsic lava has lower content of silica and aluminum, and more of
magnesium and iron.
⁃ occur at temperatures between 1400°F to 1800°F

Mafic
⁃ has high content of magnesium and iron.
⁃ eruptions occur at temperatures greater than 1800°F.

Ultramafic
⁃ the hottest and fastest flowing magma.
Rock Deformation

Stress
⁃ force that could create deformation on rocks in their shape and volume.
⁃ Lithostatic Stress
⁃ rock beneath the earth’s surface experiences equal pressure exerted on it from all
directions because the weight of the underlying rock.

⁃ Differential Stress
⁃ rock ay experience an additional unequal stress due to tectonic forces.
Three types:
⁃ Tensional Stress (stretching)
⁃ rocks are pulled apart.
⁃ Compressional Force (squeezing)
-rock is pressed, squeezed or pushed together
3. Shear Stress
⁃ results in slippage and translation

• Unequal pulls and pushes on the rocks from different directions may become
greater than the elastic limits of the rocks, hence rock may be deformed.

STRESS VS STRAIN
Stress
⁃ is an applied force acting on the rock
Strain
⁃ the response of the rock to an applied stress which involves change of volume or
shape of the rock-resulting deformation
⁃ is the change in size, shape, or volume of a material rock.

Types of Strain
1. Elastic Deformation
⁃ changes in shape by very small amount in response to the stress; the deformation
is not permanent.
2. Plastic strain / Ductile Strain
⁃ permanent strain; when the stress exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock will
bend or fold.
3. Brittle Strain / Fracture
⁃ permanent strain; rocks will break

Joints
⁃ are fractures that divide the rocks into parts or blocks which have not been
suffered any relative motion along the fracture.

Faults
⁃ are extremely long and deep break or large crack in a rock.
⁃ a fracture or break in earth’s lithosphere along which block of rocks move past
each other.

Hanging Wall vs Foot Wall

Hanging wall
⁃ the block above the fault
Foot Wall
⁃ the bock below the fault

Types of Faults
1. Normal Fault
⁃ gravity fault
⁃ the hanging wall has slipped down in comparison with foot wall
⁃ gravity causes the hanging wall to slip down
⁃ normal fault is from layers being pulled apart.
2. Reverse fault
⁃ the hanging wall moves up relative to the foot wall
⁃ it is called thrust fault if the dip (slope) of the fault is small.
3. Strike Slip Fault
⁃ the movement of the blocks of rock is chiefly in the horizontal direction.
⁃ If the far side of the fault moves to the left relative to the observer it is called
“sinistral strike slip fault” (left lateral)
⁃ If the far side of the fault moves to the right relative to the observer it is called
“dextral strike slip fault” (right lateral)
4. Dip Slip fault
⁃ movements of rocks are mainly vertical direction (rising and sinking)

Other Types of Faults

1. Oblique Fault
⁃ caused by both dip slip fault and strike slip fault
⁃ combination of shearing and tension of compressional

2. Horst and Graben

⁃ refer to regions that lie between normal faults and are either higher or lower than
the area beyond the faults

Fold
⁃ occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as
sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation.

Types of Fold
1. Monoclines
⁃ simplest type of folds
⁃ occurs when the horizontal layers are bent upward so that the two limbs of the fold
are still horizontal.

2. Synclines
⁃ fold structures when the original rock layers have been folded downward and the
two limbs of the fold dip inward toward the hinge of the fold.

3. Anticlines
⁃ fold structures formed when the original rock layers have been folded upward and
the two limbs of the fold dip away from the hinge of the fold.

• Synclines and Anticlines usually occur together such that lime of a syncline is
also the limb of the anticline.
• Anticline may form mountains, hills or ridges while the syncline may form
valleys.
Deformation of the Crust
Continental Drift
⁃ the continental drift theory is states that once, all the continents were joined in a
super-continent, which scientists call Pangaea, meaning “All-earth.”
⁃ Pangaea started to break up into two smaller supercontinents, called Laurasia and
Gondwanaland, during the Jurassic period.
⁃ by the end of the cretaceous period, the continents were separating into land
masses that look like our modern-day continents.
⁃ refers to the movement of the earth’s continents relative to each other.
⁃ the thought was first speculated by Abraham Ortelius in 1596.
⁃ the concept was fully developed by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist.

Panthalassa
⁃ ocean that surrounds the supercontinent

Wegener’s Evidence
3. Fossil Correlation
⁃ the fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile which is only found in South
America and Africa but is present around the shores of different continents.
⁃ discovery of fossils of the land reptile lystrosaurus from rocks of the same age
from locations in South America Africa, and Antarctica.
⁃ it was impossible for his reptile to swim the long distance from one continent to
another and being a freshwater animal.
⁃ fossils are traces and remains of organisms that lived in prehistoric times
⁃ fossil of the plant fern Glossopteris was also found in India, South Africa,
Australia, Antarctica and South America

6. Topographic evidence
⁃ if the maps of North and South America were moved eastward against Europe and
Africa, the continental shapes would match.
⁃ continents seemed to fit together, not as continuously changing shoreline but at the
edges of their continental shelves.

⁃ Rock Formation
⁃ existing mountain ranges separated by vast oceans contain rocks of identical
mineral content.
⁃ Appalachians mountains on the Eastern US and Caledonian Mountain (Scotland)
fit together, as well as Karroo Strata in South Africa and Santa Caterina rocks in Brazil.
⁃ Wegener concluded that they were once a single mountain range that got separated
as the continents drifted.
⁃ Paleoclimatic Evidence
⁃ evidence of glaciers is present in regions with warm, dry climate.
⁃ there is an evidence of glacial till deposits in the northern and southern latitudes,
there are scratches on rocks left by glaciers.
⁃ tillites are found in Africa, South America, India, and Australia
⁃ coral reefs and swamps that lead to the formation of coal deposits are found in
tropical environments.
⁃ Wegener discovered ancient coal seams and coral reefs in parts of the continents
that are much too cold today.

Alfred Lothar Wegener

⁃ Despite all these incredible evidences for continental drift, Wegener was not able
to see his theory gain acceptance.
⁃ He concentrated on developing evidences that continents drifted not on what
caused them to move.
⁃ He died in 1930 at the age of 50 from a probable heart failure while on a scientific
expedition in Greenland.

Seafloor Spreading
⁃ in the 1960’s Harry Hess theorized that the seafloor is a hundred million years
younger than the continents.
⁃ he suggested that not only the continents moving but also the seafloor.
⁃ During World War II, Harry became interested in mapping the ocean floor using
SONAR, a device that bounces sound waves off underwater objects and then records the
echoes of this sound waves. The time it takes for the echo to arrive indicates the distance
of the object

Findings of Hess
⁃ long mountain ranges existed throughout the ocean floor called Mid Oceanic
Ridges.
⁃ the longest one runs through the middle of the Atlantic Ocean called Mid Atlantic
Ridges.
⁃ a rift is an elongated break that or opening in the middle of the mid oceanic ridge,
this is where emission of volcanic materials occur.
⁃ he devised a theory which states that at mid oceanic ridges, molten material rises
from the mantle and erupts; it then spreads out, pushing older rock to both sides of the
ridges, when it reaches the surface it cools and solidifies becoming the seafloor.
⁃ as more magma rises, the present floor is pushed aside
⁃ at plate boundaries, the cold and denser rock sinks and melts, becoming magma
once again.
⁃ this shows that there is “recycling process” that takes
Subduction
⁃ process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep ocean trench and back into
the mantle.; allows part of the ocean floor to sink back into the mantle
New ocean floor
⁃ forms along the cracks in the ocean crust as molten material erupts from the
mantle spreading out and pushing older rocks to the sides of the crack.
⁃ new ocean floor is continually added by the process of seafloor spreading.
⁃ this proves that the continental drift theory is correct.
PROOFS
⁃ The oldest ocean floor rocks are 180 million years old. Earth is 4.6 billion years
old.
⁃ The rocks closest to the oceanic ridge were younger than the rocks found further
from the ridge. This means that the new rocks are formed at the ridges and push the older
rocks away from the ridges.
⁃ Paleomagnetism is another proof. It tells us how far from the poles rocks were
when they were formed by looking at the angle of their magnetic field.
⁃ The Earth is a giant magnet.
⁃ When hot magma rises on the Earth’s surface, cools and hardens, the minerals
especially the iron magnetite in magma are magnetized in alignment with the Earth’s
magnetic field.
⁃ Rocks that were formed in different places on Earth have different magnetizations.
It was suggested that the Earth’s magnetic poles must have flipped or wandered. This is
called magnetic reversal.
Normal Magnetic Polarity
⁃ magnetic orientation the same as that of the Earth’s current field.
Reversed Magnetic Polarity
⁃ magnetic orientations in the rock that are opposite to the current orientation of
Earth’s magnetic field.
Plate Tectonic Theory
⁃ In 1965, J. Tuzo Wilson combined the continental drift and seafloor spreading and
made two major contributions to strengthen the theory of plate tectonics.—the
introduction of hotspots and the transform plate boundary.
The Continental Margin
⁃ is the shallow water area found in proximity to continent
⁃ continental margin consists of three different features: the continental rise, the
continental slope, and the continental shelf.
⁃ Continental margins constitute about 28% of the oceanic area

The Continental Shelf

⁃ the portion of the continental margin that transitions from the shore out towards to
ocean. They are believed to make up 7 percent of the sea floor.

The Continental Slope

⁃ the submerged border of a continent that slopes gradually to the ocean bottom.
The Continental Rise
⁃ is an underwater feature found between the continental slope and the abyssal plain.
⁃ this feature can be found all around the world, and it represents the final stage in
the boundary between continents and the deepest part of the ocean

A. Continental Slope
B. Seamount
C. Abyssal plain
D. Ridges
E. Volcanic Island
F. Continental shelf
G. Trench