Construction Mat'ls & Testing Civil and construction engineers must

be familiar with materials used in the

General Properties of Materials
construction of a wide range of
Materials engineers are responsible for structures.
the selection, specification, and quality
Geotechnical engineers make a
control of materials to be used in a job.
reasonable case for including soil as the
These materials must .et certain classes most widely used engineering material,
of criteria or materials properties (Ashby since it provides the basic support for all
and Jones 2005). civil engineering structures.
1. economic factors Materials most frequently used
2. mechanical properties
1. Steel
3. nonmechanical properties
2. Aggregate
4. production/construction
3. Concrete
considerations
4. Masonry
5. aesthetic properties
5. Asphalt
6. Wood
In addition to this traditional list of
criteria, civil engineers must be
concerned with environmental quality. ● Various synthetic products are
competing with traditional civil
In 1997 the ASCE Code of Ethics was
engineering materials. In addition,
modified to include "sustainable
improvements have been made to
development" as an ethics issue.
existing materials by changing their
Sustainable development basically molecular Structures or including
recognizes the fact that our designs additives to improve quality,
should be sensitive to the ability of economy, and performance.
future generations to meet their needs. ● PVC serves as an alternative for
wood in door jams and window
There is a strong tie between the frames
materials selected for design and ● For example, superplasticizers have
sustainable development. made a breakthrough in the concrete
When engineers select the material for a industry, allowing the production Of
specific application, they must consider much stronger concrete.
the various criteria and make ● Joints made of elastomeric materials
compromises. have improved the safety of high-rise
structures in earthquake-active
Both the client and the purpose of the areas.
facility or structure dictate, to a certain ● Lightweight synthetic aggregates
extent, the emphasis that will be placed have decreased the weight of
on the different criteria. concrete structures, allowing small
 cross-sectional areas of
components.
● Polymers have been mixed with
asphalt, allowing pavements to last
longer under the effect of vehicle
loads and environmental conditions.
Mechanical Properties
• Mechanical behavior — is the
response of material to external loads
• All materials deform in response to
loads
• Specific response depends on its
properties, the magnitude and type of
load and the geometry of the element
• Catastrophic failure of a structural
member, resulting in the collapse of the
structure, is an obvious material failure.
• However, in some cases the failure is
more subtle, but with equally severe
consequences. (functional failures)
⮚ For example, pavement may fail
due to excessive roughness at the
surface, even though the stress
levels are well within the
capabilities of the material.
⮚ A building may have to be closed
due to excessive vibrations by wind
or other live loads, although it could
be structurally sound.
Loading conditions
Static - Static loading implies a
sustained loading of the structure over a
period of time.
• Generally, static loads are slowly
applied such that no shock or vibration
is generated in the structure.
• Once applied, the static load may
remain in place or be removed slowly.
• Loads that remain in place for an
extended period of time are called
sustained (dead) loads.
• In civil engineering, much of the load
the materials must carry is due to the
weight of the structure and equipment in
the structure.
Dynamic - that generate a shock or
vibration in the structure
• Dynamic loads can be classified as
periodic, random, or transient, as shown
in Figure 1.1 (Richart etal. 1970).
• Aperiodic load, such as a harmonic or
sinusoidal load, repeats itself with time.
⮚ For example, rotating equipment
in a building can produce a
vibratory load.
• In a random load, the load pattern
never repeats, such as that produced by
earthquakes.
• Transient load, on the other hand, is an
impulse load that is applied over a short
time interval, after which the vibrations
decay until the system returns to a rest
condition.
⮚ For example, bridges must be
designed to withstand the
transient loads of trucks.
Transient load, on the other hand, is an
impulse load that is applied over a short
time interval, after which the vibrations
decay
until the
system
returns
to a rest condition.
Stress-Strain Relations
Hooke's Law:
• In 1678, Robert Hooke published the
first findings that documented a linear
relationship between the amount Of
force applied to a member and its
deformation.
• The amount of deformation is
proportional to the properties of the
material and its dimensions. The effect
of the dimensions can be normalized.
• Dividing the force by the
cross-sectional area of the specimen
normalizes the effect of the loaded area.
The force per unit area is defined as the
stress a in the specimen (i.e„o =
force/area).
• Dividing the deformation by the original
length is defined as strain E of the
specimen (i.e., E = change in
length/original length). Much useful
information about the material can be
determined by plotting the stress—strain
diagram.
Fig 1.2 Typical uniaxial stress—strain
diagrams for some engineering
materials
(a) a linear stress—strain up to the paint
the material fails,
(b) shows the EN2havior of steel in
tension. Here, a linear relationship is
obtained up to a certain point
(proportional limit), after which the
material deforms without much increase
in stress.
(c) On the other hand, aluminum in
tension exhibit a linear stress—strain
relation the proportional limit, after which
a nonlinear relation follows
(d) shows a nonlinear relation
throughout the whale range,
(e) Soft rubber in tension differs from
most materials in such a Way that it
Shows an almost linear stress— strain
relationship followed by a reverse curve
Young observed that different elastic
materials have different proportional
constants between stress and strain.
For a homogeneous, isotropic, and
linear elastic material, the proportional
constant between normal stress, o, and
normal strain, E of an axially loaded
member is the modulus of elasticity or
Young's modulus. E, and is equal to
In the axial tension test, as the material
is elongated, there is a reduction of the
cross section in the lateral direction. In
the axial compression test, the opposite
is true. The ratio of the lateral strain, El,
to the axial strain, ea. is Poisson's ratio,
If a homogeneous, isotropic cubical
element with linear elastic response is
subjected to normal stresses in the
three orthogonal directions, the normal
strains can be computed by the
generalized Hooke’s Law,

Linearity and
elasticity
For materials that
Normal stresses do not display any
applied on a cubical linear behavior,
element. such as concrete
Sample Problem and soils, determining a Young's
modulus or elastic modulus can be
A cube made of an alloy with problematical.
dimensions of 50 mm x 50 mm x 50 mm
is placed into a pressure chamber and The initial tangent modulus is the slope
subjected to a pressure of 90 MPa If the of the tangent of the stress—strain
modulus of elasticity of the alloy is 100 curve at the origin.
GPa and Poisson's ratio is 028, what will The tangent modulus is the slope of the
the length of each side of the assuming tangent at a point on the stress—strain
that the material remains within the curve.
elastic region?
The secant modulus is the slope ot a
chord drawn between the origin and an
arbitrary point on the stress—strain
The Chord is the Of a Chord drawn
between two points On the
stress—strain The of
Which modulus to use for a on the
stress or strain at which the mate- rial
typically is used.

Linearity and elasticity

• A linear materials stress—strain
relation follows a straight line.
• An elastic material returns to its
original shape when the load is removed
and reacts instantaneously to changes
in load.
 aggregate, but generally not more than
10 percent.

Aggregate Sources
Aggregates
1. Natural sources
aggregates are c combination of distinct
parts gathered into o mass or a whole a. gravel pits
a mass of crushed stone, gravel, sand. b. river run deposits
etc., predominantly composed of
c. rock quarries
dividual particles, but in some cases
including clays and silts. 2. Manufactured aggregates
largest particle size in aggregates may a. slag waste from iron and steel mills
have c diameter as large as 1 50 mm (6 (heavy weight)
in.), and the smallest particle can be as b. expanded shale and clays (light
fine as 5 to 10 microns weight)
c. Styrofoam beads
TWO Main Uses of Aggregates in
Civil engineering: Aggregate Stockpiling
• underlying material for foundations and
pavements, and
• ingredients in portland cement and
asphalt concretes
General Size Characteristics of
Aggregates
Coarse aggregates: aggregate particles
that are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve
(No 4) A 4.75 mm sieve has openings
equal to 4.75 mm between the sieve Evaluation of Aggregate Sources
wires. A No. 4 sieve has four openings
Potential aggregate sources usually
per linear inch. The 4.75 mm sieve is
evaluated for
the metric equivalent to a No. 4 sieve.
a, quality of the Barger pieces
Fine aggregates: aggregate particles
that pass a 4.75 mm sieve (No. 4). b. the nature and amount of fine
material
Maximum aggregate size: The smallest
sieve through Which CO percent of the c. gradation of the aggregate
aggregates pass.
The extent and quality Of rock in the
Nominal maximum aggregate size: The quarry is usually invested by
largest sieve that retains any of the
a. drilling cores and performing trial ● strength and stability of asphalt
blasts (or shots) to evaluate how the concrete depends mostly on
rock breaks interparticle friction between the
aggregates and, to a limited extent,
b. crushing some materials in the
on the binder.
laboratory to evaluate grading, particle
shape, soundness, durability, and
amount of fine material
c. Cores are examined petrographically
for general quality. suitability for various
uses, and amount of deleterious
materials
d. Potential sand and gravel pits ore
evaluated by collecting samples and
performing sieve analysis tests. The
amount of large gravel and cobble sizes
determines the need for crushing. while
the amount of fine material determines
the need for washing.
Aggregate Uses
Portland cement concrete
● 60% to 75% of the volume
● 79% to 85% of the weight
● act as a filler to reduce the amount of
cement paste needed in the mix
● aggregates have greater volume
stability than the cement paste
● maximizing the amount of aggregate,
to a certain extent, improves the
quality and economy of the mix.
Angular and Rounded Aggregates
Asphalt Concrete
● angular and rough-textured
● aggregates constitute 75% to Of the
aggregates produce bulk materials
volume
with higher stability than rounded,
● 92% to 96% of the mass
smooth-textured aggregates
● asphalt cement acts as a binder to
● angular aggregates will be pore
hold the aggregates together, but
difficult to work into place than
does not have enough strength to
rounded aggregates, since their
lock the aggregate particles into
shapes make it difficult for them to
position
slide across each other

Texture of Coarse Aggregates
● Aggregates with a rough texture are
more difficult to compact into a
dense configuration than smooth
aggregates.
● Rough texture generally improves
bonding and increases interparticle
friction.
● natural gravel and sand have a
smooth texture
● crushed aggregates have a rough
texture
● Since the stability of cement
concrete is mostly developed by the
cementing action of the portland
cement and by the aggregate
interlock, it is able to use rounded
and smooth aggregate particles to
improve the workability of fresh
concrete during mixing,
● However, the stability of asphalt
concrete and base courses is mostly
developed by the aggregate
interlock. Therefore. angular and
rough particles are desirable for
asphalt concrete and base courses
in order to increase the stability of
the materials in the field and to
reduce rutting.
● Flaky and elongated aggregates are
undesirable for asphalt concrete,
since they are difficult to compact
during construction and are easy to
break.
Toughness, Hardness, and Abrasion
Resistance
• The ability of aggregates to resist the
damaging effect of loads is related to the
hardness of the aggregate particles and
is described as the toughness or
abrasion resistance. The aggregate
must resist crushing, degradation, and
disintegration when stockpiled, mixed as
either portland cement or asphalt
concrete, placed and compacted, and
exposed to loads.
• The Los Angeles abrasion test (ASTM
C 131, C535) valuates the aggregates'
toughness and abrasion resistance.
• In this test, aggregates blended to a
fixed size distribution are placed in a
large steel drum with standard sized
steel balls that act as an abrasive
charge.
• The drum is rotated, typically for 500
revolutions. The material is recovered
from the machine and passed through a
sieve that retains all of the original
material. The percentage weight loss is
the LA abrasion number. This is an
empirical test: that is, the test results do
not have a scientific basis and are
meaningful only when local experience
defines the acceptance criteria.
Particle Shape and Texture of Fine
Aggregates
The angularity and texture of fine
aggregates have a very strong influence
on the stability of asphalt concrete
mixes. The Superpave mix design
method recognizes this by requiring a
fine aggregate angularity test, ASTM Cl
252 method, Test Method for
Uncompacted Void Content of Fine
Aggregate.
A sample of fine aggregate with a
defined gradation is poured into a small
cylinder by flowing it through a standard
funnel
By determining the weight of the fine
aggregate in the f ed cylinder of known
volume, the void content can be
calculated as the difference between the
cylinder volume and the fine aggregate
volume collected in the cylinder.
The volume of the fine aggregate is
calculated by dividing the weight of the
fine aggregate by its bulk density.
The higher the amount of void content,
the more angular and the rougher will be
the surface texture of the fine
aggregate.
Voids and moisture absorption of
aggregates:
a. bone dry
b. air dry,
c. saturated surface-dry (SSD), and
d. moist
Bone dry - aggregate contains no
moisture; this requires drying the
aggregate in an oven to a constant
mass.
Air dry condition - aggregate may
have some moisture but the saturation
state is not quantified.
Saturated surface—dry (SSD)
-aggregate's voids are filled with
moisture but the main surface area of
the aggregate particles IS dry.
Absorption is defined as the moisture
content in the SSD condition.
Moist aggregates - have moisture
content in excess of the SSD condition.
Free moisture is the difference between
the actual moisture content of the
aggregate and the moisture content in
the SSD condition.
Although aggregates are inert, they can
capture water and asphalt binder in
surface voids. The amount of water the
aggregates absorb is important in the
design of portland cement concrete,
since moisture captured in the
aggregate voids is not available to react
with the cement or to improve the
workability of the plastic concrete.
There is no specific level of aggregate
absorption that is desirable for
aggregates used in portland cement
concrete, but aggregate absorption must
be evaluated to determine the
appropriate amount of water to mix into
the concrete.
Absorption is also important for asphalt
concrete, since absorbed asphalt is not
available to act as a binder. Thus, highly
absorptive aggregates require greater
amounts of asphalt binder, making the
mix less economical. On the other hand,
some asphalt absorption is desired to
promote bonding between the asphalt
and the aggregate. Therefore,
low-absorption aggregates are desirable
for asphalt concrete.
Sieve Analysis of fine aggregates
What Is Fineness Modulus of Sand
(Fine Aggregate)?
• Fineness modulus of sand (fine
aggregate) is an index number which
represents the mean size of the
particles in sand.
• It is calculated by performing sieve
analysis with standard sieves.
• The cumulative percentage retained on
each sieve is added and divided by 100
gives the value of fine aggregate.
• Fine aggregate means the aggregate
which passes through 4-75mm sieve.
• To find the fineness modulus of fine
aggregate we need sieve sizes of
4-75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.6mm,
0.3mm and 0.15mm.
• Fineness modulus of finer aggregate is
lower than fineness modulus of coarse
aggregate.
Sample preparation
• Take a sample of fine aggregate in pan
and placed it in dry oven at a
temperature of 100 — 1100C. After
drying take the sample and note down
its weight.
Test procedure — Fineness Modulus
of Sand
• Take the sieves and arrange them in Example for fineness modulus of
descending order with the largest sieve Sand Calculation
on top.
• If mechanical shaker is used, then put
the ordered sieves in position and pour
the sample in the top sieve and then
close it with sieve plate.
• Then switch on the machine and
shaking of sieves should be done at
least 5 minutes.

Test procedure — Fineness Modulus

of Sand
• If shaking is done by the hands then
pour the sample in the top sieve and
close it.
Limits of Fineness Modulus for Fine
Aggregate
• Fineness modulus of fine aggregate
varies from 2.0 to 3-5 mm.

• Hold the top two sieves and shake it • Fine aggregate having fineness
inwards and outwards, vertically and modulus more than 3.2 should not be
horizontally. considered as fine aggregate.

• After some time shake the 3rd and 4th

sieves and finally last sieves.
• After sieving, record the sample
weights retained on each sieve. Then
find the cumulative weight retained.
• Finally determine the cumulative
percentage retained on each sieves.
• Add the all cumulative percentage
values and divide with 100 then we will
get the value of fineness modulus

CEMENT
Hydraulic cement
• (e.g., Portland Cement)
• sets and become adhesive due to a
chemical reaction between the dry
ingredients and water.
• the chemical reaction results in mineral
hydrates that are not very water-soluble
and so are quite durable in water and
safe from chemical attack.
• this allows setting in wet condition or
underwater and further protects the
hardened material from chemical attack.
• chemical process for hydraulic cement
found by ancient Romans used volcanic
ash (activated aluminum silicates) with
lime (calcium oxide).
Non-hydraulic cement
• will not set in wet conditions or
underwater
• sets as it dries and reacts with carbon
dioxide in the air
• Ran be attacked by some aggressive
chemicals after setting.
Portland Cement
• Is the most widely used in various
small and large construction including
roads and highways.
• Portland cement is not a brand but a
type of hydraulic cement
• The name was given in 1824 by
Joseph Aspdin, a brick layer of Leeds,
England, to a hydraulic lime that he
patented because it resembles to a
natural limestone quarried on the isle of
Portland in England.
• The first Portland cement made in the
United States was produced in 1876 by
David Saylor at Coplay, Pennsylvania.
Types of Portland Cement
Type 1 - for general construction where
the special properties are specified
Type 2 - for general concrete
construction exposed to moderate
sulfate action or where moderate heat of
hydration is required.
Type 3 - used when high early strength
is required
Type 4 - is specified when high sulfate
resistance is required.
Pozzolan Cement
• an amorphous silica that hardens as a
silica gel by reacting chemically with
alkali in the presence of water.
• Pozzolan is derived from Pozzuoli, an
Italian town where Pozzolana,
composed of glassy tuff was found
Water
• water that is acceptable for drinking
purposes is also satisfactory for use in
concrete mixing
Admixture
• a material other than water,
aggregates or Portland cement, that is
used as an ingredient in concrete
• added to the batch immediately before
or during its mixing. - American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
The purpose of the admixture in
concrete are:
1. To improve the workability or
consistency of concrete. Meaning,
the ability of concrete mixture to fill
all the voids of aggregate, steel
reinforcement including all voids
inside the forms. However concrete
mixture should not be too thick nor
too fluid.
2. To improve the durability of concrete
3. To increase strength
4. Accelerate strength development
5. Retard or accelerate the initial
setting
6. Retard or reduce the evolution of
heat
7. Control alkali-aggregate expansion
8. Increase density and reduce
permeability
Air-entraining admixtures
• substantially improve the durability of
concrete entraining billions of
microscopic air bubbles which are
distributed throughout the matrix or the
concrete.
• these tiny air bubbles are very large in
volume compared with the capillary
voids and the gel pore in Portland
cement paste.
• these air bubbles create space for the
relief of pressure built up in the smaller
cavities when they are filled with water
which expand when it freezes.
• durability of concrete could be
increased by lox by the use of small
amount of air-entraining agent in
concrete mixture (discovered in 1940)
National Building Code
• The admixture shall be shown capable
of maintaining essentially the same
composition and performance
throughout the work as the product used
in establishing concrete proportions.
• Admixtures containing chloride-ions
shall not be used in prestressed
concrete or in concrete containing
aluminum embedments if their use will
produce a deleterious concentration of
chloride-ion in the mixing water.
Aggregates
are inert materials that when bound
together into a conglomerated mass by
Portland cement and water form
concrete, mortar or plaster. about 75%
of the total mass of concrete
Categories of Aggregates
• coarse aggregate
• fine aggregate
Coarse Aggregate
● is that portion of an aggregate that is
retained on number 4 (4-75mm)
sieve
● comes from natural gravel deposits
which are formed by water, wind or
glacial action
● manufactured by crushing rock,
stone, boulder and large cobble
stone
FOUR KINDS OF COMMON COARSE
AGGREGATE
• limestone or calcium-bearing minerals
• basalts, granite and related igneous
rock
• sandstone and quartzites
• rock, such as opal and chert
composed mainly of amorphous silicon
dioxide.
Conditions for maximum size of
coarse aggregate
• It shall easily fit into the forms and in
between reinforcing bars.
• It should not be larger than 1/5 of
narrowest dimension of the forms or
of the depth of the slab nor 3/4 of
minimum distance between
reinforcing bars.
Fine Aggregate
• the product of natural disintegration of
silica-bearing or calcium-bearing rock
• also called sand that passes through
No. 4 sieve and predominantly retained
by a No. 200 (74 micron) sieve.
• also manufactured from large pieces of
aggregate by crushing, grinding or
rolling
Concrete
• is an artificial stone as a result of
mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water
• conglomeration of these materials
producing a solid mass is called Plain
Concrete
• concrete in which reinforcement is
embedded in a manner that the two
materials act together in resisting force
is called Reinforced Concrete
Chemistry of concrete
• the chemical reaction between
Portland cement and water is the
principal action in the chemistry of
concrete
• Portland cement alone does not
provide a cementing binder
• the cementing gel is formed by the
reaction of Portland cement and water
• the cement paste becomes hard within
the
a week but the hardening process may
1/3
continue to some extent for months or
the
years
the
• there is a common misconception that
concrete hardens during evaporation
• this is not true because without water,
there will be no reaction, thus no
hardening
Workability of Concrete
Concrete is said to be workable under
the following conditions:
• Properly proportioned for transport and
placed without segregation. The
aggregate particles must be uniformly
distributed.
• Easily molded into desired shapes and
completely fill the space it is to occupy
• Easily finished
Consistency
• Is the degree of wetness or slump of
the concrete mix.
• Varies directly with the amount of
water in the mixture
Plasticity
• Is the ease with which fresh concrete
can be molded or deformed without
segregation
Mobility
• Is the capacity of concrete to
movement or flow, particularly during
vibration
• Concrete should be correctly
proportioned to produce the workability
required for a particular structure.
• For example, a fairly thick or stiff
concrete mixture may be used for
pavement for it can be vibrated and
tamped.
• On the other hand, concrete for thin
wall and small column structure maybe
compacted with a minimum vibration.
• Thus, a semi-fluid mixture is required
for concrete in application where it must
flow in order to fill all the spaces it is to
occupy.
Strength of Concrete
• Concrete structure is subjected to
compressive, tensile, flexural and
shearing forces
• Strength is measured in its ability to
resist the stresses caused by these
different forces
• Theoretically, low water cement ratio
produces a high-quality Portland cement
paste and also adds desirable
properties such as:
1. Water tightness
2. Abrasion resistance
3. Durability
Durability of Concrete
is the ability to resist force of
deterioration such as :
1. Freezing and thawing of water
saturated concrete
2. Expansion caused by the reaction
between reactive aggregates and alkali
in cement
3. Reaction between soil and water
sulfate and the hydrated Portland
cement
4. Expansion and shrinkage caused by
wetting and drying
• The freezing of water in the pores of
concrete causes it to expand about 9%
in volume.
• The pressure caused by expansion of
freezing water may be sufficient to
damage the gel structure and cause
deterioration of the concrete.
Chemical Resistance
• Hydrated Portland cement is the
chemical base of concrete and reacts to
most acids
• This reaction causes concrete to
disintegrate
• Even the highest quality concrete must
be protected from direct contact with
corrosive chemicals
• Magnesium fluorosilicate or zinc
fluorosilicate hardens the surface of
concrete by chemical action and makes
it more impervious to chemical attack
Cement could be protected by
application of any of the following:
• Composition and fineness of the
cement
• Cement water ratio of the paste
• Time of curing
• Manner of curing
• Temperature
• Presence of entrained air
Weight of concrete
Type of Concrete according to their
weight:
• Light-weight concrete
• Medium stone concrete
• Heavy weight concrete
Light-weight concrete — classified
depending upon the kind of aggregates
used which predetermine their weight
• Low Density Concrete — is
employed for insulation purposes. Its
unit weight rarely exceeding 50 lbs/ft3 or
800 kg/m3
• Moderate strength concrete — has a
unit weight of 360 to 960 kg/m3 with a
compressive strength of 70 to 176
kg/cm2. This is commonly used to fill
over light gauge steel floor panels.
• Structural concrete — has similarity
in characteristics with that of medium
stone concrete. It weighs 90 to 120
lbs/ft3 or 1,440 to 1,920 kg/m3. This is
widely used in buildings, roads, bridges,
etc.
• Medium Stone concrete — used as
structural concrete. It weighs from 145
to 152 lbs/ft3 or 2,325 to 2,435 kg/m3.
• Heavy Weight concrete — used as
shield against gamma rays reactor and
other similar structures. It is also used
as a counter weight for lift bridge. The
contents of heavy weight concrete are
cement, heavy iron ores, crushed rock,
steel scraps, punching or shot as fine
aggregates.
The weight of the heavyweight concrete
depends upon the kind of aggregate
used in mixing such as:
a. Heavy rock aggregates — weighs
200 to 300 lbs/ft3 or 3, 200 to 4,810
kg/m3
b. Iron Punching is added to high
density ores — weighs 4,325 to 5,000
kg/m3
Proportioning of Concrete Mixture
Correct proportion of the ingredients to
produce concrete also provides balance
between the requirements of:
• Economy
• Workability
• Strength
• Durability
• Appearance
• The right proportion of the ingredients
for concrete, is the most difficult
manufacturing step to control. Although
it is one of the most important aspect in
producing high quality
Water cement ratio — is the ratio of the
amount of water to the amount of
cement in a concrete mixture is related
to the strength and quality of concrete. It
provides the basis for predicting
strength (Duff A Abrams, American
scientist- researcher, discovered in1918)
Notes:
1. Water cementations best determined
by the trial batch method to establish the
right amount of water necessary for the
kind of mixture required for the desired
strength and consistency of the
concrete,
2. Concrete should be in a plastic and
workable form, It should neither be too
dry nor too wet, When too dry, concrete
is difficult to place in the forms because
it resist packing around the
reinforcements and corners of the
forms, This is the main ca use of
Honeycombing in concrete.
3. The water cement ratio should be
established during the first hour of
mixing operation. Adjustment shall be
made from time to time based on the
condition of the weather.
• When the weather is fair or cloudy,
adjustment of water cement ratio is
minimal or not necessary. But, when the
temperature increases at noon time,
where the aggregates are exposed to
sunlight, additional water is necessary to
maintain the established water-cement
ratio.
• The established water-cement ratio in
the morning will be affected by the heat
of the sun at noon time.
• The increasing temperature also
increases evaporation of aggregate
moisture, thus, also requires adjustment
by increasing the water content per
batch of mixture.
5. If rain comes any time after the
water-cement ratio have been
established, immediately adjustment by
reducing the water-cement ratio is
necessary to maintain the uniformity of
the mixture. However, if the aggregates
are indoor and is not subjected to
moisture or rainfall, reduction of water
cement ratio is not necessary.
6. All conveying devices in delivering
concrete should be free from rainwater
before use. This is to avoid additional
water to ready mix concrete.
Concrete Proportioning
Concrete Mixture
Note: Keep all concrete wet for 7 days
and protect from sun
Class A - shall be used for beams,
slabs, columns and for all members
which are subjected to bending stress
Class B - shall be used for all members
which are not reinforced for bending
stress
Class C - used for footing not under
water
Approximate Time Limit Before the
Removal of Forms And Supports
AMOUNT OF WATER PER BAG OF
CEMENT
 ● exposed slab surfaces are especially
sensitive to curing
● strength development and
freeze-thaw resistance of the top
surface of a slab can be reduced
significantly when curing is defective.
PROPER CURING INCREASES:
a) durability
b) strength
c) water tightness
d) abrasion resistance
e) volume stability
f) resistance to freezing and
thawing

CURING METHODS AND MATERIALS

1. Methods that maintain the presence
of mixing water in the concrete during
Curing Concrete the early hardening period.
"holding water in the concrete" a) Ponding or immersion
CURING b) Spraying or fogging
c) Saturated wet coverings
● maintenance of a satisfactory
moisture content and temperature in
concrete
● should be done for a period of time
following placing and finishing
● to achieve desired properties of
concrete
2. Methods that reduce the loss of
mixing water from the surface of the
concrete.
a. covering the concrete with impervious
paper or plastic sheets
b. applying membrane-forming curing
compounds.

Curing should begin as soon as the

concrete stiffens enough to prevent
marring or erosion of the surface. Burlap
sprayed with water is an effective
method for moist curing.
 the evaporation of moisture is from the
surface of the water.

Membrane curing

Methods that accelerate strength gain is the most practical with today's
by supplying heat and additional construction schedules
moisture to the concrete.
a) live steam
b) heating coils
c) heated forms or pads.
Ponding and Immersion
On flat surfaces, such as pavements
and floors, concrete can be cured by
CONCRETE STRENGTH
Earth or sand dikes around the
perimeter of the concrete surface can Concrete strength increases with age as
retain a pond of water. long as moisture and a favorable
temperature present for hydration of
Ponding is an ideal method for cement.
preventing loss of moisture from the
concrete; In the figure shown below concrete that
is In air entire time is only 55% of the
it is also effective for maintaining strength of Moist-cured entire time
uniform temperature in the concrete. concrete at 28 days.
The curing water should not be more In air after3 days is 80%, and!!) air after
than about 110C(200F) cooler than the 7 days is 90%.
concrete to prevent thermal stresses
that could result in cracking. A Quality curing and sealing compound
will allow the concrete to continue in
WATER CURING strength gain beyond 28 days as shown
in the chart for moist-cured.
when the concrete is covered with a
layer of water for a period of time and
Concrete Strength With Moisture
Present For Curing
FINALS
Strength gain in colder temperatures
Masonry
slows down.
• A masonry structure is formed by
40° F. concrete will be of its design
combining masonry units, such as
strength in seven days as compared to
stone, blocks, or brick, with mortar.
75% for 73° F concrete.
• Masonry is one of the oldest
Concrete poured in lower temperatures
construction materials.
needs to be covered to maintain
concrete temperatures to get sufficient • Examples of ancient masonry
strengths to withstand freeze-thaw structures include the pyramids of
cycles. Egypt, the Great Wall of China, and
Greek and Roman ruins.
CURING COMPOUNDS and CURING
AND SEALING COMPOUNDS • Bricks of nearly uniform size became
commonly used in Europe during the
Difference of CURING compounds and
beginning of the 13th century.
CURING AND SEALING is the resin
used • The first extensive use of bricks in the
United States was around 1600.
Curing compounds use a resin that
breaks down in months • In the last two centuries, bricks have
been used in constructing sewers,
Curing and Sealing compounds use a
bridge piers, tunnel linings, and
resin that will resist sunlight, abrasion,
multistory buildings.
most chemicals and will be on the
surface of the concrete for a while. • Masonry units are a popular
construction material throughout the
CURING compounds are meant for
world and competes favorably with other
curing the concrete only.
materials, such as wood, steel, and
No other sealer or adhesive for a floor concrete for certain applications
covering can be putdown unless the (Adams, 1979).
curing compound is stripped off.
Classification of Masonry Units
CURING ANDSEALING compounds
1. concrete masonry units
can accept paints and adhesives for
2. clay bricks
vinyl tile and carpets (it is recommended
3. structural clay tiles
to puta sample down to check for
4. glass blocks
compatibility), and they can be recoated
5. stone
for long term sealing of the concrete.
 sound resistance than normal weight
units.
Concrete masonry units are
manufactured using a relatively dry
(zero-slump) concrete mixture
consisting of:
1. portland cement
2. Aggregates
Concrete Masonry Units
3. Water
• Solid concrete units are commonly 4. admixtures.
called concrete bricks, while hollow units
Type of cement used in manufacturing
are known as concrete blocks, hollow
concrete masonry units
blocks, or cinder blocks.
1. Type I cement is usually used to
• Hollow units have a net cross-sectional
manufacture concrete masonry units
area in every plane parallel to the
2. Type Ill is sometimes used to reduce
bearing surface less than 75% of the
the curing time.
gross cross-sectional area in the same
3. Air-entrained concrete is sometimes
plane.
used to increase the resistance of
• If this ratio is 75% or more, the unit is the masonry structure to freeze and
categorized as solid (Portland Cement thaw effects and to improve
Association, 1991). workability, compaction, and molding
characteristics of the units during
Concrete masonry units are
manufacturing.
manufactured in three classes, based
on their density: • The units are molded under pressure,
then cured, usually using low-pressure
1. lightweight units
steam curing.
2. medium-weight units, and
• After manufacturing, the units are
3. normal-weight units stored under controlled conditions so
that the concrete continues curing.
Well-graded sand, gravel, and crushed
stone are used to manufacture normal-
weight units.
Lightweight aggregates such as pumice,
scoria, cinders, expanded clay, and
expanded shale are used to
manufacture lightweight units.
Lightweight units have higher thermal
and fire resistance properties and lower
Determination of Physical Properties
of Concrete Masonry Units
• The compressive strength of individual
concrete masonry units is determined by
capping the unit and applying load in the
direction of
the height of the unit until failure
(ASTMC140).
• A full-size unit is recommended for
testing, although a portion of a unit can
be used if the capacity of the testing
machine is not large enough.
• The gross area compressive strength
is calculated by dividing the load at
failure by the gross cross-sectional area
of the unit.
• The net area compressive strength is
calculated by dividing the load at failure
by the net cross-sectional area.
• The net cross-sectional area is
calculated by dividing the net volume of
the unit by its average height.
• The net volume is determined using
the water displacement method
according to ASTM C140.

Mortar
• a mixture of cementitious material,
aggregate, and water
• manufactured in four types: M, S, N,
and O
• needs to satisfy either proportion
specifications or property specifications
(ASTM C270)
• proportion specifications specify the
ingredient quantities, while the property
specifications specify the compressive
strength, water retention, air content,
and the aggregate ratio
• can be evaluated either in the
laboratory or in the field
• In the laboratory evaluation, the
compressive strength of mortar is tested
using 50-mm (2-inch) cubes according
to ASTM C109.
• The minimum average compressive
strengths of types M, S, N, and O at 28
days are 17.2 MPa, 12.4 MPa, 5.2 MPa,
and 2.4 MPa (2500 psi, 1800 psi, 750
psi, and 350 psi) (ASTM C270).
• The field evaluation involves the
preparation of one or more trial batches
before construction.
• These trial batches are sampled and
used in establishing the plastic and
hardened properties of the mixtures
(ASTM C780).
• Mortar starts to bind masonry units
when it sets.
• During construction, bricks and blocks
should be rubbed and pressed down in
order to force the mortar into the pores
of the masonry units to produce
maximum adhesion.
• It should be noted, how- ever, that
mortar is the weakest part of the
masonry wall. Therefore, thin mortar
layers generally produce stronger walls
than do thick layers.
• Unlike concrete, the compressive
strength is not the most important
property of mortar.
• Since mortar is used as an adhesive
and sealant, it is very important that it
forms a complete, strong, and durable
bond with the masonry units and with
the rebars that might be used to
reinforce masonry walls.
• The ability to bond individual units is
measured by the tensile bond strength
of mortar (ASTM C952), which is related
to the force required to separate the
units.
• The tensile bond strength affects the
shear and flexural strength of masonry.
• The tensile bond strength is usually
between 0.14 MPa and 0.55 MPa (20
psi to 80 psi) and is affected by the
amount of lime in the mix.
• Other properties that affect the
performance of mortar are workability,
tensile strength, compressive strength,
resistance to freeze and thaw, and water
retention.
• ASTM C91 defines water retention as
a measure of the rate at which water is
lost to the masonry units.
Classification of Mortar
a. cement-lime mortar
b. cement mortar
c. masonry cement mortar
Functions of Mortar
1. bonding masonry units together,
either non-reinforced or
2. reinforced serving as a seating
material for the units
3. leveling and seating the units
4. providing aesthetic quality of the
structure
Grout
• a high-slump concrete consisting of
portland cement, sand, fine gravel,
water, and sometimes lime.
• used to fill the cores or voids in hollow
masonry units for the purpose of
a. bonding the masonry units,
b. bonding the reinforcing steel to the
masonry,
c. increasing the bearing area,
d. increasing fire resistance
e. improving the overturning resistance
by increasing the weight.
• minimum compressive strength is 14
MPa (2000 psi) at 28 days, according to
ASTM C476
Plaster
• Plaster is a fluid mixture of portland
cement, lime, sand, and water
• used for finishing either masonry walls
or framed (wood) walls
• used for either exterior or interior walls
• Stucco is plaster used to cover exterior
walls.
• The average compressive strength of
plaster is about 13.8 MPa (2000 psi) at
28 days.
STEEL
• Steel production started in mid-1800s,
when the Bessemer converter was
invented.
• In the second half of the 19th century,
steel technology advanced rapidly due
to the development of the basic oxygen
furnace and continuous casting
methods.
• More recently, computer-controlled
manufacturing has increased the
efficiency and reduced the cost of steel
production.
Steel products used in construction can
be classified as follows:
1.structural steel (vertical columns)
produced by continuous casting and hot
rolling for large structural shapes,
plates, and sheet steel
2. cold-formed steel (trusses and
decking) produced by cold-forming of
sheet steel into desired shapes
3. fastening products used for
structural connections, including bolts,
nuts and washers
4. reinforcing steel (rebars) for use in
concrete reinforcement
5. miscellaneous products for use in
such applications as forms and pans
Heat Treatment of Steel
• Properties of steel can be altered by
applying a variety of heat treatments.
• steel can be hardened or softened by
using heat treatment
• the response of steel to heat treatment
depends upon its alloy composition.
Common heat treatments employed
for steel
1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
The basic process is to heat the steel to
a specific temperature, hold the
temperature for a specified period of
time, then cool the material at a
specified rate.
1. Annealing
• Used to refine the grain, soften the
steel, remove internal stresses, remove
gases, increase ductility and toughness,
and change electrical and magnetic
properties.
2. Normalizing
• Similar to annealing, with a slight
difference in the temperature and the
rate of cooling
• Produces a uniform, fine-grained
microstructure
• Shapes with varying thicknesses
results in the normalized parts having
less uniformity
• An effective process and results in
high fracture toughness of the material
3. Hardening
• Steel is hardened by heating it to a
temperature above the transformation
range and holding it until austenite is
formed.
• The steel is then quenched (cooled
rapidly) by plunging it into, or spraying it
with, water, brine, or oil.
• Rapid cooling "locks" the iron into a
BCC structure, martensite, rather than
allowing the transformation to the ferrite
FCC structure
• Martensite has a very hard and brittle
structure.
• The surface of the material is harder
and more brittle than the interior of the
element, creating nonhomogeneous
characteristics.
• Due to the rapid cooling, hardening
puts the steel in a state of strain.
• Strain sometimes causes steel pieces
with sharp angles or grooves to crack
immediately after hardening. Thus,
hardening must be followed by
tempering.
4. Tempering
• Tempering is performed to improve
ductility and toughness.
• Heating causes carbon atoms to
diffuse from martensite to produce a
carbide precipitate and formation of
ferrite and cementite.
• After quenching, the steel is cooled to
about 400C then reheated by immersion
in either oil or nitrate salts.
• The steel is maintained at the elevated
temperature for about two hours and
then cooled in still air.
Steel Alloys
Alloy agents are added to improve one
or more of the following properties:
 1. hardenability Structural and cold-formed steel used to
2. corrosion resistance make columns, beams and floors for the
3. machinability structural support of a building.
4. ductility
5. strength

Structural Steel
• Structural steel is used in hot-rolled
structural shapes, plates, and bars.
Structural steel is used for various types
of structural members, such as columns,
beams, bracings, frames, trusses,
bridge girders, and other structural
applications
• The W, M, S, HP, C, and MC shapes
are designated by a letter, followed by
two numbers separated by an x .
• The letter indicates the shape, while
the two numbers indicate the nominal
depth and the weight per linear unit
length.
• For example, W 44 x 335 means W
shape with a nominal depth of 44 in. and
a weight of 335 lb/linear foot.
• An angle is designated with the letter
L, followed by three numbers that
indicate the leg dimensions and
thickness in inches, such as L 4 x 4 x
1/2. Dimensions of these structural
shapes are controlled by ASTM
A6/A6M.
• W shapes are commonly used as
beams and columns
• HP shapes are used as bearing piles,
and
• S shapes are used as beams or
girders. Composite sections can also be Cold-Formed Steel Shapes
formed by welding different shapes to
use in various structural applications. Common shapes for profiled sheets and
Sheet piling sections are connected to trays used for roofing and wall cladding
each other and are used as retaining and for load bearing deck panels
walls.

Reinforcing Steel
• Used to reinforce structural concrete
members subjected to tensile and
flexural stresses
• May be conventional or prestressed
Conventional Reinforcing
1. plain bars • used in some concrete slabs and
pavements, mostly to resist temperature
2. deformed bars
and shrinkage stresses
3. plain and deformed wire fabrics
• can be more economical to place, and
Plain bars thus allow for closer spacing of bars
than is practical with individual bars
• are round, without surface
deformations
• provide only limited bond with the
concrete
• not typically used in sections subjected
to tension or bending
Deformed bars
• have protrusions (deformations) at the
surface
• ensure a good bond between the bar
and the concrete
• deformed surface of the bar prevents
slipping, allowing the concrete and steel
to work as one unit
• used in concrete beams, slabs,
columns, walls, footings, pavements,
and other concrete structures, as well as
in masonry construction.
Wire fabrics
• are flat sheets in which wires pass
each other at right angles, and one set
of elements is parallel to the fabric axis
• Plain wire fabrics develop the
anchorage in concrete at the welded
intersections, while deformed wire Mechanical Testing of Steel Tension
fabrics develop anchorage through Test
deformations and at the welded • The tension test (ASTM E8) on steel is
intersections performed to determine the
Welded wire fabrics a. yield strength
b. yield point
c. ultimate (tensile) strength
d. Elongation
e. reduction of area.
• Typically, the test is performed at
temperatures between 10OC and 350C
(500F to 950F).
• The test specimen can be either full
sized or machined into a shape
Mechanical Testing of Steel
Tension Test
• It is desirable to use a small
cross-sectional area at the center
portion of the specimen to ensure
fracture within the gauge length.
• Several cross-sectional shapes are
permitted, such as round and
rectangular. Plate, sheet, round rod,
wire, and tube specimens may be used.
A 12.5 (1/2 in.) diameter round
specimen is used in many cases.
• The gauge length over which the
elongation is measured typically is four
times the diameter for most round-rod
specimens.
• Various types of gripping devices may
be used to hold the specimen, Wood
depending on its shape. In all cases, the
axis of the test specimen should be Wood is that fibrous substance which
placed at the center of the testing composes the trunk and branches of a
machine head to ensure axial tensile tree that lies between the pitch and the
stresses within the gauge length without bark.
bending. An extensometer with a dial
More specifically wood is defined as the
gauge or an LVDT
lignified water conducting ,
strengthening and storage tissues of
branches, stem and roots of trees.
Technically, wood is known as Xylem.
Wood is the most common building
material because of the following
properties:
● A strong material
● Has durability
● Light in weight
● Ease of fastening
● With artistic and natural beauty
The advantages of wood as a building
material are:
It is abundant in many shapes, sizes
and forms and is a renewable
resources.
The use of timber connectors in wide
trusses and span, towers and general
construction permit the use of small
wood members.
Wood does not deteriorate in value if
properly handled and protected.
It is not readily affected by changing
styles.
It has prompt resale value.
Neither heat, cold nor changes, may
seriously affect wood.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
Strength
is the general term used in reference to
the ability of wood to resist stresses and
strain.
Different wood varies materially in the
following manner:
Wood is resistant to compression along
the fibers.
Stiffness or the ability to resist bending
as in floor joists and beams supporting
heavy load.
Strength in tension or the ability to resist
in lengthwise stresses.
Shearing strength or the ability of the
fibers to resist rupture along or across
the grain.
Moisture
is an important factor in the strength of
wood.
Thus, to a certain extent, strength
increases with the degree of seasoning
of wood.
Hardness
expressed as resistance to indentation
or to the saw or ax across the grain.
dependent largely on weight, structural
elements
of the wood and degree of seasoning.
This feature is important in several
methods of utilization such as flooring,
furniture, cross ties, handles and many
small wood articles.
Cleavability
resistance of wood to cleavage along
the grains.
The line of least resistance in cleavage
is along the radius because the wood
rays are in this direction.
Wood splits much more easily when wet
because moisture softens the fibers and
reduces adhesion across the grain.
Straightens in the grain however,
determine the ease with which wood
splits.
Flexibility and Toughness
Moisture content of wood influences
flexibility to a considerable degree.
Toughness refers to the combined
strength, shock resistance and pliability
of wood.
Definition of Terms
Surfaced or Dressed Lumber is
planed lumber having at least one
smooth side.
S2s; S4s - are planed or dressed
lumber of which the number connote the
number of smooth sides. S2s means
smooth on two sides and S4s on four
sides.
Slab - is a kind of rough lumber which is
cut tangent to the annual rings of wood
running the full length of the log and
containing at least one flat surface.
Timber - is a piece of lumber five inches
or large in its smallest dimension.
Plank - is a wide piece of lumber from 2
to 5 inches thick.
Board - is a piece of lumber less than
1-1/2" thick and at least 4 inches wide.
Flitch - is a thick piece of lumber
Fine grained - when the annual rings
are small, the grain of marking which
separates the adjacent rings is said to
be fine grained. When large, it is called
Coarse-grained.
Straight-Grained - when the direction
of the wood fibers are nearly parallel
with the sides and edges of the board, it
is said to be straight grained. When the
lumber is taken from a crooked tree, it is
classified to be crooked or
cross-grained.
Lumber - is the term applied to
unplanned or undressed lumber.
Silviculture - is the process of growing
timber crops of the better and more
valuable species as rapidly as possible
through scientific forestry.
board foot or board-foot
is a unit of measurement for the volume
of lumber.
It is the volume of a one-foot length of a
board one foot wide and one inch thick.
How to compute board foot
● Measure the length, width, and depth
in inches.
● Use a stiff tape measure to measure
the length, width depth of the board.
● Each measurement should be taken
separately and record in inches.
● Using this method of calculation, you
must know the length, width, and
depth of each board in inches.
● Round fractional sizes to the nearest
quarter-inch.
● Note that board thickness is always
expressed in quarter- inches, even
when you have a whole number.
● 1-inch thick board would be Divide the product you just calculated by
expressed as four-quarter (4/4) 144 cubic inches.
board.
Write down the quotient you calculate.
● When calculating board feet,
however, use the actual measured Note that 1 board foot equals 144 cubic
number of inches for the sake of inches.
simplicity.
● If you are buying pre-measured, That is the reason you must divide the
marked hardwood from a reliable board volume the number of cubic
source, you can skip this step and inches by 144.
begin your calculations. Example: 146.25 cubic inches / 144
● Measuring the hardwood board cubic inches = 1.02 board feet
yourself is always recommended
when possible, though.
Example:
Calculate board feet for five-quarter
(5/4) hardwood measuring 26 inches
long and 4.5 inches wide.
Note that "five-quarter" hardwood is 1.25
inches thick.

Solution:
Multiply these three measurements
together. Multiply the measured length,
width, and depth of the board.
Write down the product of all three
measurements.
During this part of the calculation, you
are actually determining the volume of
the board.
As such, your answer will need to be in
cubic inches.
Example: length * width * depth = 26
inches * 4.5 inches * 1.25 inches =
146.25 cubic inches