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COURSE MATERIAL

LINEAR & DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

SUBJECT AND APPLICATIONS(EC20APC403)

UNIT 1

COURSE B.TECH

DEPARTMENT ECE

SEMESTER 22

PREPARED BY Mr. A KRISHNA MOHAN

(Faculty Name/s) Associate Professor

Version V-1

PREPARED / REVISED DATE 23-02-2022

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – UNIT 1

S. NO CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 1
2 PREREQUISITES 1
3 SYLLABUS 1
4 COURSE OUTCOMES 1
5 CO - PO/PSO MAPPING 2
6 LESSON PLAN 2
7 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 2
8 LECTURE NOTES
1.1 Introduction to Integrated Circuits 3
1.2 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers 5
1.3 Block diagram of Op-Amp 6
1.4 Ideal Characteristics of Op-Amp 9
1.5 Equivalent circuit of an Op-Amp 9
1.6 DC & AC Characteristics of op amp 11
1.7 Various types of Op-Amps & their applications
1.8 Summing Amplifiers or Adders 13
1.9 Instrumentation Amplifier 16
1.10 Current to voltage converter (Trans-resistance
17
Amplifier)
1.11 Voltage to Current Converter (V to I Converter) 17
1.12 Integrator 19
1.13 Differentiator 21
9 PRACTICE QUIZ 28
10 ASSIGNMENTS 32
11 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 33
12 PART B QUESTIONS 35
13 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 36
14 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 36
15 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 36
16 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 43
17 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTION 44

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1. Course Objectives
The objectives of this course is to
1.
To introduce the basic building blocks of linear integrated circuits.
2.
To teach the linear and non-linear applications of operational amplifiers.
3.
To introduce the theory and applications of PLL.
4.
To introduce the concepts of waveform generation and introduce some special
function ICs.
5. Exposure to digital IC’s
2. Prerequisites
Students should have knowledge on
1. Electronic Devices and Circuits
2. Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design
3. Digital Logic Design
3. Syllabus
Unit 1: OP- AMPS and its linear Applications
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER: Introduction, Classification of IC’s, basic information and
features of Op-Amp IC741, the ideal Operational amplifier, Op-Amp internal
circuit, characteristics - DC and AC.
LINEAR APPLICATIONS OF OP-AMP: Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, adder,
subtractor, Instrumentation amplifier, AC amplifier, V to I and I to V converters,
Integrator and differentiator.

4. Course outcomes
CO1: List out the characteristics of Linear and Digital ICs.
CO2: Discuss the various applications of linear & Digital ICs.
CO3: Solve the application based problems related to linear and digital ICs.
CO4: Analyze various applications based circuits of linear and digital ICs.
CO5: Design the circuits using either linear ICs or Digital ICs from the given
specifications.
5. Co-PO / PSO Mapping
Cos PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 P10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2

CO1 1 1 1 1 1

CO2 1 1 1 1 1

CO3 1 1 1 1 1

CO4 1 1 1 1 1

CO5 1 1 1 1 1

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6. Lesson Plan
Lecture No. Weeks Topics to be covered References

1 Introduction; Classification of IC’s T1, R1

2 Block diagram of Op-Amp-Description T1, R1

1
3 Basic information and features of Op-Amp IC741 T1, R1

4 Op-Amp IC741;Pin diagram and equivalent circuit T1, R1

5 The ideal Operational amplifier-Characteristics T1, R2

6 Op-Amp internal circuit T1, R1

2
7 DC and AC characteristics T1, R1

LINEAR APPLICATIONS OF OP-AMP: Inverting and non-

8 T1, R1
inverting amplifiers, ,
9 Adder, subtractor T1, R1

10 Instrumentation amplifier T1, R1

3
11 AC amplifier, V to I and I to V converters, T1, R1

12 Integrator and differentiator. T1, R1

13 Problems on above T1, R1

7. Activity Based Learning

1. Technical Quiz
2. By conducting experiments

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1.1.2 DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

 Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic
gates, flip- flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The
small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and
reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These
digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers, work using
binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.
Examples:

• Basic Logic Gates

• Encoder & Decoders
• Multiplexers and De-multiplexers
• Flip Flops
• Counters
• Arithmetic Logic Units
1.1.3 MIXED SIGNAL CIRCUITS

 ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create
functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer
smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal
interference.
ICs can be classified on the basis of their chip size as given below:

• Small scale integration (SSI)—3 to 30 gates/chip.

• Medium scale integration (MSI)—30 to 300 gates/chip.
• Large scale integration (LSI)—300 to 3,000 gates/chip.
• Very large-scale integration (VLSI)—more than 3,000 gates/chip.
1.1.4 Advantages of integrated circuits

 Miniaturization and hence increased equipment density.

 Cost reduction due to batch processing.
 Increased system reliability due to the elimination of soldered joints.
 Improved functional performance.
 Matched devices.
 Increased operating speeds.
 Reduction in power consumption
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It is a 8-pin dual-in-line package with a pinout shown above.
Pin 1: Offset null.
Pin 2: Inverting input terminal.
Pin 3: Non-inverting input terminal.
Pin 4: –VCC (negative voltage supply).
Pin 5: Offset null.
Pin 6: Output voltage.
Pin 7: +VCC (positive voltage supply).
Pin 8: No Connection.
The main pins in the 741 op-amp are pin2, pin3 and pin6. In inverting amplifier, a
positive voltage is applied to pin2 of the op-amp; we get output as negative
voltage through pin 6. The polarity has been inverted. In a non-inverting
amplifier, a positive voltage is applied to pin3 of the op-amp; we get output as
positive voltage through pin 6. Polarity remains the same in non-inverting
amplifier. Vcc is usually in the range from 12 to 15 volts. When two supplies
(+Vcc/-Vcc) are used, they are the same voltage and of opposite sign in almost
all cases. Remember that the operational amplifier is a high gain, differential
voltage amplifier.
1.2.3. Features of 741 IC
1. Short circuit and overload protection provided.
2. In theory, the dc output voltage will be zero if both the inputs of the 741 IC are
connected to the ground. But in practice, a small dc output may appear due
to minor internal unbalances. It is usually unnoticed in normal applications. But
for critical conditions, the output voltage can be set precisely to zero by
connecting a 10K potentiometer between terminals marked “offset-null”.
3. Low power consumption.
4. Large common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) and differential voltage ranges.
5. No external frequency compensation is required. It also does not need any
external compensation for phase component. This simplifies the circuit design
and minimizes the number of components used.
6. No latch-up problem.
There are many common application circuits using IC741 op-amp, they are
adder, comparator, subtractor, integrator, differentiator and voltage follower.
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 All such requirements are achieved by using the Dual Input Balanced Output
differential amplifier.
 This Differential amplifier consists of high input impedance and it amplifies the
difference of the two applied inputs.
 This stage provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Intermediate Stage:
 It is another differential amplifier with Dual Input balanced Output
configuration. For an op-amp the overall gain requirement is very high.
 The main function of the intermediate stage is to provide an additional
voltage gain required. Practically it is a chain of cascaded amplifiers called
multistage amplifier.
Level Translating Stage:
 In Op-amp all the stages are directly coupled to each other. As the op-amp
amplifies dc signals also, the coupling capacitors are not used to cascade the
stages.
 Hence the Quiescent voltage level of previous stage gets applied as the
input to the next stage. Hence stage by stage dc level increases well above the
ground potential.
 Such high dc voltage level may drive the transistors into saturation.
 This further may cause distortion in the output due to clipping.
 This may limit the maximum output voltage swing without distortion. Hence
before the output stage it is necessary to bring such a high dc level to zero.
 The level shifter stage brings the dc level down to ground potential when no
signal is applied at the input terminals.
 The buffer is usually an emitter follower provides high input impedance to
prevent the loading of the high gain stage.
Output Stage:
Generally, the output stage requires
 low output impedance
 Large ac output voltage swing
 High current sourcing & sinking capability
The Push-pull complimentary amplifier meets all these requirements and used as
an output stage.
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V1
I1 = ①
R1

V1
I2 = ②
Rf

By selecting proper value of Rcomp, V2 can be cancelled with V1 and the output
VO will be zero.

The value of Rcomp is derived as

V1 = I+a Rcomp

+ V1
I B= ③
Rcomp

For compensation, VO should be zero for Vi = 0

Apply KVL, VO = V2 - V1

0 = V2 - V1

V2 = V1

V2 V1
From equation ②, I2 = =
R f Rf

KCL at node ‘a’ gives,

⁻ V1 V1 1 1
I B=I2 + I1 = + =V1 +
Rf R 1 Rf R1

⁻ R1 +Rf
I B=V1 ④
R1Rf

Assuming I-B = I+B and equation ③ and equation ④ we get

R1 +Rf V1
V1 =
R1Rf Rcomp

R1Rf
Rcomp=
R1 +Rf

Rcomp = R1 ‖ RF ⑤

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i.e., To compensate for bias currents, the compensating resistor Rcomp should be
equal to the parallel combination of resistors tied to the inverting input terminal.

1.6.3. Input OFFSET Current

Bias current compensation will work if both bias currents I +B and I-B are equal.
Since the input transistors cannot be made identical, there will always be some
small difference between I+B and I-B.

The difference is called the offset current IOS can be written as

| IOS| = I+B - I-B.

The absolute value sign indicates that there is no way to predict which of the
bias currents will be larger.

Even with bias current compensation, offset current will produce an output
voltage when the input voltage Vi is zero.

1.6.4 Thermal Drift

Bias current (IB), Offset current (IOS) and Offset voltage (VOS) change with
temperature.

The average rate of change of input offset voltage per unit charge in
∆VOS
temperature is called “Thermal Voltage Drift” and is denoted by . It is
∆T
expressed in µV/°C.

∆IOS
Similarly, = Thermal drift in the input offset current (φA/°C )
∆T
∆IB
= Thermal drift in the input bias current (φA/°C ).
∆T

There are very few circuit techniques that can be used to minimize the effect of
drift.

Careful printed circuit board layout must be used to keep op-amps away from
source of heat.

Forced air cooling may be used to stabilize the ambient temperature.

AC Characteristics
1.6.5 COMMON MODE REJECTION RATIO (CMRR)
Differential Gain (Ad):
The output voltage-
V0=Ad(V1-V2)
Where,
Ad is the constant of proportionality.

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Ad is the gain with which differential amplifier amplifies the difference between
two input signals.
Hence it is known as ‘differential gain of the differential amplifier’.
𝑉0
𝐴𝑑 =
𝑉𝑑
V1-V2= Difference of two voltage
Generally, differential gain is expressed in decibel (dB) as
Ad= 20 log10 (Ad) in dB
Common Mode Gain (Ac)
If we apply two input voltages which are equal in all the respect to the
differential amplifier i.e V1=V2 then ideally the output voltage V0= (V1-V2) Ad,
must be zero.
But the output voltage of the practical differential amplifier not only depends
on the difference voltage but also depends on the average common level of
the two inputs. Such an average level of the two input signals is called common
mode signal denoted as Vcm.
𝑉 +𝑉
𝑉 =
2
Practically, the differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to
such common mode signal. The gain with which it amplifies the common mode
signal to produce the output is called common mode gain of the differential
amplifier denoted as Ac.
Vo = A c Vc Where Ac is the common mode gain.
Therefore, there exists some finite output for V1 = V2 due to common mode gain
Ac.
Hence the total output of any differential amplifier can be given as,
Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc
For an ideal differential amplifier, the differential gain Ad must be infinite while
the common mode gain must be zero. This ensures zero output for V1=V2.
But due to mismatch in the internal circuitry, there is some output available for
V1=V2 and gain Ac is not practically zero. The value of such common mode gain
Ac is very small while the value of the differential gain Ad is always very large.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):

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The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is defined
by a ratio called ‘Common Mode Rejection Ratio’ denoted as CMRR.
CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to common mode
gain Ac and is expresses in dB.
𝐴
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑑𝐵
𝐴
Ideally the common mode voltage gain is zero, hence the ideal value of CMRR
is infinite. For a practical differential amplifier Ad is large and Ac is small hence
the value of CMRR is also very large. The output voltage can be expressed in
terms of CMRR as below:
Vo = Ad Vd + Ac Vc
𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑐
=𝐴 𝑉 1+
𝐴 𝑉

⎡ ⎤
⎢ 1 𝑉⎥
= 𝐴 𝑉 ⎢1 +
𝐴 𝑉⎥
⎢ 𝐴 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1 𝑉
=𝐴 𝑉 1+
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 𝑉

Methods of Improving CMRR

1. Differential amplifier with constant current source
The constant current bias circuit is better because it provides current
stabilization and assures a stable operating point for the differential amplifier.
2. Current source using diodes (Temperature compensation)
CMRR to be large

CMRR=

Ac- small
Ac=0, RE- ∞ large value
 Practical limitations on the magnitude of RE because of the quiescent dc
voltage across it.
 If RE is made large, the emitter supply VEE will also have to increase in order to
maintain the proper quiescent current.

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Let us assume that the input is a large amplitude and high frequency sine wave.

Vin = VP SinѠt

(or)

VO = VP SinѠt

The rate of change of the output is

dVO
=VP CosѠt
dt

and the maximum rate of change of the output occurs when CosѠt=1. That is,

dVO
│max=VP Ѡ
dt

(or)
dVO
Slew Rate = │max=VP Ѡ
dt

SR = 2ΠfVP V/s ⑪

where

SR = Slew Rate (V/s)

f = Input Frequency (Hz)

VP = Peak Value of the output Sine wave (Volts)

For output free of distortion, the slew rate determines the maximum frequency
of operation fmax for a desired output swing.

Slew Rate
fmax (Hz)= ⑫
6.28 X VP

Thus the maximum frequency fmax at which we can obtain an undistorted

output voltage at peak value VP.

If either the frequency or the amplitude of the input signal is increased to

exceed the slew rate of the Op-amp, the output will distort.

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Suppose A is un-compensated transfer function of the op-amp in open-loop
condition. Introduce a dominant pole by adding RC network in series with op-
amp as shown in figure 1.14

Now the compensated transfer function A' becomes,

VO - jXC (- j / ѠC)
A '= =A =A
Vi R - jXC R-( j / ѠC)

1
' jѠC A A
A= A = =
1 1+jѠRC 1+j2πfRC
R+
jѠC

' A
A= ①
f
1+j
fd

1
where fd=
2πRC

The capacitance C is chosen so that the modified loop gain drops 0 dB with a
slope of -20 dB/decade at frequency where the poles of un compensated
transfer function A contribute negligible phase shift.

There is, however, one disadvantage of this compensating technique. It

reduces the open-loop bandwidth drastically.

But the noise immunity of the system is improved since the noise frequency
components outside the bandwidth are eliminated.

For multiple corner frequencies

' AOL
A=
f f f f
1+j 1+j 1+j 1+j
fd f1 f2 f3

Where, fd < f1 < f2 < f3

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Voltage gain

Use the super position theorem in order to establish the relationship between
inputs and outputs.

When Vy=0, the configuration comes an inverting amplifier. The output due to Vx
only

−𝑅
∴𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑅

When Vx=0, the configuration comes an non-inverting amplifier. The output due
to Vy only

𝑅
𝑉 =𝑉
𝑅 +𝑅

𝑅 𝑅
∴𝑉 = (1 + )𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅

If R1=R2 & Rf=R3 then

𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅
∴𝑉 =( )𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅

𝑅
∴𝑉 = 𝑉
𝑅

The net output voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉

−𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅

−𝑅
= (𝑉 − 𝑉 )
𝑅

For op-amps without offset null capability, external offset voltage compensating
network is used.

1.7.2 The Inverting Amplifier

In the Inverting Amplifier only one input is applied and that is to the inverting
input terminal. The Non-Inverting input terminal is grounded.

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R R R
V =− V + V + V
R R R

Thus the output is an inverted, weighted sum of the input.

Summing Amplifier

If R = R = R = R above equation becomes

R
V =− (V + V + V )
R

If output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the inputs times the gain of
the circuit Rf/R then it is called summing amplifier.

In the special case, when R = R = R = R we have the output voltage is

equal to negative sum of all input voltages.

V = −(V + V + V )

Scaling or Weighted Amplifier

If each input voltage is amplified by a different factor the circuit is called a

scaling or weighted amplifier. This condition can be accomplished if Ra, Rb, and
Rc are different in value. Thus, output voltage of scaling amplifier is

R R R
V =− V + V + V
R R R

Where ≠ ≠

Averaging Amplifier

By using all input resistors of equal value R = R = R = R averaging circuit can

be accomplished in which the output voltage is equal to the average of all
input voltages.

R =R =R =R

R
V =− (V + V + V )
R

The gain by which each input is amplified must be equal to one over the
number of inputs i.e

R 1
=
R n
−(V + V + V )
V =
3

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I
R f 1  RG  R f 2
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The current flowing through the feedback capacitor C and input current is
given as

𝑉 −𝑉 𝑑
= 𝐶 (𝑉 − 𝑉 )
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝑉 −0 𝑑
= 𝐶 (0 − 𝑉 )
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

The output voltage can be obtained by integrating both sides with respect to
time

𝑉 𝑑
∴ = −𝐶 𝑉
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 =− ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶

Where C is the integration constant and is proportional to the values of the

output voltage Vo at time t=0 seconds. Here above equation indicates that the
output voltage is directly proportional to the negative integral of the input
voltage and inversely propotional to the time constant R 1Cf.

A simple lowpass RC circuit can also work as an integrator when time constant is
very large. This requires large value of R and C. The components R and C
cannot made infinitely large because of practical limitations. The transfer
function of integrator is given by

−1 𝑉 (𝑆)
𝑉 (𝑆) =
𝑅 𝐶 𝑆

−1
𝑉 (𝑆 ) = 𝑉 (𝑆)
𝑆𝑅 𝐶

𝑉 (𝑆 ) −1 −1 −1
𝐴= = = =
𝑉 (𝑆) 𝑆𝑅 𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝑅 𝐶 𝑗2𝜋𝑅 𝐶

1
|𝐴| =
𝑓
𝑓

The frequency response of this basic integrator a slope of -20dB/decade. The

gain cross over frequency is given by 𝑓 =

When Vin=0, the integrator works as an open amplifier. This is because the
capacitor CF acts as an open circuit to the input offset voltage Vio. Therefore, in
the practical integrator to reduce the error voltage at the output, a resistor R f is
connected across the feedback capacitor Cf. Thus, Rf limits the low frequency
gain and hence minimizes the variation in the output voltage.

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9. Practice Quiz

1. In differential amplifier, when the same voltage is applied to both the inputs is
called…………………configuration
a) Common mode
b) Differential mode
c) Inverted mode
d) Non inverted mode
2. Differential gain of dual input balanced output differential amplifier is…………
𝑹𝒄
a)
𝒓𝒆

b)

c) Rc* re
d) Rc+ re
3. The input Resistance of dual input balanced output differential amplifier is…………
a) 2 βac re
b) 2 βac rc
c) 2 βdc re
d) (2 βac ) / (re)
4. The ideal OP-AMP has the following characteristics………………..
a) Ri=∞,A=∞,Ro=∞
b) Ri=∞,A=∞,Ro=0
c) Ri=∞,A=0,Ro=∞
d) Ri=0,A=0,Ro=∞
5. An Ideal OPAMP is an ideal…………………….
a) Voltage controlled current source
b) Voltage controlled voltage source
c) Current controlled voltage source
d) Current controlled voltage source
6. A Differential Amplifier amplifies…………………..
a) Input signal with higher voltage
b) Input voltage with smaller voltage
c) Sum of the input voltage
d) None of the Mentioned

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7. In ideal Differential Amplifier, if same signal is given to both inputs, then output will
be……
a) Same as input
b) Double the input
c) Not equal to zero
d) Zero
8. Which is not the internal circuit of operational amplifier?
a) Differential amplifier
b) Level translator
c) Output driver
d) Clamper
9. The purpose of level shifter in Op-amp internal circuit is to…………..
a) Adjust DC voltage
b) Increase impedance
c) Provide high gain
d) Decrease input resistance
10. At what condition differential amplifier function as a switch……………..
a) 4VT < Vd < -4VT
b) -2VT ≤ Vd ≤ 2VT
c) 0 ≤ Vd < -4VT
d) 0 ≤ Vd ≤ 2VT
11. Constant current source in differential amplifier is also called as…………..
a) Current Mirror
b) Current Source
c) Current Repeaters
d) All of the above
12. If the differential voltage gain and the common mode voltage gain of a
differential amplifier are 48 dB and 2 dB respectively, then its common mode
rejection ratio is……………..
a) 24 dB
b) 46 dB
c) 25 dB
d) 50 dB
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13. The input stage of an op amp is usually a …………………….
a) Differential amplifier
b) CE amplifier
c) Class B Push pull amplifier
d) Level translator
14. In a differential amplifier, the configuration is said to be an ‘unbalanced output’,
if..............
a) Output voltage is measured between two collectors
b) Output is measured with respect to ground
c) Two input signals are used
d) All of the above
15. In a typical op-amp, which stage is supposed to be a dual-input unbalanced
output or single-ended output differential amplifier?
a) Input stage
b) Intermediate stage
c) Level Shifter
d) Output Stage
16. The common-mode voltage gain is ………
a) smaller than differential voltage gain
b) equal to differential voltage gain
c) greater than differential voltage gain
d) none of the above
17. The two input terminals of an op-amp are labeled as……………………..
a) High and low
b) Positive and negative
c) Inverting and non-inverting
d) Differential and non-differential
18. A differential amplifier is capable of amplifying ………………..
a) DC input signal only
b) AC input signal only
c) AC & DC input signal
d) None of the Mentioned

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19. Find the correct match
Configuration Voltage gain and Input
resistance

1. Single Input Unbalanced i. Ad = Rc/re , Ri1 Ri2 = 2βacRE

Output

2. Dual Input Balanced Output ii. Ad= Rc/2re , Ri1 Ri2 = 2βacRE

3. Single Input Balanced Output iii. Ad= Rc/re , Ri = 2βacRE

4. Dual Input Unbalanced iv. Ad = Rc/2re , Ri = 2βacRE

Output

a) 1-i , 2-iii, 3-iv, 4-ii

b) 1-iv, 2-ii, 3-iii, 4-I
c) 1-ii, 2-iv, 3-i , 4-iii
d) 1-iii, 2-i, 3-ii, 4-iv
20. Determine the amount of shift happens in level shifter?
a) Vcc + 0.7v
b) Vcc – 0.7v
c) -0.7v
d) +0.7v
22. In differential mode,………………..
a) opposite polarity signals are applied to the inputs
b) the gain is one
c) the outputs are of different amplitudes
d) only one supply voltage is used
23. When a number of stages are connected in parallel, the overall gain is the
product of the individual stages gain.
a) TRUE
b) FALSE
24. For an ideal op-amp, which of the following is true?
a) The differential voltage across the input terminals is zero
b) The current into the input terminals is zero
c) The current from output terminal is zero
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d) The output resistance is zero

25. Voltage gain of an ideal op-amp is:

a) Infinite
b) Very high
c) Low
d) Very Low
26. Bandwidth of an ideal op-amp is:
a) Infinite
b) Very high
c) Low
d) Very Low
27. Output impedance of an ideal op-amp is:
a) Infinite
b) Very high
c) Low
d) Zero
28. CMRR of an ideal op-amp is:
a) Infinite
b) Very high
c) Low
d) Very Low
29. An inverting amplifier that amplifies dc input level is called ……………………….
a) DC amplifier
b) AC amplifier
c) DC and AC amplifier
d) All of the above
30. The major difference between ground and virtual ground is that virtual ground
only a…
a) power reference
b) voltage reference
c) current reference
d) difference reference
31. When a capacitor is used in place of a resistor in an op-amp network, its

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placement determines ………………………….
a) open loop or closed loop gain
b) saturation or cutoff
c) integration or differentiation
d) addition or subtraction
32.If the input is a sine wave, the inverting amplifier (output) will produce … phase
shift.
a) 360°
b) 0°
c) 90°
d) 180°
33.An op-amp current to voltage converter is also called……………………
a) Trans-conductance amplifier
b) trans-impedance amplifier
c) Inverting and non-inverting
d) Differential and non-differential
34 Practical Integrator circuit is also called………………………………….
a) ramp generator
b) Lossy Integrator
c) Both
d) Not defined
35. In which amplifier the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the
inputs?
a) Averaging amplifier
b) Summing amplifier
c) Scaling amplifier
d) All of the mentioned
36. If the input is a rectangular pulse, the output of an integrator is a…………
a) Sine wave
b) Square wave
c) Ramp
d) Rectangular pulse
37. An inverting amplifier with gain 1 have different input voltage: 1.2v,3.2v and 4.2v.
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Find the output voltage?
a) 4.2V
b) 8.6V
c) -4.2V
d) -8.6V
38. In which type of amplifier, the input voltage is amplified by a scaling factor
a) Summing amplifier
b) Averaging amplifier
c) Weighted amplifier
d) Differential amplifier
39. An amplifier in which the output voltage is equal to average of input voltage?
a) Summing amplifier
b) Weighting amplifier
c) Scaling amplifier
d) Averaging amplifier
40. Op-amp integrator uses:
a) Resistor as feedback element
b) Capacitor as feedback element
c) Inductor as feedback element
d) A Simple wire as feedback element
41. The voltage gain of an op-amp is unity at the
a) Cut off frequency
b) Unity gain frequency
c) Generator frequency
d) Power Bandwidth
42. In an ac amplifier using an op-amp with coupling and bypass capacitors, the
output offset voltage is…………
a) Zero
b) Minimum
c) Maximum
d) Unchanged
43. In a controlled current source with op-amps, the circuit acts like a…………….
a) Voltage amplifier
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b) Current to voltage converter
c) Voltage to current converter
d) Current amplifier
44. An instrumentation amplifier has a high…………
a) Output impedance
b) power gain
c) CMRR
d) Supply voltage
45. The voltage gain of a non-inverting op-amp amplifier is less than one.
a) TRUE
b) FALSE

46. The output voltage of Differentiator is Vo = - RF C1

a) TRUE
b) FALSE
47. In differential op-amp configuration a subtractor is called as Difference amplifier.
a) TRUE
b) FALSE
10. Assignments
S.No Question BL CO
Draw the op-amp with block diagram representation and
1 BL2 CO1
explain the functionality of each block.
2 Explain AC & DC Characteristics in detail BL2 CO1
What is the need of a level translator? Explain the operation of a
3 BL1 CO2
level translator using a neat circuit diagram
Sketch the circuit diagram of instrumentation amplifier and
4 BL1 CO2
derive the expression for gain.
Explain about current to voltage (I to V) converter with grounded
5 BL1 CO2
load and V to I Converter
Explain the circuit diagram of a practical integrator and derive
6 BL2
its output equation. CO1

11. Part A- Question & Answers

S.No Question & Answers BL CO
Define CMRR.
1 Ans. The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common BL1 CO2
mode signal is defined by a ratio called ‘Common Mode
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between the two input terminals. The loads cells will often be
implemented in a Wheatstone bridge configuration, which is a very
common example of a floating differential signal; where R2 is the varying
element, creating a differential voltage between nodes C and B.
Nearly any sensor can benefit from an instrumentation amplifier design,
thermocouples, photodiodes, thermistors, even a regular silicon diode
can be used as a simple temperature sensor by placing it into a bridge
circuit feeding an instrumentation amp. When the diode heats up the
forward voltage will drop, creating a differential signal that can be
amplified. The reason that a bridge circuit is so crucial with sensors and
instrumentation is common mode noise; a circuit with a regular op-amp
and a sensor across the inputs would function as an amp, but it would be
very noisy. This is the reason why instrumentation amplifiers are so often
used to feed the inputs of an ADC. Any PIC or Arduino has inputs which
can be configured as analog inputs, but these are single-ended inputs
that cannot reject common-mode signals. The instrumentation amplifier
can extracts and amplify weak sensor signals out of the noisy
environment and feed a clean single-ended output to the ADC. This is
import when working with microcontrollers, as any extra noise will cause
erratic conversion, in addition to wasting valuable ADC bits.

15. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

1. Precision Rectifier using OP-AMP
A rectifier is a circuit that converts alternating current (AC) to Direct current
(DC). An alternating current always changes its direction over time, but the
direct current flows continuously in one direction. In a typical rectifier circuit, we
use diodes to rectify AC to DC. But this rectification method can only be used if
the input voltage to the circuit is greater than the forward voltage of the diode
which is typically 0.7V.
To overcome this issue, the Precision Rectifier Circuit was introduced. The
precision rectifier is another rectifier that converts AC to DC, but in a precision
rectifier we use an op-amp to compensate for the voltage drop across the
diode, that is why we are not losing the 0.6V or 0.7V voltage drop across the
diode, also the circuit can be constructed to have some gain at the output of
the amplifier as well.
2. All pass filter
An all-pass filter is a circuit that will pass all frequencies without attenuation but
with phase shifts that vary with the signal frequency. A phase lag can also be
termed as phase delay, so an all-pass phase lag circuit is also known as a delay
filter.
To find the output voltage VO:
The output voltage can be obtained on the basis of super position theorem.

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