Bumaat, Japhet T.

Date: September 24, 2022

Title: Research on analysis and design philosophy of the connections in steel
structures
Author: Ioana C. Muresan
Research Title:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273638999_Research_on_analysis_and_design_philos
ophy_of_the_connections_in_steel_structures

Rationale
Connections are a key part of a steel structure and carrying them out properly is critical to
achieve a safe and economical structure. Thus, establishing a solution requires knowledge of
structural mechanics, ability to trace the flow of load in the beam and through the connection,
experience and rational analysis of the design engineer. This paper presents a very brief history
of connections, then types of connections usually used in design practice are described: angle
connections, end plate connections and welded connections. In conventional analysis and design
of steel framed structures joints are usually carried out under the assumption that they are either
ideally pinned or fully rigid. However, experimental research shows that most connections used
in current practice are semi-rigid type and their behavior lies between these two idealized
situations. Structural analysis models allow the joint representation with semi-rigid behavior
(ASRO, 2006). Eurocode 3 establishes three new categories of joints, according with both
stiffness and strength criteria, required in structural modeling (ASRO, 2006; CEMSIG, 2010)
namely: continuous, semi-continuous and simple joints. There are also presented the possibilities
of modeling joints depending on the method of analysis.
3 Types of Connection
1.) Angle Connections - Angle connections are very versatile because you can get a
variety of configurations of such connections. Thus, by changing the size of angles, their length
or thickness, the size of bolts or welds, holes or the type of material used, the desired connection
performance is obtained. Angle connections are used mainly in the beam to column joints.
a.) Single web angle connection is the most flexible combination of simple
connections. It is suited to resist gravity shear loads and has a reduced ability to
transmit the bending moment, so it is classified as a pinned connection
(Mazzolani and Piluso, 1996; AISC, 2002). It has a small resistance to torsion, so
it is not suitable for this action; it is not suitable also for any application where
axial tension due to the significant flexibility of this connection exists. This type
of connection is economical in terms of manufacture and has the advantage of a
simple and safe erection.
b.) Double web angle connection is suitable for transferring shear resulted from
gravity loads and it also has a favourable response to torsion as long as the
 connection size is at least half of the T distance (AISC, 1994; AISC, 2002). The
stiffness and the moment resistance of this connection are double compared with
the simple angle connection.
c.) Flange angle connection is achieved by welding or bolting the angles of the
beam flange and the column flange. The problem of bolts sliding in the holes is
eliminated by choosing welded angles and the connection stiffness is increased as
against bolting solution.
2.) End plate Connection - The end plate connection consists of a steel plate welded to
the end of the beam, along both the flanges and web, and bolted to the column flange using
preloaded high strength bolts. This type of connection can be flush end plate connection, Figure
4 and Figure 6a, with plate length equal to the height of the beam, or extended end plate
connection, Figure 5, whose length exceeds the height of the beam, by extension on the tension
side only, Figure 6b, when static loads are applied, or both on the tension and compression sides,
Figure 6c, when alternating cyclic load is applied (Chen and Toma, 1994; Balc, 2012). Both
types of connections may have additional stiffeners to reduce the flexibility of the end plate and
to change the characteristics of strength and stiffness. Also, the stiffeners may occur on the
column flange to prevent its flexural deformation.
3.) Welded Connection - Welding is used mainly in steel workshops, where there is
specialized equipment and the supervision and control of the procedure can be carried out easily,
ensuring the obtaining of satisfactory weld quality. Welding versatility gives the design engineer
more freedom than any other means of connection. On the other hand, a welded connection can
be easily harmed by mistakes in design (choice of connection type, type of welding, the weld
size or the required resistance), execution errors (difficult access, one side welding versus two
sides welding, the outer layer of weld, the edge preparation before welding) or erection.
Connecting steel elements by welding, it results a joint with a high degree of strength and
rigidity. A rigid connection can be achieved if the weld is properly carried out, the only flexible
element remained being the web panel of the column. Fasteners can be used, depending on the
nature of the loading. In figure below there are illustrated the main configurations of welded
connections, with or without stiffeners, Figure 7 (ASRO, 2006; Balc, 2012). As a consequence of
high stiffness of these connections the structure failure mode is sudden, without any warning, by
brittle fracture. To eliminate this inconvenience, there are a few technical solutions (Mazzolani
and Piluso, 1996; CEMSIG, 2010; Balc, 2012) by encouraging formation of plastic hinges in the
beam and not in connection.
Methodology
The European code classifies connections of steel structures according to the stiffness and
strength criteria (ASRO, 2006; CEMSIG, 2012). Eurocode 3 establishes three new categories of
joints, according with both stiffness and strength criteria, required in structural modelling
(ASRO, 2006; CEMSIG, 2012), namely: continuous, semi-continuous and simple joints, Table 1.
 Continuous joint concept is suitable only for total strength and rigid connections, whose
behaviour does not affect the structural analysis. For nominally pinned connections in terms of both
classification criteria (strength and stiffness) simple joint concept is suitable. The simple joint is not
capable to transmit bending moment and shear force can only assume. Semi-continuous joint is suitable
for the rest of combinations: rigid/partial strength, semi-rigid/total strength and semi-rigid/partial
strength and its behavior influences the analysis of the structure through its rigidity (CEMSIG,2010).

In the table above, Table 2, there are possibilities of joints modelling tabulated according
to the method of analysis performed (CEMSIG, 2010).
Structural analysis models allow semi-rigid connection representation by a rotational spring
positioned between the ends of the connected members, for example between the end of the
beam and column (ASRO, 2006; CEMSIG, 2010). In a linear-elastic analysis for connection
modelling, the characteristic curve of moment-rotation response is associated to this spring. If
the rotational stiffness of the connection is zero, the joint is pinned, if the rotational stiffness is
infinite, the joint is rigid, and if rotational stiffness is between the two extreme cases the joint is
semi-rigid (CEMSIG, 2012). Methods of connections analysis are elastic, rigid-plastic and
elastic-plastic analysis (ASRO, 2006; CEMSIG, 2012). Elastic analysis requires connections to
be classified only according to their stiffness because their strength is not affected since the
components and web panel yielding are not reached. Rotational stiffness, Sj , corresponding to
the bending moment from elastic analysis, Mj,Ed, is used to calculate the semi-rigid connections.
If Mj, Ed is less than or equal to 2/3 Mj,Rd, and Mj,Rd is the bending moment resistance, in the
analysis is considered the entire value of the connection stiffness, Sj,ini, otherwise a stiffness
degradation occurs and it is taken into account through a stiffness coefficient, η, which is given
in design codes (ASRO, 2006; CEMSIG, 2012). Rigid-plastic analysis requires connections to be
classified only according to their strength and their stiffness is considered infinite. To calculate
the bending moment resistance, Mj,Rd, European standard gives formulas and provides to ensure
the required ductility for carrying the resulting rotations from structural analysis (ASRO, 2006;
CEMSIG, 2012). If an elastic-plastic analysis is performed, it is necessary to classify connections
according to stiffness criteria (to define the elastic characteristics) and strength criteria (to define
the order of plastic hinges occurrence), (ASRO, 2006; CEMSIG, 2012). In determining the
internal forces of the structural elements, the full moment-rotation curve should be used and
stiffness coefficients, η, remain the same as in the elastic analysis.
Significance
In recent years, there is a tendency to abandon the idealized approximations and to
address a reflection of the real structural behavior. The question is of an advanced nonlinear
analysis (Chiorean, 2009), in which the significant effects that undertake the behavior of the
structure have to be captured properly
Behavior of steel structures can be controlled by the embodiment of the connections between
their elements: beams, columns, bracings. Connections are a key part of a steel structure and
carrying them out properly is decisive to achieve a safe and economical structure.
The objective of the study is to analyze and design philosophy of the connections in steel
structures.
Result/Conclusion
Real behavior of the structure as a whole depends on the characteristics and behavior of
connections. It was demonstrated that all connections have a certain amount of rotation and
develop a bending moment, well a semi-rigid behavior. The semi-rigid joints contribute to the
formulation and execution of steel structures capable of meeting the performance criteria
imposed by seismic design standards. Global seismic performance of steel frame structures is
strongly influenced by the mechanical properties of beam-column connections, therefore semi-
rigidity should be considered and treated as an effective way to achieve this performance
(Mazzolani and Piluso, 1996; Alexa and Moldovan, 2005).
Recommendation
With the data that’s been included in the research, what can I only recommend is that to
add details in the methodology to understand the research more clearly.