MODULE 2- CELL STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

GLENDA A. TABO

INTRODUCTION

According to the cell theory, the cell is the basic unit of life, all organisms are composed of cells, and that
all cells come from pre-existing cells. An averaged-size cell is one fifth the the size of the smallest dot
you can make on a sheet of paper. In spite of its size, cells are complex living structures. The human
body is made up of millions and millions of these specialized cells. The coordinated functions of these
specialized cells are critical for complex organisms to survive.

This module will discuss the types of cells in the human body, their parts and functions, how the cell
divides and how proteins are made.

Having knowledge about the functions of the different parts and how the cell reproduce will allow us to
understand how our body works. This leads us to be more grateful and appreciative to our Creator for
giving us an intricately-designed body with all of its complex parts that function properly.

OBJECTIVES

1. Explain how the structures of a cell contribute to its function.

2. List the six main functions of a cell.
3. Describe the structure of the cell membrane.
4. List four ways by which substances cross the cell membrane.
5. Compare hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solutions.
6. Describe endocytosis and exocytosis.
7. Give the functions of the different organelles.
8. Describe the process of protein synthesis.
9. Discuss cell division.
10. List the major theories of aging.

DISCUSSION

I. Structure and Functions of the Cell

A. Functions of the Cell
1. Basic unit of Life. The cell is the smallest part to which an organism can be reduced that still
retains the characteristic of life.
2. Protection and support. Ex. Bone cells produce a mineralized material, making bone a hard
tissue that protects vital organs and supports the weight of the body.
3. Movement. Movements of the body occur because of molecules located within specific
cells such as muscle cells.
4. Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them
to communicate with one another.
 5. Cell metabolism and energy release. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell
activities, such as the synthesis of new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production,
which helps maintain body temperature.
6. Inheritance. Specialized cells, sperm cells and oocytes, transmit that genetic information to
the next generation.

B. Parts of the Cell

Parts of the Cell Function(s)

Plasma membrane provides protection for a cell. It also provides a

fixed environment inside the cell. And that
membrane has several different functions. One is
to transport nutrients into the cell and also to
transport toxic substances out of the cell.

Ribosome Produce Proteins

Centriole Only in animal cells, aid in cell division

Nucleus Regulates all cell activities

Nucleolus facilitating ribosome biogenesis, through the

processing and assembly of rRNA into pre
ribosomal particles

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Contains Ribosomes, transports proteins and

other materials
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Contains no ribosomes, stores proteins

Golgi apparatus Processes and packages proteins

Secretory vesicle is a vesicle that mediates the vesicular transport

of cargo - e.g. hormones or neurotransmitters -
from an organelle to specific sites at the cell
membrane, where it docks and fuses to release
its content.

Lysosome Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles with

roles in processes involved in degrading and
recycling cellular waste, cellular signalling and
energy metabolism. Defects in genes encoding
lysosomal proteins cause lysosomal storage
disorders, in which enzyme replacement therapy
has proved successful.

Mitochondrion generate most of the chemical energy needed to

power the cell's biochemical reactions. Chemical
energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in
a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).

Microtubule together with microfilaments and intermediate

filaments, form the cell cytoskeleton. The
microtubule network is recognized for its role in
regulating cell growth and movement as well as
key signaling events, which modulate
fundamental cellular processes.

Cilia The function of cilia is to move water relative to

the cell in a regular movement of the cilia. This
process can either result in the cell moving
through the water, typical for many single-celled
organisms, or in moving water and its contents
across the surface of the cell.

Flagella Flagellum is primarily a motility organelle that

enables movement and chemotaxis. Bacteria can
have one flagellum or several, and they can be
either polar (one or several flagella at one spot)
or peritrichous (several flagella all over the
bacterium).

Microvilli Microvilli are nonmotile finger-like protrusions

from the apical surface of epithelial cells that
function to increase the cell surface area and the
 efficiency of absorption.

II. Characteristic of Movement Across Cell Membranes

The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the outermost component of a cell.
Substances outside the cell are called extracellular substances, and those inside the cell are called
intracellular substances. The cell membrane encloses the cell, supports the cell contents, is a
selective barrier that determines what moves into and out of the cell, and plays a role in
communication between cells.
Fluid -mosaic model. The double layer of phospholipid molecules has a liquid quality. Cholesterol
within the phospholipid membrane gives its added strength and flexibility. Protein molecules “float”
among the phospholipid molecules. The proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules,
receptor molecules, enzymes, or structural supports in the membrane.

Hypotonic, Hypertonic, and Isotonic Solution

Osmosis- is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration. Cells
will either swell, remain unchanged, or shrink when placed into a solution . When a cell is placed
into a hypotonic solution, the solution usually has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher
concentration of water than the cytoplasm of the cell. Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing
it to swell. When a cell is immersed in an isotonic solution, the concentration of various solutes and
 water are the same on both sides of the cell membrane. The cell neither shrinks nor swell. When the
cell is immersed in hypertonic solution, the solution usually has a higher concentration of solutes
and a lower concentration of water than the cytoplasm of the cell. Water moves by osmosis from
the cell into the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage.

III. Cell Metabolism

Cell metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions in the cell. The breakdown of food molecules
release energy that is used to synthesize ATP. When ATP is broken down, energy is released that can be
used to drive other chemical reactions or processes such as active transport.
Aerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is available. Pyruvic acid molecules enter mitochondria and,
through a series of chemical reactions, called the citric acid cycle and the electron-transport chain, are
converted to carbon dioxide and water. Aerobic respiration can produce 36-38 ATP molecules from
each glucose molecule, depending on the cells involved (brain and muscle cells produce 36 ATPs; liver,
kidney, and heart cells produce 38 ATP). Aerobic respiration requires oxygen because the last reaction in
the series is the combination of oxygen with hydrogen to form water.

IV. DNA Replication

DNA replicates so that from one helix of DNA emerge two “daughter “ helices. These daughter helices
are exact copies of the parental helix. DNA creates daughter helices by using the parental strands of
DNA as a template.

The first step in DNA replication is the separation of the two DNA strands that make up the helix that is
to be copied. An enzyme called DNA helicase untwists the helix to form a Y shape called a replication
fork. The replication fork moves down the DNA strand, splitting it into two single strands. Next, an
enzyme called DNA polymerase helps new nucleotides line up next to the two separated strands,
according to the rules of base pairing: adenine and thymine pair with each other, and guanine and
cytosine pair with each other.

As new nucleotides line up at the appropriate spots along the original strand, they form the “rings” on
the new DNA molecule. Ultimately, replication produces two new DNA molecules that are identical to
the original molecule. Replication is complete when both of the new strands have formed and rewound
into their characteristic double helix shape.
 V. Protein Synthesis

DNA contains the information necessary to produce proteins. Transcription of DNA results in mRNA,
which is a copy of the information in DNA needed to make a protein. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and
goes to a ribosome. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosome by tRNAs.
In the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number,
kinds, and arrangement of amino acids in the protein. The information in mRNA is carried in groups of
three nucleotides called codons, which code for specific amino acids. For example, the nucleotide
sequence uracil, cytosine, and adenine (UCA) of mRNA codes for the amino acid serine. There are 64
possible mRNA codons, but only 20 amino acids are in proteins. As a result, more that one codon can
code for the same amino acid. For example, CGA, CGC, CGT, and CGC code for the amino acid alanine,
and UUU and UAC code for phenylalanine. Some codons do not code for amino acids but perform other
functions. Some are called terminal codons like UAG, UGA, UAAA.

Protein synthesis requires two types of RNA in addition to mRNA: tRNA and rRNA. A series of three
nucleotides of each tRNA molecule, the anticodon, pairs with the codon of the mRNA.Another part of
each tRNA molecule binds to a specific amino acid.

The amino acids bound to the tRNAs are then joined to one another by an enzyme associated with the
ribosome. The enzyme cause the formation of a chemical bond, called a peptide bond, between the
adjacent amino acids to form a polypeptide chain, consisting of many amino acids bound together by
peptide bonds.
 VI. Cell Division

Cell Division is the formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell. The new cells necessary for
growth and tissue repair are formed through mitosis, and the sex cells necessary for reproduction are
formed through meiosis.

The cell cycle is a series of stages that proceeds to produce daughter cells. It includes interphase and M-
phase. Interphase includes G1 phase (growth phase) , S phase (where DNA replicates), and G2 phase
(growth phase). Ninety percent of the activity of the cell is for growth, only ten percent for karyokinesis
and cytokinesis. Each stage of the cell cycle has checkpoints in order to make sure that there would be
no abnormality in cell division.
Stages of Mitosis and Meiosis

Can you differentiate mitosis from meiosis?

Mitosis Meiosis

Type of cell involved EUKARYOTIC CELLS SEX CELLS

No. and type of daughter cells two diploid (2n) somatic cells four haploid (n) gametes
produced

Stages of M-phase The nuclear DNA of the cell In meiosis, two chromosome-
condenses into visible segregation phases, meiosis I
chromosomes and is pulled and meiosis II, follow a single
 apart by the mitotic spindle, a round of DNA replication
specialized structure made out during the premeiotic S phase.
of microtubules. Mitosis takes
place in four stages: prophase
(sometimes divided into early
prophase and prometaphase),
metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. You can learn more
about these stages in the video
on mitosis.

VII. Diversity of Cell Types

Different cell types have different function. Can you identify the function of cells included in this
diagram?

ACTIVITY (Attachment)

Answer the workbook- Chapter 3.

EVALUATION ( Attachment)
REFERENCES

Marieb, E. N. 2006. Anatomy and Physiology Coloring Workbook. Singapore: Pearson Education, Inc.

Scott, A.S. 11th ed. 2009. Body Structures and Functions. New York: DELMAR Cengage Learning.

Seeley, R.R. , T.D. Stephens, and P. Tate. 2005. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. Singapore:

McGrawHill, Co.

SPARKNOTES. 2005. SAT II Biology. New York: Spark Publishing.