Atmosphere - Free Full-Text - Ammonia Dispersion in The Closed Space of An Ammonia Engine Room With Forced Ventilation in An Industrial Plant

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Table of Contents 

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Author Contributions

Funding

Institutional Review Board
Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of Interest

References
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Ammonia Dispersion in the Closed Space of an Help
Ammonia Engine Room with Forced Ventilation in an

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Industrial Plant Cite
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Zdzislaw Salamonowicz (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/MzlSMGFtb1BmTlVG
1  (mailto:please_login),
Malgorzata Majder-Lopatka (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/890656) 2  Endorse



(mailto:please_login) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0226-710X),
Anna Dmochowska (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/author/ZEc5NnhOQ0MxdFh2cFJ
1  (mailto:please_login),
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
Wioletta Rogula-Kozlowska (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/135327) 2 
(mailto:please_login) (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4339-0657),
Aleksandra Piechota-Polanczyk (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1005029) 3 
(mailto:please_login) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8062-4435) and
 Andrzej Polanczyk (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/404568) 1,*  
(mailto:please_login) (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8894-752X)
1 Faculty of Safety Engineering and Civil Protection, The Main School of Fire Service,
52/54 Slowackiego Street, 01-629 Warsaw, Poland
2 Institute of Safety Engineering, The Main School of Fire Service, 52/54 Slowackiego
Street, 01-629 Warsaw, Poland
3 Department of Medical Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and
Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7 Street, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Atmosphere 2022, 13(7), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13071062

(https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13071062)
Received: 2 June 2022 / Revised: 18 June 2022 / Accepted: 30 June 2022 /

Published: 4 July 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Pollutants Dispersion (

/journal/atmosphere/special_issues/pollutant_disoersion_atmosphere ))
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Abstract
Air pollution is a global problem that is responsible for more than four million premature
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
deaths each year. Air exchange in ammonia engine rooms is a priority for normal operating
conditions, as well as in the event of an emergency release. A numerical approach with the
Comment

use of computational fluid dynamics techniques can provide detailed data, such as spatial
gas dispersion. Therefore, the objective of this study was to prepare a mathematical tool for
the assessment of ammonia distribution in an engine room equipped with forced ventilation
as a prediction tool for dangerous industrial setup working configurations. This study
analyzed the uncontrolled release of ammonia during the production process in an engine

room using Ansys Fluent software. It was observed that emergency ammonia leakage of 
0.1 kg/s in the assumed air flow poses a great threat to the mechanics. In many simulated
scenarios, ammonia spread to the entire building. Moreover, the mass fraction of ammonia
was the highest in the gas stream right after its release. After being released, ammonia
often accumulated in the ceiling zone, and in inactive exhaust chimneys, air inlets, and
doors. It was observed that the effectiveness of the ventilation analyzed depended on the
number of active air vents and exhausts, as well as their spatial distribution throughout the
building.
Keywords: ammonia dispersion (/search?q=ammonia+dispersion); ammonia engine
room (/search?q=ammonia+engine+room); numerical dispersion (/search?
q=numerical+dispersion); forced dispersion (/search?q=forced+dispersion)
1. Introduction
A hazardous chemical leakage accident may occur in the process of production,

transportation, and storage [1]. Ammonia is used in several segments of the chemical
industry, for example, in the pharmaceutical, textile, and industrial refrigeration industries
[2]. It is one of the predominant gaseous pollutants [3]. According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), air pollution is the main contributor to the increasing number of
diseases, e.g., respiratory infections [4]. In the last few decades, attempts have been made
in the field of indoor environments to find a balance between air distribution, indoor Shareair

quality, and energy efficiency [5]. Air exchange in ammonia engine rooms is a priority both
during normal operating conditions and in the event of an emergency release, e.g., due to
Help


valve leakage. The main problem of these constructions is related to insufficient ventilation
systems [6]. The appropriate capacity of exhaust fans, as well as ventilation openings,
provides air circulation in a building with an ammonia system to operate smoothlyCite[7].
Moreover, people spend more than 90% of their time indoors, and the level of indoor air
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pollution is generally higher than that of the outdoor environment [8]. Thus, indoor air
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quality is essential for human health, productivity, and well-being [9]
The description of ammonia dispersion focuses mainly on toxic gas leakage. Due to
personnel operation faults, equipment failure, and poor safety management, toxic

 gas
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leakage accidents may occur in chemical plants [10]. To support decisions in the case of
the dispersion of hazardous gases, mathematical tools are applied [11,12]. Mathematical
operations may be performed analytically, with physical equations or by implementing those

Comment
equations into appropriate software [13]. Furthermore, dispersion models can be described
as Gaussian, integral-type, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models [12]. Among all
models presented, ALOHA, PHAST, and CFD codes are the most commonly used to study
gas dispersion [12,14]. Furthermore, CFD is a useful tool for estimating hazardous zones
after
 the release of flammable gases [15]. This approach uses Navier–Stokes equations for 
simulation with CFD tools, consisting of a set of nonlinear momentum and mass
conservation equations to estimate the pressure distributions in each zone and to calculate
the airflow through the zones [16]. The group of CFD models includes three subgroups of
the following models: RANS (Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations), LES (large-
eddy simulations) and DNS (direct numerical simulations) [17]. Moreover, many previous
CFD studies have indicated that the appropriate choice of Reynolds-averaged Navier–
Stokes (RANS) turbulence model is important in reproducing heavy gas dispersion.
Sklavounos and Rigas found that the standard keε and shear stress transport (SST) k-u
models appeared to overestimate the maximal concentrations recorded in the trials [18].
Conversely, Xing et al. showed that the results from the standard k-ε and SST k-u models
were in acceptable agreement with the experimental data, while the predicted values from
the RNG k-ε model were unsatisfactory [19]. Moreover, many previous CFD studies have
indicated that the appropriate choice of RANS turbulence models is important in
reproducing heavy gas dispersion; however, there is not a consistent conclusion regarding
which model is better for simulating heavy gas dispersion [20].
Due to the flammable and toxic properties of ammonia, the risk caused by the release
of ammonia to the atmosphere due to tank failure, road collision, or the ammonia engine
room is high. Therefore, the objective of this study was to prepare a mathematical tool for
the assessment of the ammonia distribution in an engine room equipped with forced
ventilation as an engineering tool for the prediction of dangerous working conditions of
industrial setups. 
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The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, a description of the analyzed case

study, as well as material and methods applied in the research, are presented. Section 3 
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
presents the results of the numerical simulations. In Section 4, a discussion is presented,
while Section 5 concludes the manuscript.
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2.1. Case Study
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This study analyzed uncontrolled ammonia release in the production process in an

engine room (length—9 m, width—5 m, height—4 m) in an industrial plant (Figure 1). Each
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front wall of the building was equipped with a door (height—2 m, width—1 m) and two
ventilation openings (0.75 m × 0.25 m) for each. In addition, there are three cylindrical
chimneys (exhausts) with an internal diameter of 0.7 m and a length of 1.2 m in the Comment
roof of
the mathematical domain analyzed. In the center of the building there is a cylindrical tank
(diameter—1 m, length—3 m) containing ammonia gas. Around the tank, a system of pipes
was modeled that transports ammonia gas to other facilities of the plant. Furthermore,
there are two outlets (diameter—0.3 m), simulating an emergency release of ammonia in
the center of the pipe surrounding the ammonia tank.
 
Figure 1. Three-dimensional geometry of the analyzed ammonia machine room.
2.2. Mathematical Description

First, the 3d model of the mathematical domain analyzed was prepared with the use of
SpaceClaim Ansys software (ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA, USA) (Figure 1). In the next step,
with the use of Ansys ICEM software (ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA, USA), a numerical mesh
was designed [14]. To reduce discretization errors, a mesh independent test was
performed. Thus, different sizes of mesh elements were tested. The range of elements
tested for the whole analyzed domain was equal to 0.05–0.1 m (with size increase equal to
0.01 m), decreasing the size of the elements to 0.05 m around the wall. Each time, for the
element size equal to 0.1, errors appeared. However, for the grid composed of smaller
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elements (0.05 m), the CFD model presented converged results (Table 1). Thus, to
minimize the size of the numerical mesh, the final mesh consisted of 750,000 tetrahedral
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elements, and was composed of elements with sizes equal to 0.05 m for the areas where
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Table 1. Results for the mesh independent test.

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Numerical analysis was performed with the use of Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes

Comment
equations implemented in Ansys Fluent software (ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA, USA) [21].

Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (Equations (1) and (2)) were applied
[13,22]:
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρui ) = 0 (1)
 ∂t ∂xi

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ui
¯¯¯¯¯
′ ¯¯¯
′
(ρui ) + (ρui uj ) = − + (μ − ρu u
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
i j
(2)
where ρ is the density; t is time; ui and uj are the mean velocity components in the xi and xj
directions, respectively; and μ is dynamic viscosity. Moreover, the relationship between the
Reynolds stresses ¯¯¯¯¯
′¯¯¯
ρu u and the mean velocity gradients is shown in Equation (3).
i
′
j
∂ui ∂ui 2 ∂ui

¯¯¯¯¯
′ ¯¯¯
i j
′
ρu u = μ t ( + ) − (ρk + μ t ) δij (3)
∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xi
where μt is turbulent viscosity; k is turbulent kinetic energy; and δij is the Kronecker delta. K
and its rate of dissipation ε are obtained from Equations (4) and (5).
Furthermore, in this work, the k–ε model was used to represent the effects of
turbulence [23].
∂ ∂ ∂ μt ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = [(μ + ) ] + Gk −
∂t ∂xi ∂xj σk ∂xj (4)

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∂t
(ρε) +
∂
∂xi
(ρεui ) =
∂
∂xj
[(μ +
μt
σε
)
∂ε
∂xj
] + C1ε
ε
k Help
(5)
where Gk is about
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to the mean velocity gradient, and σk and σε are
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turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ε, respectively.
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k
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ε
The turbulent (or eddy) viscosity μt is computed by combining k and ε (Equation (6)).
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
Furthermore, results were presented as isosurfaces and isolines. For the Ansys Fluent
software, the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) model was applied.
The following boundary conditions were established: (1) the initial pressure wasCommentequal
to 1013 hPa for each outlet; (2) the air exchange in the building took place through three
exhaust fans located on the ceiling of the building with a diameter equal to 0.7 m and a
length equal to 1.2 m each; (3) the emergency flow of ammonia occurred from two nozzles,
one directed with the cross-sectional plane upwards, and the other downwards.
Furthermore, at least one surface from inlet 1, inlet 2, inlet 3, and inlet 4 was the inlet with a
 
defined initial velocity in the range of 1 m/s to 3 m/s. The outlet of the tested model was
determined from among outlet 1, outlet 2, and outlet 3. One of these surfaces was a
pressure outlet with a pressure value equal to 0 Pa. Then, the ammonia 1 outlet and the
ammonia 2 outlet were set as mass flow and equal to 0.1 kg/s. Other surfaces, such as the
outline of the ammonia engine room, the door, the ammonia tank, and the pipes exiting the
tank, were established as the wall boundary. Moreover, the air temperature was equal to 25
°C. Table 2 presents all analyzed cases.
Table 2. Analyzed cases of ammonia release and work of the ventilation system. V—
variant; S—scenario.
3. Results
The distribution of ammonia concentration is the most significant concern due to

toxicity. Ammonia is widely used in the chemical and food industry as a common industrial
gas [20]. According to the National Fire Protection Association guidelines, the ammonia–air Share

mixture is combustible in the concentration range of 15–28% [24].
The first variant analyzed contained four scenarios (from A to D) with ammonia
Help
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discharge rate equal to 0.1 kg/s and only one active exhaust chimney (outlet 3) (Figure 2
We Figure
and use cookies on outflow
3). The our website to ensure
of ammonia youset
was getatthe
thebest experience.
upper outlet connection. In scenario
A, it was assumed that the air inflow to the engine room would occur through the inlet no. Cite
2.
In this case, the air velocity at the inlet was equal to 2.2 m/s, and at the outlet it was in the
range of 1.4 to 1.5 m/s. Moreover, it was noticed that the cloudAccept (/accept_cookies)
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volume of the analyzed domain. Furthermore, after it was released, the ammonia(https://s
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was
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directed towards the exhaust stack. Scenario B assumed the airflow into the building
through inlet no. 4. The velocity of the air was the same as in scenario A. It was noticed
that the air flowed low through the engine room and that turbulence occurred at the Eheight


ndorse
of the active exhaust chimney. As a result, ammonia spread throughout the building, and
the largest mass fraction equal to approximately 0.7 was observed in the inactive chimney
no. 1 and in the ceiling zone within this chimney. In scenario C, it was assumed that the air

Comment
stream flowed into the room through inlet no. 1 and inlet no. 2. In this case, the air velocity
was equal to 1 m/s in each of the inlets and 1.4 m/s in the exhaust chimney. Trace amounts
of ammonia were observed in chimney no. 1, in door no. 2, inlet no. 3, and between the
ammonia tank and inlet no. 3. In addition, the largest ammonia mass fraction was found in
a small cloud near the tank. In scenario D, the active air inlets in the engine room were inlet 
no. 2 and inlet no. 4. The air velocity was equal to the velocity in scenario C. In this
scenario, it was observed that air flowed in opposite directions and caused a turbulence
appearance, thus causing large amounts of ammonia to spread over the entire front wall,
including door no. 2 and entry no. 3. The mass fraction of gas in these places was in the
range of 0.2–0.7.
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Figure 2. Ammonia distribution in the engine room for: (a) scenario A, (b) scenario B,
(c) scenario C, and (d) scenario D.
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 
Figure 3. Velocity distribution in the engine room for: (a) scenario A, (b) scenario B,
The second variant included ammonia outflow from the top connector no. 1, active

exhaust chimney no. 2 (middle), and ammonia outflow rate (mass flow rate was equal to
0.1 kg/s) (Figure 4 and Figure 5). In scenario A, the air velocity at input no. 2 was equal to
2.4 m/s, and in the exhaust chimney it was around 1.4 m/s. Moreover, no gaseous Share
ammonia flow to the exhaust chimney no. 2 and towards the inactive chimney no. 3 was
observed. Ammonia was also found to be deposited in the corner of the building above Help

entrance
turbulent
no. 2 (the
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air about
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flow was
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inbest
the range of 0.2–0.4). In scenario B,
experience.
a result of this turbulence, ammonia in the initial stage
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
of the ventilation operation did not appear in the exhaust chimney no. 2, but accumulated in
the inactive chimney no. 1 (mass fraction 0.7). In addition, a cloud of ammonia was formed
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on the front wall of door no. 2 (mass fraction was in the range of 0.2–0.3). InBack Scenario
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the value of air velocity in input no. 1 and no. 2 was equal to 1 m/s, and in the exhaust, the
(/) groups/p
chimney was equal to 1.5 m/s. Furthermore, air turbulence was observed to cause a large
volume cloud of ammonia to move towards the active air inlets, but the mass fraction of the
gas in this cloud was equal to 0.2. A large amount of ammonia (mass fraction in theErange


ndorse
0.3–0.4) was found in the exhaust chimneys no. 1 and no. 3, as well as in the engine room,
where the air intakes were not active. Scenario D assumed that the building would be
supplied with air through inlet no. 2 and no. 4. The air velocity in this scenario was equal to

Comment
the velocity in scenario C. It was noticed that the ammonia cloud was moving towards
active exhaust chimney no. 2, but also a large part of it with a mass fraction of
approximately 0.4 spread to door no. 1 and door no. 2, thus, causing the release of gas
throughout the building.
 

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Figure 4. Ammonia distribution in the engine room for: (a) scenario A, (b) scenario B,
(c) scenario C, and (d) scenario D. Accept (/accept_cookies)
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The third variant assumed that the lower stub pipe was a place of ammonia outflow,

and the gas outflow rate was equal to 0.1 kg/s. Moreover, the exhaust chimney no. 3 was
active (Figure 6 and Figure 7). Scenario A assumes the inflow of air to the engine room
through inlet no.2. The air speed at the inlet was equal to 2.3 m/s and at the outlet (exhaust
Share
chimney no. 3) was equal to 1.5 m/s. In addition, the largest mass share of ammonia in
scenario A was observed in the gas tank (approximately 0.8). Furthermore, it was noticed Help

that, in the whole engine room (except for air flow places), there was a mass fraction of
ammonia in the range of 0.1–0.2. In scenario B, the air into the building was supplied


through inlet no. 4. The velocity of the air was the same as in scenario A. In this case, the
ammonia cloud became large in the tank (mass fraction of about 0.7) and the cloud moved
towards the wall with an active air inlet. The mass fraction of ammonia at this Back
pointtoDiscuss
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the range of 0.3–0.4, while in the entire building it was approximately 0.2. Scenario C
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assumes the air inflow to the engine room through inlet no. 2 and inlet no. 1. The air
velocity at each of the inlets was equal to 1.2 m/s, and at the exhaust, the chimney was
equal to approximately 1.4 m/s. Moreover, it was recorded that the released gasEndorse


cloud
received the largest volume immediately after release. The cloud then moved to the wall
behind the tank, and the mass fraction in the cloud ranged from 0.9 at the outlet to 0.3 at
the wall. Furthermore, in the entire building, the mass fraction of ammonia was in the range

Comment
0.1–0.2. In scenario D, inlet no. 2 and inlet no. 4 were active air inlets to the building. The
mass fraction in the cloud ranged from 0.9 at the outlet to 0.3 at the wall. In the entire
engine room, the mass fraction of the gas was in the range 0.1–0.2. The probable cause of
the spread of ammonia throughout the building, both in simulation 3 and in previous
simulations,
 was air turbulence. 

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Figure 6.
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Ammonia distribution in the engine room for: (a) scenario A, (b) scenario B,
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 
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The fourth variant analyzed assumed that the bottom connector was a place of
ammonia outflow. The gas outflow rate was equal to 0.1 kg/s and the exhaust chimney no.
2 was active (Figure 8 and Figure 9). In scenario A, the air flow occurred through inlet Helpno.
2.We
The aircookies
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that in this case, the ammonia, when released,
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formed into a small cloud, which was directed towards the active exhaust stack. The mass
fraction of ammonia was also recorded in the entire building (excluding the airflow zone in
Discuss in
the range of 0–0.1). In scenario B, the air was supplied from inlet no. 4. Back The toair flow
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velocity was the same as in scenario A. In this scenario, most of the gas released (https://s
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along
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with the flowing air went to the active exhaust stack, while the amount of gas distributed
throughout the engine room was in the range of 0–0.1. Scenario C assumed that the
engine room was supplied with air through inlet no. 1 and inlet no. 2. The air flow velocity


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each of the inlets was equal to 1.1 m/s, and in the exhaust stack it was nearly 1.5 m/s.
Furthermore, it was recorded that the main portion of ammonia (mass fraction equal to 0.4)
occurred in the gas tank and on the wall behind the tank. In the part of the building with

Comment
inactive air inlets, the mass fraction of ammonia oscillated around 0.1. Scenario D assumes
the airflow to the engine room through inlet no. 1 and inlet no. 4. The air velocity was the
same as in scenario C. It was observed that, after release, ammonia went directly to the
active exhaust chimney no. 2, but also a large part of the gas spread in the ceiling zone at
inlet
 no. 1 and near the exhaust chimney no. 3. Ammonia was also observed in door no. 1. 
In the whole building, the mass fraction of ammonia was in the range of 0–0.1.
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Figure 8.
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Ammonia distribution in the engine room for: (a) scenario A, (b) scenario B,
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Comment
 

The fifth variant analyzed assumed a different number of active exhaust chimneys Share
(Figure 10 and Figure 11). First, it was assumed that the place of the ammonia outflow
was the upper connector (outflow no. 1), and the rate of ammonia outflow was equal to 0.1
Help


kg/s. Moreover, the exhaust chimney no. 1 and the exhaust chimney no. 3 were active. In
scenario A, the air inflow to the engine room occurred through inlet no. 2. The inlet air

velocity was equal to 2.2 m/s. In exhaust chimney no. 3, it was equal to 0.5 m/s, and in
exhaust chimney no. 1, it was equal to 1 m/s. In addition, a large portion of ammonia was
observed with a mass fraction of 0.4–0.5 in the wall at inlet no. 3 and no. 4, and on the wall
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opposite the gas tank. After being released, the ammonia cloud was directed towards the
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active exhaust chimney no. 3, but a large part of it did not end up in the chimney. The gas
accumulated at the wall with inlet no. 2, and its mass fraction at this point fluctuated around
0.2–0.3. In scenario B, the active air inlet was inlet no. 3. The air flow velocity was

 the
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same as in scenario A. It was noticed that, in this case, the released ammonia went directly
to the exhaust chimney no. 3. Scenario C assumes the inflow of air to the engine room
through inlet no. 3 and no. 4. The air flow velocity at each of the inlets was equal to 1.3

Comment
m/s. In exhaust chimney no. 3, it was equal to 0.7 m/s, although in exhaust chimney no. 1 it
was equal to 0.9 m/s. Moreover, it was recorded that, in scenario C, the gas after release
behaved as in the previous scenario (i.e., it flowed towards exhaust stack no.1).
Furthermore, ammonia also spread to other areas of the building, near chimney fan no. 1
(the
 mass fraction of ammonia was in the range of 0.1–0.2). Scenario D assumed that the 
air inlet to the engine room occurred through inlet no. 2 and inlet no. 3. The air flow velocity
at the inlet in scenario D was the same as in scenario A, and in the case of the outlets,
exhaust chimney no. 1 was equal to 0.8 m/s, and chimney lift no. 3 was equal to 0.6 m/s.
Ammonia clearly moved towards exhaust chimney no. 1. In most parts of the building, the
mass fraction of gas fluctuated in the range of 0.1–0.2.
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Comment
 
Figure 10. Ammonia distribution in the engine room for: (a) scenario A, (b) scenario
B, (c) scenario C, and (d) scenario D.
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Comment
 
In the sixth variant, it was assumed that the upper connector was a place of ammonia

outflow. Furthermore, the gas outflow rate was equal to 0.1 kg/s, and the active exhaust
chimney no. 2 and exhaust chimney no. 3 (Figure 12 and Figure 13). Scenario A assumed
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
that air was supplied to the building through inlet no. 1. Furthermore, the air flow velocity at
the inlet was equal to 2.2 m/s. In exhaust chimney no. 3, it was equal to 0.3 m/s, and in
exhaust chimney no. 2, it was equal to 1.2 m/s. It was observed that, in this scenario,Help after
being
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fact that ammonia occupied the entire volume of
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object, and its mass share was in the range of 0.4–0.5. In scenario B, air flowed into the
building through inlet no. 4. The inlet air flow velocity was the same as (/accept_cookies)
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exhaust chimney no. 3, it was equal to 0.9 m/s, and in the exhaust chimney Back no. 2,to itTopTop
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equal to 0.6 m/s. In scenario B, it was observed that when released, the ammonia formed a
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considerable cloud, most of which was concentrated at the wall at inlet no. 3. The mass
fraction of ammonia in this cloud at the inactive chimney no. 3 was equal to 0.7, while on
the wall itself it fluctuated around 0.3–0.5. In scenarios C and D, the air inlet occurred


Endorse
through, respectively, inlet no. 3 and inlet no. 4, and inlet no. 3 and inlet no. 2. The air flow
velocity at each inlet was equal to 1.2 m/s, while at the outlets in both scenarios this value
was, respectively, for exhaust chimney no. 3, equal to 1 m/s, and for exhaust chimney no.

Comment
2, equal to 0.7 m/s. It was recorded that the ammonia cloud spread towards the wall near
door no. 2, and there was also an accumulation of gas with a mass fraction in the range of
0.2–0.4, as well as in the ceiling zone around the inactive exhaust chimney no. 1. It was
also observed that in scenario C, large amounts of ammonia were deposited at door no. 1,
and
 in inactive inlets no. 1 and no. 2. 
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Figure (/)
12. Ammonia distribution in the engine room for: (a) scenario A, (b) scenario
groups/p
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Comment
 

In the seventh variant, it was assumed that the bottom connector was the place where Share
ammonia was released. Furthermore, the discharge no. 2 was the discharge of gases, and
its rate was equal to 0.1 kg/s. Furthermore, the active exhaust was chimney no.1Helpand 

chimney no. 3 (Figure 14 and Figure 15). In scenario A, air was supplied to the building
through inlet no. 1. Inlet air velocity was equal to 2.5 m/s. At outlet no. 3, it was equal to 0.3

m/s, and at outlet no. 1 it was equal to 1.3 m/s. It was observed that the ammonia in the
initial phase after its release collected under the tank, and then the gas cloud increased
Accept (/accept_cookies) in
and concentrated on the wall behind the tank throughout the engine room. TheDiscuss mass
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fraction of ammonia at this point was approximately equal to 0.4. In scenario B, the (https://s
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inflow
(/) groups/p
of air through the inlet no. 3 was assumed. In this case, the air velocity at the inlet was the
same as in the case of scenario A, and in exhaust chimneys no. 3 and no. 1 it was equal to
0.9 m/s and 0.6 m/s, respectively. Furthermore, ammonia was recorded to be concentrated


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mainly in the tank, and a small amount of it spread throughout the engine room (mass
fraction approximately equal to 0.1). In scenario C, inlet no. 3 and inlet no. 4 were active air
inlets into the building. The air flow velocity at each inlet was equal to 1.2 m/s, while in the

Comment
exhaust chimneys no. 3 and no. 1 it was equal to 1.1 m/s and 0.5 m/s, respectively.
Furthermore, it was observed that, in scenario C, the ammonia release was directed
towards the active exhaust chimney no. 1, but also spread throughout the building. The
mass fraction of ammonia on the wall with inlet no. 3 and no. 4 was approximately equal to
0.3.
 In the entire engine room, it fluctuated in the range of 0.2–0.3. In scenario D, the air 
flow did not occur through inlets no. 2 and no. 3. The air flow velocity at the inlet was the
same as in scenario C, and in the exhaust air chimneys it was approximately equal to 1
m/s. Moreover, it was noticed that the gas cloud was concentrated in the center of the
building above the ammonia tank. It was noted that a small amount of gas was deposited in
the corner of the room at inlet no. 4 and in door no. 2.
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
Comment
 
In the eighth variant, it was assumed that the bottom connector was a place of

ammonia release (outflow no. 2, ammonia outflow rate was equal to 0.1 kg/s). Moreover,
the active exhausts were air chimneys no. 3 and no. 2 (Figure 16 and Figure 17). In
scenario A, air was supplied through inlet no. 1. The air flow velocity at the inlet was Sequal
hare
to 2.2 m/s, and at the outlets no. 2 and no. 3 it was equal to 1 m/s and 0.5 m/s,
respectively. Moreover, it was observed that, in scenario A, ammonia in the initial phase Help
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condensed
the entire
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of ammonia fluctuated around 0.1. Scenario B

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assumes an airflow to the building through entry no. 3. The air flow velocity at the inlet was
the same as in scenario A, and in the exhaust chimneys no. 2 and no. 3 it was equal to 0.3
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m/s and 1.1 m/s, respectively. It was noticed that the gas, after the release, flowed
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exhaust chimney no. 2, and a small part of the cloud was concentrated in the inactive
(/) groups/p
exhaust stack no. 1. In the whole building, as in scenario A, there was a mass fraction of
ammonia within the limit of 0.1.
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 
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 
Scenario C assumed that the air reached the building through inlet no. 3 and inlet no.

4. The air flow velocity at each of the inlets was equal to 1.2 m/s, and its value in the
exhaust chimneys no. 2 and no. 3 was equal to 0.4 m/s and 1.1 m/s, respectively. The
highest concentration of ammonia (small volume) occurred next to the gas tank. A Ssmall hare
mass fraction of ammonia was recorded in exhaust chimney no. 1.

Scenario D assumes that air inflow to the engine room was through inlet no. 2 andHelp inlet 
no. 3. The air flow velocity at the inlet was the same as in scenario C, while the value for
the exhaust
Read more chimneys no. 2 and
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here 3 was equal to 1 m/s at each of the outlets. Moreover,
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there was a lot of air turbulence, as a result of which the gas released spread throughout
the building. Its largest mass share (approximately 0.6) was observed in the ceiling zone
above the ammonia tank. Discuss in
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4. Discussion
(/) groups/p
The possibility of a leakage accident occurring at a large-scale causes concern. An

important issue for the protection of human life and the environment is understanding the
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

mechanisms of the release of toxic gases into the atmosphere. Research on the course of
dispersion of individual gases allows prediction of the risk of a sudden release of toxic
to a large extent. Kashi et al. investigated chlorine dispersion in an urbanized area.
gas
Comment

Similarly to the current study, the object that was recognized in the simulation as a source
of chlorine release was a section of an industrial building, such as a water treatment plant
[25]. Any analytical model which addresses all the factors that can influence the movement
of gases throughout a building must deal with a complex set of interdependent factors [26].
Analyzing
 whether the model can describe the temporal spatial evolution of hazardous 
materials is critical to the assessment of model performance [20]. Numerical simulations in
this paper were carried out for various variants, i.e., changing the initial air velocity in the
inlet to the engine room and the air velocity in the ventilation hood, using a certain number
of inlets and outlets during ventilation, and changing the place of the ammonia outflow.
A great number of factors determine the release of liquefied gas. To solve these
problems, it is necessary to use numerical methods based on computational fluid dynamics
codes (CFD codes) [27]. CFD simulations can be used to assess natural ventilation in a
room by solving the interaction between urban wind flow and indoor airflow [28]. Numerical
modeling of ammonia dispersion is related to the evaporation and emission of gases into
the atmosphere [29]. Ammonia is an explosive-safe gas because it cannot be ignited with a
match or a red-hot cigarette. Its ignition energy is 2000 times greater than that of hydrogen,
and 20 times greater than that of hydrocarbons [30].
Moreover, many CFD simulations work with different turbulence models; for example,
the k-ε model, RNG model, k-ω (standard) model, shear stress transport (SST) model, etc.,
have each been carried out to reproduce the dense gas dispersion [31]. Galeev et al.
observed that the k-ε model successfully reproduces the dispersion of dense gas in the
atmosphere [29]. This was in line with the present study.
According to the received results, it would be recommended that:
1. In-depth knowledge of the process of ammonia spreading in the ammonia engine room
building is an important issue for the safety of employees of plants using ammonia in
production processes, as well as for chemical and ecological rescue groups of the SStatehare

Fire Service during the removal of the consequences of an event, which results in an
emergency release of ammonia in a confined space.
Help


2. It is strongly recommended to ventilate the ceiling zone or inactivated exhaust chimneys
due to the risk of ammonia build up.

3. To prevent ammonia spreading after its release from the top and bottom stub pipe, the
side ventilation ducts should be activated.
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Limitations (/)
of the Study
groups/p
The CFD model was used within the designated ammonia engine room. The following
assumptions were made due to the type of simulation; the dimensions of the doors and
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


ventilation openings in the front walls of the building have been modified. As a result of
these changes, the doors and vents took the form of cuboids. In addition, the turbulence
model, k-ε, was selected. Comment
5. Conclusions
Fire safety engineering is recognized as a unique branch of engineering. When

reviewing the needs of the building, there may be a number of objectives relevant to the fire
 
strategy. An emergency ammonia leakage of 0.1 kg/s in the assumed air flow was
observed to pose a great threat to the engineers in the engine room, because in many
simulated scenarios ammonia was able to spread throughout the building. Regardless of
the number of active air inlets and their location, the air stream often became turbulent,
thus causing the released ammonia to concentrate in a large area of the ammonia engine
room. In addition, ventilation was the most effective in two variants: with ammonia outflow
from the upper connector, active inlet no. 2, and active exhaust chimney no. 3; and when
ammonia flows from the lower connector, and air flows from inlet no. 3 and inlet no. 2, with
active exhaust chimneys no. 2 and no. 3.
After being released, ammonia accumulated in the ceiling zone, and in inactive
exhaust chimneys, air inlets, and doors. The effectiveness of ventilation depends on the
number of active air vents and exhausts, as well as their distribution in the building.
Finally, the use of numerical methods in engineering practice allows for a quick and
effective solution of the ventilation problem both in ammonia engine rooms and in the
design of smoke exhaust systems for buildings, as well as for ventilation systems in
collective housing buildings, without incurring additional research costs that would occur if
the investigation was carried out in a physically existing facility.
The proposed manuscript presents a numerical approach to toxic gas dispersion in an
office. The presented approach may help the with the planning of spatial distribution of a
ventilation system’s elements, as well as its capacity. Furthermore, knowledge about toxic
gas distribution, after the onset of a ventilation system, for the selected configuration can
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be helpful in planning the work of employees, as well as the possible evacuation routes of
injured people.
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Author Contributions
Conceptualization, Z.S.; methodology, Z.S.; software, Z.S. and A.P.; validation, A.P.-P.,
M.M.-L., W.R.-K. and A.D.; formal analysis, A.P. and A.P.-P.; investigation, Z.S.; resources,
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Z.S. and W.R.-K.; data curation, A.P.; writing—original draft preparation, A.P. and(https://s

A.D.;
(/) groups/p
writing—review and editing, A.P.-P. and Z.S.; visualization, Z.S.; supervision, Z.S. and A.P.;
project administration, Z.S.; funding acquisition, Z.S. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
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Funding

Comment
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
 Not applicable. 
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Data is available on request from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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&subject=From%20MDPI%3A%20%22Ammonia%20Dispersion%20in%20the%20Clos
ed%20Space%20of%20an%20Ammonia%20Engine%20Room%20with%20Forced%20
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Ventilation%20in%20an%20Industrial%20Plant"&body=https://www.mdpi.com/17107
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d%20data%2C%20such%20as%20spatial%20gas%20dispersion.%20Therefore%2C%
20the%20objective%20of%20this%20study%20was%20to%20prepare%20a%20mathe
matical%20tool%20for%20the%20assessment%20of%20ammonia%20distribution%2
0in%20an%20engine%20room%20equipped%20with%20forced%20ventilation%20as
%20a%20prediction%20tool%20for%20dangerous%20industrial%20setup%20workin
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0engine%20room%20using%20Ansys%20Fluent%20software.%20It%20was%20obse
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on%20of%20ammonia%20was%20the%20highest%20in%20the%20gas%20stream%2
0right%20after%20its%20release.%20After%20being%20released%2C%20ammonia%Help
20often%20accumulated%20in%20the%20ceiling%20zone%2C%20and%20in%20inac
tive%20exhaust%20chimneys%2C%20air%20inlets%2C%20and[...]) Cite 
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Salamonowicz, Z.; Majder-Lopatka, M.; Dmochowska, A.; Rogula-Kozlowska, W.; Piechota-
Polanczyk, A.; Polanczyk, A. Ammonia Dispersion in the Closed Space of an Ammonia
Engine Room with Forced Ventilation in an Industrial Plant. Atmosphere 2022, 13, 1062.
https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13071062
AMA Style
Salamonowicz Z, Majder-Lopatka M, Dmochowska A, Rogula-Kozlowska W, Piechota-
Polanczyk A, Polanczyk A. Ammonia Dispersion in the Closed Space of an Ammonia
Engine Room with Forced Ventilation in an Industrial Plant. Atmosphere. 2022; 13(7):1062.
https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13071062
Chicago/Turabian Style
Salamonowicz, Zdzislaw, Malgorzata Majder-Lopatka, Anna Dmochowska, Wioletta
Rogula-Kozlowska, Aleksandra Piechota-Polanczyk, and Andrzej Polanczyk. 2022.

"Ammonia Dispersion in the Closed Space of an Ammonia Engine Room with Forced
Ventilation in an Industrial Plant" Atmosphere 13, no. 7: 1062.
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Atmosphere - Free Full-Text - Ammonia Dispersion in The Closed Space of An Ammonia Engine Room With Forced Ventilation in An Industrial Plant

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Ammonia Dispersion in the Closed Space of an Help

Ammonia Engine Room with Forced Ventilation in an

Malgorzata Majder-Lopatka (https://sciprofiles.com/profile/890656) 2  Endorse

Atmosphere 2022, 13(7), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13071062

Received: 2 June 2022 / Revised: 18 June 2022 / Accepted: 30 June 2022 /

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Pollutants Dispersion (

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Versions Notes (/2073-4433/13/7/1062/notes)

A hazardous chemical leakage accident may occur in the process of production,

The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, a description of the analyzed case

2. Materials and Methods Accept (/accept_cookies) 

This study analyzed uncontrolled ammonia release in the production process in an

Figure 1. Three-dimensional geometry of the analyzed ammonia machine room.

2.2. Mathematical Description

Table 1. Results for the mesh independent test.

Numerical analysis was performed with the use of Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes

∂ui ∂ui 2 ∂ui

The distribution of ammonia concentration is the most significant concern due to

mass fraction of ammonia was recorded in exhaust chimney no. 1.

The possibility of a leakage accident occurring at a large-scale causes concern. An

Fire safety engineering is recognized as a unique branch of engineering. When

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Data Availability Statement

Data is available on request from the corresponding author.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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