ScopeofAdmi nistrativeLaw:Admi nistrat i

veLawasal awi sl i
mi t
edt oconcer ningpower sandpr ocedur esofadmi nistrati
v eagenci es.I tisl i
mi tedt ot hepower sofadj udi cat i
onorr ule-
maki ng
poweroft heaut hor i
ti
es.Thus,i tisl imitedt o: Est abl i
shment ,organizationandpower sofv ari
ousadmi ni strat ivebodi es Del egat edl egi slation-t heRul e-maki ngpoweroft heaut horit
ies
Judi cialf unct ionsofadmi nist r
at iveagenci essuchast ribunals Remedi esav ailabl esuchasWr it
s,Inj unct i
onet c. Pr ocedur alguar ant eessuchast heappl i
cat i
onofpr incipl esofNat ur al
Just ice Gov er nmentl iabilityint ort Publ iccor por ati
onsTher earesev er albranchesoft hesci enceofl aw.TheAdmi ni
strat i
v eLawi sar ecentbr anchoft hesci enceofl aw.I nt hepol iti
cal
sciencet her ear ef ewAdmi ni st
r ativeor gans.Cer tainf unct i
onshav ebeenal lott
edt ot heseor gansi ntheAdmi ni strativeMachi ner y.TheAdmi nistrativel awdeal swi tht hest ruct ur e,funct i
ons
andpower soft heAdmi ni
st rati
v eor gans.I tal sol ay sdownt hemet hodsandpr ocedur eswhi char etobef oll
owedbyt hem dur ingt hecour seofr emedi eswhi char eav ailablet ot heper sons
whoser ight sandot herpr i
v i
legesar edamagedbyt heiroper at i
ons.Fr om t hef ew l inesabov eexpl ai
ni ngt hemeani ngoft heAdmi nist r
at iv
el aw,wecannot icet heexactscopeoft hisnew
branchofLaw.ThescopeofAdmi nistrativ elawcanbenar ratedasunder :- Themet hodsandpr ocedur esoft heseAdmi nist rativeor gansar ealsost udi edbyt henewbr anchofl aw;I tcov er
thenat ureofst ructure,powerandf unct ionofal ltheseadmi nistr
ativeor gans.I talsomakesav ail
ableal lt her elev antr emedi est ot heper sonswhoser ight sar ei nfringedbyt heoper ati
onsof
theseor gansdur i
ngt hecour seofAdmi nistrat i
on. Why and Howt he Admi nist rativeOr gans ar et o becont r
ol l
ed i sal so v i
ewedby t heAdmi ni strativel aw.I nthi swayal ongwi tht he
dev elopmenti nt hePol iti
calSci enceandal ongwi t
ht heideaoff ederalAdmi nistration, thesepar atebr anchofAdmi nistrati
vel awhasbeendev eloped.I tist obecl ear l
ynot edt hatt hisbr anch
ofLawi s excl usi velyr estrictedt ot heAdmi nistrativeor gans onl y.Thedel egatedl egi slati
onsar esupposedt Obet hebackboneoft headmi nistrativel aw.Sour cesofAdmi nist rat i
v eLaw:6. 1
Const it
utionTheConst ituti
oni st hecr eatorofv ar i
oussev er
aladmi nist
rativebodi esandagenci es.Itgiv esbr iefdet ailsaboutt hemechani sm andt headmi nistrat i
vepower sgr ant edt ov ari
ous
aut hor i
ti
es.TheConst ituti
oni st hesupr emel awoft heland.Anyl aworactwhi chi si nconsi stentwi t
hi thasnof orceoref fect.Theef fectoft hispr ovisioni st hatl awsandadmi nistrativeact s
mustcompl ywi tht heConst itution.The Const i
tutioni sbi ndingont heexecut i
vebr anchofgov ernmenti nev eryspher e ofadmi nistrati
on.Const i
tut i
on est abl i
shes a v ar i
et yofagenci es
and admi nistrat i
vest ruct urest ocont rolt heexer ciseofpubl icpower .6.2Act sandSt atutesAct sandSt at ut espassedbyl egi slat urear ei mpor tantsour cesofadmi nistr
at ivel awbecauset hey
elabor atelydet ailthepower s,funct i
onsandmodesofcont rolofsev eraladmi nist rativebodi es.6.3Or dinances,Not i
ficationandCi rcularsOr dinancesar ei ssuedbyt hePr esident( atUni on/
Feder all
ev el)andGov ernor( atSt at elevel )andar ev al i
dforapar ti
cularper i
odoft ime.Theseor dinancesgi veaddi t
ionalpower st oadmi ni
st rator sinor dert omeetur gentneeds.Admi ni
st r
at i
ve
direct i
ons,not ificationsandci rcul arspr ov ideaddi tionalpower sbyahi gheraut hor i
tyt oal oweraut hority.Judi ci aldeci sionJudi ci aldeci sionsorj udge- madel aw hav ebeenr esponsi blef or
l
ay ing down sev eralnewpr i
nci plesr elat edt oadmi nistrati
v eactions.Theyi ncreasedt heaccount abil
ityofadmi nistrativeact i
onsandact edasananchorbet weent henot i
ficat ions,ci rculars
etc.t obel inkedandcompl ieddi rectlyori ndirect l
ywi ththeconst it
utionalorst atut orypr ovi
sions.
growt hofAdmi nist r
at iv eLawENGLAND: In1885Al ber tVennDi cey ,aBr iti
shj urist ,reject edt hewhol econceptofAdmi ni strativel aw.Hence, thenumer ousst atutor ydi scretionar ypower sgi ven
tot heexecut i
vesandadmi nistrativeaut hor itiesandcont rolexer ci sedov ert hem wer eal ldi sr egar dedt obeabl et of or m asepar atebr anchofl awbyt hel egalt hinker s.Unt i
lthe20t hCent ury,
Admi nist rativ elawwasnotaccept edasasepar at ebr anchofl aw.I twasonl yl atert hatt heexi st enceofAdmi ni strativel awcamet ober ecogni sed. TheLor dDonoughmor eCommi ttee, i
n1929,
recommendedf orbet terpubl icationandcont rolofsubor dinat el egi slation.Thepr incipl e, Ki ngcandonowr ong, wasabol i
shedandt hescopeofandext entofadmi nistrativel awwasexpanded
byt heCr ownPr oceedi ngAct ,1947.I tal lowedi niti
at ionofci vilpr oceedi ngsagai nstt heCr owni nasi mi larf ashi ont oanyor dinar ypr iv ateci ti
zen. TheTr i
bunal sandI nqui ri
esAct ,1958br ought
aboutbet tercont rolandsuper visionofadmi ni strat i
v edeci sions.Br eenvAmal gamat edEngi neer ingUni on[ i
i]wast hef ir
stcasewher ei nt heexi st enceofadmi nistrat iv
el aw i nEngl andwas
recogni sed. Dev elopmentofadmi nist rat i
v el awi nUSA: Theexi stenceandgr owt hofadmi nist rat ivel awwasi gnor edi nt heUni tedSt atesunt i
litgr ewi ntobei ngt hef our thbr anchofDemocr acy .
Alsosev er all egalj urist sl ikeFr ankGoodnowandEr nstFr eundhadaut hor edsev er albooksonadmi nist rat iv
el awwhi chbol steredi t
sposi t
ioni nt heSt at es. Dr .Fr eundi nhi sobser v ationoft he
char act erist icsofAmer icanandEngl i
shsy st em f oundt hatAmer icangr owt hofadmi ni st rat i
v epowerdi dn’ tencount erat emper ament alopposi t
ionl ikei t:di di nEngl and.Rat heri twaschecked
byt hedi st ributionofpower sunderaf eder alsy stem.Notunt il19t hcent uryt heCongr essusedi tsint er st atecommer cepower sf orr egul atorypur poses,wi thr ecour sei ntoadmi ni strat i
onby
commi ssi on.Dr oitAdmi ni str
at i
f:Abodyofpubl icl awascommonl yr efer redt oi nmanysour ces, Dr oitAdmi nist ratiflay sdownt heobl igat ionsofpubl i
cadmi ni strativeor gansal ongwi thwhi chi t
helpsi nr egul ati
ngt headmi nistrat i
v er el ationsbet weent heSt at eandi tsci t
izens.Thebodywhi chi sst ruct ur edwi t
ht her ulesbr oughti nbyt headmi nist r
at ivecour tsi sat tachedt ot henameof
Napol eonBonapar te.Theat mospher esur roundi ngt heFr enchr ev olut i
onof1789wasmai nl yassoci at edwi tht hechaosbet weent het radi ti
onal istBonapar tistsandt her ef ormi stPar l
iament s.
Whi let hef or merwasi nsuppor toft hesupr emacyofexecut i
v epower s,t hel at terpr ef erredt hej urisdi ct ionofor dinar ycour tsonl y.Thet wobodi est hatov ertookaut hor i
tyf rom oneanot her
dur i
ngt hepr eandpost -rev olutionar yFr ancewer et henr ecogni zedast heConsei lduRoiandConsei ld’ Et atr espect i
v ely .Rul esofDr oi tAdmi nistrat ifDr oi tAdmi nistratifisar epr esent ationof
j
udge- mader ul
esdeci dedi nacour tofl awandnotoft her ulescar v edoutf rom t heFr enchPar liament .Theser iesofr ul est hat ,i
fcompi ledt oget her , wi l
lr esul tint heDr oitAdmi nist ratifar eas
foll
ows:Rul est hatdealwi thadmi ni strat i
v eaut hor iti
esandof ficialsassoci at edwi t
ht hesame.Rul est hatdealwi thpubl i
cser viceoper at i
onst of ulfilci tizens’needs. Rulest hatdealwi th
admi ni strat iveadj udi cat ion.Whi l
et hef irstr uleappl i
est oappoi ntment ,r emov al ,al l
owances,obl i
gat ions,t hesecondr ulewasmadet of ocusont hewel far eoft hepubl icwhi chwast obe
oper ateddi rectlybyt hepubl icof ficial sorcoul dhav ebeendel egat edbyt hem andcar riedoutundert hei raut hor i
ty.Pr ivat eagenci escoul dal sohav ebeenappoi ntedt oexecut esuchr ules.The
thi
r dr ulemakesi tcl eart hatt hehi ghestadmi nist r
at ivecour tint hel andi sConsei ld’Et at .I nf ringementofanyr ight sorcausi ngofi nj uryassoci at edwi tht hepr ivateci t
izensoft hel andwoul d
direct l
ybehandl edbyt headmi nist rat i
v ecour ts.Char acter ist i
csofDr oitAdmi nistrat i
fFr om t heabov ehi ghl ight saboutDr oitAdmi nist ratif,whatcanbei nf er redar esomeoft hechar act eristic
featur est hatt hisadmi nistrativel aw possesses.Theyar el i
st edbel ow :Themat t
er st hatar eassoci atedwi tht heSt ateandadmi nistrationor ient edl i
t i
gat i
onar et obedeci dedbyt he
admi nistrat ivecour tsandnotbyt heor dinar ycour tsoft hel and. Whi ledeci dingmat tersconcer ni ngl itigat ionasment ionedabov e, ther ulest hatar eappl i
edi nt hesamear edev elopedf rom t he
cour tsi tsel f.Thedeci di ngagencyi nmat ter sofj urisdi ctionconf lictsbet weent het wocour t s, namel yt headmi ni st r
ativeandor dinar y,isknownasTr ibunaldesConf li
cts.TheDr oitAdmi nistratif
actsasasaf eguar df ort hegov er nmentof ficial sf rom t heaut hor ityoft heor di nar ycour ts.Thedev el opmentofConsei ld’ Etatisnotaonedaypl anbutt hepr oductofal onggoi ngpr ocess
sur r
oundi ngt heFr enchRev olution.I tpl ay edt her oleofbot haconsul t
ingandanadj udi cat ingbody .Thechar acter isticsment ionedabov egi v easummar yast ot heappl i
cat ionofDr oit
Admi nist ratif.Theysepar atet heFr enchadmi ni strat i
vest r uctur ewi tht hatofot hercommonl aw count r
ies.Fr enchadmi nistrativel aw i ncludesact i
v itiesmor et hanj ustdel egat i
onand
adjudi cat iont hataf fect spubl i
cadmi nist rat i
on.Thesepar at i
onofcour tsf ort wocl assesofpeopl e,ast heDr oi tAdmi ni stratiflaysdown,suppor tsspeci f icityi ncar r
y ingoutt headj udi cat i
ng
procedur e.Theexpl anat i
oni tpr ov idesi st hatt hegov er nmentof f
icialscar rywi t ht hem t heknowl edgeoft hepr ocessi nanyadmi ni strativeact ionhence,t heyar eel i
giblet ober uledby
admi ni strat ivecour ts.Consei ld'et at:Thi si st heCounci lofst at e( Thi swasf oundedbyNapol eani n1799)I ti st hesupr emeAdmi ni strativecour tofAppeal .Ithascer tainsubor di nates
admi ni strat ivecour tscal l
ed' Consei ldepr efect ure' (Cour tsoft hepr efect s) .Theyar eadj udi cat or yandconsul tat i
v ebodi es. Composi ti
on: -Ithasexecut iveof fici alsaspr esi dingof fi
cer s:Theyar e
select edbycompet i
tiv eexami nat i
onsandar egi venspeci alt raini ng.Theconsci l
deet atdeci desi tsjur isdi ct i
on, andpr ocedur esar el aiddownbyi ti nt hef or m ofdoct rines.I tisal soa" nadv i
ser
tot heGov t.Ithasdev elopedaspi ritofi ndependence.I thaspower st oex ecut ei tsj udgement sdi rectly .Accor di ngt ot heRef orm of1900, anaggr i
ev edci tizenwhor ecei vesnor elyf rom Gov t.
,
maygoi nappealt ot heConsci ld'et at .Itsi ndependenceandJur i
sdi ctionar eev identf rom ar ecentcase.Andr ecanolwasconv i
ct edbyaMi li
tar yCour t .Onappl i
cat ionbyt heaccused,t he
Cousei l'
det athel dt hatt her ewasadepar turef rom t hecr imi nalcode.ThePr esidentDeGaul l
et riedt oi nter ferebuti nv ain.Todayi nFr ancet her ear ef ivesect i
ons.FourAdmi nistrat iveandone
amongJudi cial,oper at ing.Eachi sheadedbyaPr esi dent .
CLASSI FI CATI ONOFADMI NI STRATI VEACTI ON- --
-ANATOMYOFADMI NI STRATI VEACTI ON:Ther ear et hreeor gansoft heSt at e–t heLegi slat ur e,t heExecut iveandt heJudi ci ary .The
funct ionoft hel egisl aturei st oenactt hel aw; theexecut i
v ei st oadmi nist
ert hel awandt hej udi ci aryi st oi nter prett hel awandt odecl ar ewhatt hel awi s.Butasobser vedbyt heSupr emeCour t
i
nJay ant ilalAmr atlalv .F.N.Rana28i tcannotbeassumedt hatt hel egislativ ef unct ionsar eexcl usi v elyper for medbyt hel egi sl
at ur e, execut ivef unct ionsbyt heexecut iveandj udi cialf unct ions
byj udi ciar y.InHal sbur y '
sLawsofEngl andal so, iti sst atedt hathowsoev ert erm‘ t heExecut ive’ or‘ theAdmi nist ration’ isempl oyed, ther ei snoi mpl icat iont hatt hef unct ionsoft heexecut ivear e
conf inedexcl usiv elyt ot hoseofexecut iveor admi nist rati
v echar acter .Today ,theexecut iveper for msv ar iegat edf unct ions, v i
z.t oi nv est i
gat e, topr osecut e, topr epar eandt oadoptschemes, t
o
i
ssueandcancell icences,( admi ni strat i
v e);t omaker ules,r egul ationsandby e-laws,t of i
xpr ices,( legi slative) ;toadj udi cat eondi sput es,t oi mposef ineandpenal ty,et c.( judi cial)Schwar tz
ri
ght lyst at est hatr ule-maki ng( quasil egi slat ive)andadj udi cat i
on( quasi -
judi ci al)hav ebecomet hechi efweaponsi nt headmi nist rat ivear mour y .
Cl assi fi
cat i
onofAdmi ni strat i
v eAct i
ons: 1.
Legi slat i
v eFunct ions-Rul emaki ngact i
onorquasi -legi sl
at iveact ion-Legi slat ivepowerwhi chi nadmi ni strativel awpar lancei sknownasDel egat edLegi slat ion.2.Rul edeci sionact ionorquasi -
j
udi cialact i
on-Adj udi cat i
vepower3.Rul e-appl icat ionact ionoradmi nistrativeact ion. 4.Mi nist er i
alact ionorpur eadmi nistrativeact ion-Admi nistrat ivepowerwhi chi snon- legi slativeandnon-
adjudi cat iv epower .1.Legi slat i
v eFunct i
ons: Legi slativef unct ionsoft heexecut iveconsi stofmaki ngr ules, regul at ions, by e-laws, et c.I tis, nodoubt , tr
uet hatanyat temptt odr awadi stinctl i
ne
bet weenl egi slat iveandadmi nist rat i
v ef unct ionsi sdi ff
icul ti nt heor yandi mpossi blei npr act ice.Thoughdi fficul t,iti snecessar yt hatt hel inemustbedr awnasdi ffer entl egalr ight sand
consequencesensue.AsSchwar tzsai d,“ Ifapar t i
cul arf unct i
oni st ermed‘ l
egi sl at i
ve’or‘ rul e-maki ng’r athert han‘ judi cial’or‘ adj udi cat ion’ ,itmayhav esubst ant i
alef fect supont hepar ti
es
concer ned.I fthef unct i
oni st reat edasl egi slat ivei nnat ur e,t her ei snor i
ghtt oanot iceandhear ingunl essast atut eexpr essl yr equi rest hem. ”I nt hel eadi ngcaseofBat esv .Lor dHai lsham,
Megar ry,J.obser vedt hat“ ther ulesofnat ur al just icedonotr uni nt hespher eofl egi slat i
on, pr imar yordel egat ed. ”Wadeal sosai d, “Ther ei snor ightt obehear dbef or et hemaki ngofl egi slation,
whet herpr imar yordel egat ed,unl essi ti spr ov idedbyst at ut e.2.Rul edeci sionact ionorquasi -j udi ci alact ion-Adj udi cat ivepower- Quasi–Judi cial: Funct i
ons Judi cialFunct ionsAccor di ngt o
theCommi tteeonMi nisters’Power s,apur ej udi cialf unct ionpr esupposesanexi st i
ngdi sput ebet weent woormor epar ti
esandi ti nv olv esf ourr equi sites1.Thepr esent at ion( notnecessar i
ly
oral)oft hei rcasebyt hepar t i
est ot hedi sput e;2.I ft hedi sput ei saquest ionoff act , theascer t
ai nmentoff actbymeansofev idenceadducedbyt hepar tiest ot hedi sput eandof tenwi tht he
assi stanceofar gumentbyoronbehal foft hepar ties, onev i
dence; 3.I fthedi sput ebet weent hem i saquest ionofl aw, thesubmi ssi onofl egalar gumentbyt hepar t i
es; and4.Adeci si onwhi ch
disposesoft hewhol emat terbyf indi ngupont hef actsi ndi sput eand‘ anappl icat ionoft hel awoft hel andt ot hef act sf ound, incl udi ng, wher er equi red, ar ulinguponanydi sput edquest ionof
l
aw. ’ Thus,t heseel ement sar epr esent ,thedeci sioni saj udi cialdeci sionev ent houghi tmi ghthav ebeenmadebyanyaut hor i
tyot hert hanacour t, e.g.byMi nister, Boar d,Execut i
veAut hor it
y,
Admi ni strat i
v eOf ficerorAdmi nist rativ eTr i
bunal .Thewor d‘ quasi ’means‘ notexact l
y.’Gener ally ,anaut hor i
tyi sdescr ibedas‘ quasi -j
udi ci al’ wheni thassomeoft heat t
ribut esort rappi ngsof
j
udi cialf unct ions,butnotal l
.I nt hewor dsoft heCommi tt eeonMi nisters’Power s,“ thewor d‘ quasi ’,whenpr ef i
xedt oal egalt er m,gener al l
ymeanst hatt het hing,whi chi sdescr i
bedbyt he
wor d, hassomeoft hel egalat tribut esdenot edandconnot edbyt hel egalt er m, butt hati thasnotal loft hem”e. g.i fat ransact i
oni sdescr ibedasaquasi -cont r
act ,i
tmeanst hatt het r ansact ion
i
nquest i
onhassomebutnotal lt heat tr
ibut esofacont r
act .3.Rul e- applicat ionact ionoradmi ni st r
at iv eact i
on. :Admi ni sterdoact ionmaybest atut or y, hav ingt hef or ceofl aworNonst atut ory,
dev oidofsuchl egalf orce.Thebul koft headmi nistrat i
veact ioni sst atut orybecauseast at ut eort heconst itut i
ongi vesi ti l
l
egalf or ce,buti nsomecases,i tmaybenon- stat utor y,suchas
i
ssui ngdi rect i
onst osubor dinat esnothav i
ngt hef orceofl aw, buti t’
sv i
olat i
onmaybev i
sitedwi thdi sci pl i
nar yact ion.Thoughbyandl ar geadmi nist rat i
v eact ioni sdi scretionar yandi sbasedon
subj ect ivesat isfact ion,howev er,t headmi nist rat i
v eaut hor i
tymustactf ai r
ly ,i mpar ti
allyandr easonabl y .4.Admi nistrat i
v eFunct ions-Mi nist erialact i
onorpur eadmi nist rativ eact i
on-
Admi ni strat i
v epowerwhi chi snon- legisl ativ eandnon- adj udi cat ivepower .InRam Jaway av .St at eofPunj ab,t heSupr emeCour tobser v ed,“ Itmaynotbepossi blet of rameanexhaust ive
def i
ni ti
onofwhatexecut ivef unct ionmeansandi mpl ies.Or dinar ilyt heexecut iv epowerconnot est her esidueofgov er nment alfunct i
onst hatr emai naf terl egi slati
v eandj udi cialf unct ionsar e
takenaway ."Thus, admi nistr ativef unct ionsar et hosef unct ionswhi char enei therl egi slat i
venorj udi ciali nchar act er .Gener all
y ,thef ollowi ngi ngr edi ent sar epr esenti nadmi nist rativef unct ions:
1.Anadmi nistrat i
v eor deri sgener allybasedongov ernment alpol i
cyorexpedi encyI nadmi nist rat ivedeci sions,t her ei snol egalobl igat iont oadoptaj udi cialappr oacht ot hequest ionst obe
deci ded, andt hedeci sionsar eusual l
ysubj ect iver athert hanobj ectiv e.3.Anadmi ni strat i
veaut hor ityi snotboundbyt her ulesofev idenceandpr ocedur eunl esst her elevantst at ut especi fically
i
mposessuchanobl i
gat i
on.4.Anadmi ni strat iveaut hor i
tycant akeadeci si oni nexer ciseofast atut orypowerorev eni nt heabsenceofast at ut orypr ov ision,pr ov idedsuchdeci si onoract
doesnotcont rav enepr ov i
sionofanyl aw.5.Admi nist rati
v ef unct i
onsmaybedel egat edandsub- del egat edunl esst her ei saspeci ficbarorpr ohi bitioni nt hest atute.6.Whi let aki ngadeci si on,
anadmi nist rativeaut hor i
tymaynotonl yconsi dert heev idenceadducedbyt hepar tiest ot hedi sput e, butmayal sousei tsdi scr etion.7.Anadmi nist rativ eaut hor it
yi snotal way sboundbyt he
princi plesofnat ur alj usticeunl esst hest at ut ecast ssuchdut yont heaut hor ity,ei therexpr essl yorbynecessar yi mpl icat i
onori tisr equi redt oactj udi ci allyorf airl
y .8.Anadmi nistrat iveor der
maybehel dt obei nv alidont hegr oundofunr easonabl eness.9.Anadmi nist rat i
v eact ionwi llnotbecomeaquasi -judici alact i
onmer el ybecausei thast obeper f
or medaf terf or mi nganopi nion
ast ot heexi st enceofanyobj ect ivef act .10.Thepr erogat iv ewr itsofcer t
iorar iandpr ohi biti
onar enotal way sav ailabl eagai nstadmi ni strat iveact ions.
Const itutional it
yofdel egat edl egi slat ion: I
tbasi cal l
ymeanst hel imitst hatar eper missi blewi thinaConst it
ut i
onofacount ryt hr oughwhi chLegi slatur ewi t
hal lhi sr ightcandel egat eitspower
ofr ul emaki ngt oot heragenci esofadmi ni stration.Theai m ofext endi ngt hepoweroft hegov ernmenti st ohandl esoci o-economi cpr oblem. Posi tioni nUSA:Del egat edl egi slationi snot
all
owedt heor eticallyi nt heconst itut i
onoft heUSAbecauseoft het wor easons.Thesear e,“Separ ationofPower ”and“ Del egat usnonpot estdel egar e” .Ther ei snor ef er enceoft exthasbeen
giveni nt heConst i
t utionoft heUSAwhi chshowst hati tdel egat esi tspowerf rom Legi slat uretot heExecut i
ve.Congr esswasi tsel fadel egat eet henhowcani tdel egat ei tspower s.Thepol iti
cal
theor yt hatwaspr opagat edbyphi losopher sl i
keJohnLockeandMont esqui euwer eimbuedont hef ramer soft heAmer icanConst itut i
on.JohnLockehassai dt hatal egi slat ivecannotdel egat e
hispower sofl awmaki ngt oanyper sonorcannotpl acei tany wher e.Hef urt herst atedt hatt her eshoul dbesepar ateLegi slat ureandExecut ivebecausei ft hepowerofl aw maki ngand
execut ionoft hatl awsgoi nonehandi tcanbemi susedandt hesepeopl euset hatpowert oexemptt hem f rom t hatl awandusei tf ort hei rpr ivateadv ant age.Sot hedoct rineof‘ delegat usnon
potestdel egar e’hasbeengi v enbyJohnLockei tmeanst hesameaswhatwehav eexpl ainedabov e.Anot herphi losopher ,Mont esqui euhasgi v
ent heconceptof‘ Separ ationofPower s’.
Accor dingt oMont esqui eu,oneper soncannotexer ciseal lt het hreepower soft hegov ernmenti .e.,t heJudi ci ary,t heLegi slat ur e,andt heExecut i
v e.TheLegi slatur eshoul dmakel awsand
shoul dnotenf orceoradmi nist erit .Si mi larlyExecut iveshoul dnoti nterferei nt hewor kofJudi ciar yandLegi slat ureandJudi ciar yshoul dbef reef rom Execut iv eandLegi sl atur e.Al lshoul ddo
theirwor ksepar at ely.I nAmer ica,t hepowert omakel egislat ionhasbeengi v ent ot heCongr ess,execut i
vepower sgi v ent ot hePr esidentoft heUSA,andt hej udi ci arypoweroft heUni ted
Statesi sv est edi nt hehandsofSupr emeCour tandal soi tmi ghtbegi vent ol owercour tfrom t imet ot imeont heor dai noft heCongr ess. Duet ot headopt ionofsepar at i
onofpowerbyt he
UnitedSt at es,t hel egi slat i
vepowercanbev estedonl yi nt hehandofCongr essandnoor gansoft hegov er nment .Fur ther ,i thasar guedt hatt hepowert ot heCongr essi tsel fhasbeen
delegat edbyt heAmer i
canConst itut i
onsoi tcannotf urtherdel egat eit spower .IncaseofFi eldv .Cl ar ke,[7]ithasbeenobser v edbyt heSupr emeCour tofAmer i
cat hatt hepowerent rust edt o
onedepar tmentshoul donl ybeexer cisedbyt hatdepar tmentwi thouti nterferingi nthepowerorar eaofanot herper son.Buti nsomeot hercasesofSupr emeCour tofAmer i
ca, i
twasobser ved
thati nnon- legislat i
v epowersuchasr ul e-maki ngpowerorquasi -l
egi sl
at ivepower scanbedel egat edbyLegi sl atur et ot heExecut i
v e.I nWagmanv .Sout har d,[
8]Chi efJust iceMar shal lobser ved
thatt hel inehasbeennotdr awnbet weent hosesubj ect swhi chwer ei mpor t
antand,t her efore,r egul at edbyt heLegi slat ur ei tsel fandt hosesubj ectsofl oweri nterestwhi chwer egi vent ot he
Execut ivef orf il
l
ingt hedet ailsi nt hest ruct ur eoft hatl egi sl
at ion. Sot oconcl udeaboutt hedel egat edl egi slat
ioni nAmer icai tcanbesai dt hati thasnotbeenaccept edi npr inci plebuti npr actice,
theLegi slat urehasent rust edt hepowerofl aw- maki ngt ot heExecut ive.Posi tioni nEngl and:Thedoct rineofpar liament ar ysov er eignt yi st hecor eel ementoft heUKConst itution.I nEngl andt he
Parliamenti ssupr emeandt her ei snol imi tat i
onbyt heConst itutionont hePar liament .Al so,Par li
amenti nEngl andhaswi depower sofdel egat ingi tsl egislati
v epowert ot heExecut iveorot her
subor dinat ebodi es.Commi tteeonMi nister s’Power sal sor ef erst oasDonoughmor eCommi tteer eleasedar epor tinwhi chaf amousl awy erofEngl and,Si rCeci lCar rhasquot edaboutt hree
partsofl egi slation.Thesear easf ollows: Thef irstandt hev er ysmal lestpar tismadebyt heCr ownunderherpr er ogat i
v epower s. Thesecondandt hewei ghti
estpar ti smadebyt heKi ngi nt he
Parliamentandi tconsi st sofAct sofPar li
ament .
Thet hirdandt hebul kiestpar tismadebysuchbodywhom t heKi ngent rustt hepowerofl egislat i
oni nt hePar liament .Si rCeci lCar rhasal so
obser vedt hatt het ruthi st hati ft hepar liamenti snotwi ll
ingt odel egat et hel aw- maki ngpower ,t hePar liamenti sunabl et opr ov idequal ityandki ndofl egi slat iont hemoder npubl i
c
want s.Posi tioni nI ndi a:Theposi tionandConst i
tutional i
t yofdel egat edl egislat ioni nIndi acanbeseeni nv ariouscases.I ti sdi v idedi nt ot wophasesi .e.,befor ei ndependenceorwecansayi t
aspr e-independenceandpost -independence. Pr eIndependence:I nQueenv .Bur ah,onlyCondi ti
onalLegi slati
onhasbeenv ali
dat edbyt hePr i
v yCounci landt her efor edel egat edl egi sl
at i
oni snot
permi ttedasperi tsr easoni ng.Theadmi nistrat i
onofci v i
landcr i
mi nalj ust i
ceofat erritorycanbev est edi nt hehandsoft hoseof ficer swhower eappoi ntedbyt heLi eut enant -Gov ernorf rom
ti
met ot ime. ThePr i
v yCounci lhasst atedt hati tisbet tert ot akehel pf rom t hesubor dinat eagencyi nf rami ngt her ulesandr egul at i
onst hatar egoi ngt obet hepar toft hel awandgi vinganot her
bodyt heessent iall egisl ati
v ef eat ur est hathasonl ygi vent ot heLegi sl aturet hr ought heConst i
t ution.Heal sost at edaboutt heessent i
all egislativef unct i
ont hati ncl udedi ndet ermi ningt he
l
egi slat i
onpol icy .
InKi ngv .Benor iLalShar ma, Condi tionl egi slat i
vewasagai nappl i
edbyt hePr i
v yCounci l,thesameasi nt hecaseofQueenv .Bur ah.I nt hiscaset hev alidityoft heEmer gency
Ordi nancegi venbyGov ernor -Gener alofI ndi awaschal lengedi nteral ia.I twaschal lengedont hegr oundt hathei st aki ngt hepoweroft hePr ov incialGov ernment .Hewasset tingupspeci al
crimi nalcour t
sf orpar ti
cul arki ndofof fencesbutf ort heset tli
ngofanycour t,powerhasbeengi venonl yt ot hePr ov i
nci alGov ernment .Thej udi cialcommi tteehel dt hatt hi si snotdel egat ed
l
egi slat i
on.Pr ivyCounci lalsohel dt hati tisanexampl eofanuncommonl egisl ati
vepowerbywhi cht hel ocalappl icat ionoft hepr ov isionofSt atedet er minedbyt hel ocaladmi nist r
at ivebody
wheni ti snecessar y .
PostI ndependence:TheConst it
ut i
onofI ndiadoesnotpr ov i
det hesameposi t
ionast hepr omi nentBr iti
shPar l
iamentpr ov idet ot hedel egat ionofl egi slativepower sand
alsohowf ardel egat i
oni sper mi ssi blehasgott obeconf ir
medi nIndi aasamat t
erofconst r
uct i
onf rom t heexpr esspr ov i
sionsoft heI ndi anConst itut i
on.I tcannotbesai dt hatanexhaust i
ble
ri
ghtofdel egat ioni sinher itedi nt hel egisl ativepoweri t
sel f.Int hecaseofRajNar ai nSi nghv .Chai rman,Pat naAdmi nist rat i
onCommi t t
eeAi r,[
9]t heSupr emeCour tofI ndi auphel dt he
delegat ionofpowergi vent ot heexecut iv ebyt hel egi slature.
JudicialCont r
olOv erDel egat edLegi sl ation:Thel egi slationt hathasbeendel egat eddoesnotf allbey ondt her eachoft heJudi cialRev iewandi nalmostal lcount r i
est hecour tsar eallowedt o
decideont hev al
idityofdel egat edl egi slation.Despi tethepr esenceofpar liament arycont rol,judicialcont rolofdel egat edl egislati
oni sr ecogni zedasani nt egr alf orm ofcont rolmechani sm.
Thef undament alj usti
ficat ionf orj udicialr ev i
ewi sbasedont heCour ts'const it
utionalobl i
gat i
ont oobeyt her uleofl awpr inciple.Inaconst itutionall
ycont r
olledst at e,mai ntaini
ngt hatthel aws
madebyPar li
amentar enotUl trav i
resundert heConst i
tut i
oni stheessent ialfunct ionoft hej udici ar
y, andt hatt hedel egat edl egislationenact edundert hest at utef all
swi thinthel imitsofbot h
thepar entstatuteandt heconst itution.Judi cialcont r
oli sconsi deredt obeamor eef fect i
v ef orm ofcont rol ,sincet hecour tshav et hepowert ost r
ikedownal awi fitisul t
rav ireswi t
hthe
parentst atut
eort heConst i
t ution.Thet er m Ul tr
av irusmeanst hatbey ondpoweroraut horityorl ackofpower .Anactmaybesai dt obeUl tr
aVi ruswheni thasbeendonebyaper sonorabody
ofper sonswhi chi sbey ondhi s, it
�sort hei rpower ,aut hor i
tyorJur i
sdicti
on. Judi cialreviewupgr adedt her uleofl aw.Thecour thast oseet hatt hepowerdel egat edi swi thi
nt heambi tofthe
constituti
onaspr escribed.Judi cialrev iewi smor eef fect i
v ebecausecour tdonotr ecommendbuti tclear lyst ri
kesdownt her ulewhi chisul trav i
resinnat ure.AsperSect ion13( 3) (
a)“ Law”is
defi
nedundert he Const it
ut ionofI ndi awhi chclear l
yi ndi catet hatSt ateshoul dnotmakeanyl aw whi chabr idget her i
ghtgi veni nPar tiiioft heConst itution.I ti sdependentont wobasi c
grounds: I
tisultrav i
rest ot heConst itutionofI ndi
a, andI tisul tr
av ir
est ot heenabl i
ngAct .Judi cialdut iesoft heLegi slature:Cer t
ai nlegislaturesper form somej udi cialfunct i
ons.TheHouseof
Lords, forexampl e,isthehi ghestcour tofappeali nt heU. K.TheSenat eofAmer icai sthehi ghestcour tofi mpeachmentf orhi ghpubl icof f
icials.I
nIndia,i
mpeachmentoft hePr esidenti st obe
conduct edbyt hePar l
i
ament .Itdet ermi nest hejudici alst ructurei nthecount ryandmayaf fectchangeswhenev eritdeemsf i
t.I
nI ndia, l
egislatur emightconf erj udi cialorsemi -j
udicialfunct i
ons
ont heexecut iv
e.Thel egi slat ur est ryt hei rownmember sanddeci decont est edel ect i
ons. Judi cialCont rols: •Admi nistrati
v eagenci esar esubj ecttothejudi cialr ev iewoft hecour ts.Howev er
,
suchr ev i
ewisnotaut omat ic.Par ti
esseeki ngr evi
ewmustshow: •Theact ioni srev i
ewabl e( t heAPApr esumest hi
s).–Thepar tymusthav est andingtosue. –Thepar tymusthav eexhaust edal
l
possibleadmi nistrati
ver emedi es.–Ar ticlel ll
,Section2oft heConst i
tutionr equirest hatanact ualcont rov er
sybeati ssue. •Acour tmayr eviewwhet her:–Anagencyhasexceededt hescopeof
i
tsenabl i
nglegislati
on.–Anagencyhaspr operlyinter pret edt helaws. –Anagencyhasv iolat edt heU. S.Const it
utionAnagencyhascompl iedwi thallappli
cabl epr ocedur alr equirement s.
–An
agency ’sacti
onsar earbi trar yorcapr icious, oranabuseofdi screti
on.–Anagency ’
sconcl usi onsar enotsuppor t
edbysubst ant i
al evidence.

SUB- DELEGATI ON:Whenast atuteconferssomel egislati

v epower sonanexecut iveauthori
tyandt hel at
terfurtherdel egatest hosepower stoanot hersubor di
nateaut horityoragency ,itis
call
ed‘ sub-del
egation.’
Thus, insub- delegat
ion,adel egatedel egatesfurther.Thispr ocessofsub-delegationmaygot hroughmanyst ages.Ani mpor t
antill
ustrationofsub- delegationisfoundi n
theEssent ialCommodi t
iesAct ,1955.Sect i
on3oft heActempower stheCent r
alGov ernmentt omaker ules.Thiscanbesai dt obet hef i
rst-
stagedel egation.UnderSect ion5,t heCent ral
Gov ernmenti sempower edt odel egatepower stoitsof ficers,theStateGov er nment sandtheiroffi
cers.Usual l
yundert hi
spr ovi
sion,thepower sar edelegatedt oSt ateGov ernment s.Thiscan
besai dt obethesecond- st
agedel egati
on(sub-delegat i
on) .Whent hepoweri sfurtherdelegat
edbySt at
eGov ernment st otheiroffi
cers,itcanbesai dtobet het hir
d-stagedel egation(sub- sub-
delegation).Thus,underSect ion3oft heEssentialCommodi tiesAct,1955,theSugarCont r
olOrder,1955wasmadebyt heCent ralGov ernment( fi
rst-
stagedel egati
on) .Undert heOr der,certain
functionsandpower sareconf erredont heTextileCommi ssioner(second-stagedel egati
on).Clause10empower edtheText il
eCommi ssionertoaut hori
zeanyof fi
cert oexer ciseonhi sbehal f
alloranyofhi sfunct i
onsandpower sundert heOr der( t
hird-st
agedel egation).Thenecessi tyofsub- del
egat i
oni ssoughtt obesuppor ted,i
nteral i
a,ont hef oll
owi nggr ounds:1.Powerof
delegationnecessar i
lycar r
ieswi t
hitpoweroff urtherdel egat i
on;and2.Sub- delegationisancil
larytodelegat edlegislati
on.3.Anyobj ectiont othesai dprocessi slikelytosubv er
ttheaut hor i
ty
whicht hel egi
slat
ur edelegat est ot heexecutive.
Sub- delegat i
onofl egi
slativepowercanbeper mitt
edei therwhensuchpoweri sexpr esslyconferredbyt hest at ut
eormaybei nf
erredby
necessar yimpli
cation.
Conditionallegislation:Whent hel
awi scomplet
eandcer taincondi t
ionsarelai
ddownast ohowandwhent helawwoul dbeappl iedbyt hedelegate,i
tiscondi t
ionall
egislat
ion.Itincl
udesno
l
aw- makingpower sbutonl ythepowerofdet ermini
ngwheni tshouldcomei ntoforceorwheni tshouldbeappl ied.SupremeCour tinHamdar dDawakhanav .UnionofI ndia[ 1]st
atedthatin
conditi
onallegislation,thedel egat
e’spoweri sthatofdet ermi ningwhenal egislat
ivedeclaredr uleofconductshal lbecomeef f
ect i
ve.Condit
ionalLegi
slati
oncanbef oundi nt heoccurrences
where: -I.Thel egislat
ureempower st heexecutivet
oexpandt heactivi
tyofacur r
entlawt oaspeci f
icareaorr egion.I
I.Todet ermineanddeci dethetimeofappl i
cati
onofanActt oagi ven
area.I
II
.Tobr oadent hespanofaTempor ar
yAct,subjecttomaxi mum peri
odf i
xedbyt helegislativ
eassembl y.I
V.Todet ermineanddeci dethedegreeandl i
mit swithi
nwhi cht hestatut
eorAct
shouldbeempl oy ableandoper at
ive.V.Lastl
y,tointroduceaspeci allaw i
fthecont empl atedsi tuati
onhasar isenint heopi nionoft hegovernment.Conditi
onalLegi sl
ationallowsbet t
er
i
mpl ement ati
onandbet terreachofl awsasi tgi
vesthem ampl ediscret
iontowor kandt omakedeci sionsregardingimpl ement ati
oni nthebestmannerpossi ble.Thus,allthemoder nsocio-
economi cwel fareschemesar eafor mati
onoft helegisl
at ure,buttheyhav ebecomesuccessf ulint hecountrybecauseoft heirimpl ementati
on.Allt
he“ when,wher eandhow”aspect sof
i
mpl ement ati
onhav ebeent ickedgener ousl
ybyt hegov er nmentbecauseoft hediscreti
ont hatt heyhav ebeengi venbyt helegislaturefortheimplement ati
onoft heAct sf r
amedbyt he
l
awmaker s.Butt hisdiscreti
oncannotbeexer ci
sedbey ondt hepowert hathasbeendel egated.Ifexceeded, t
hent hatact i
onisnul landv oid.

Legislationt hroughor dinance: Ar ti

cle123PowerofPr esidentt opromul gateOr dinancesdur ingrecessofPar liament (1)I fatanyt ime, exceptwhenbot hHousesofPar l
i
amentar einsession,
thePr esidenti ssat i
sfiedt hatcircumst ancesexistwhi chr enderi tnecessar yforhi mt ot akei mmedi ateact ion,hemaypr omul gat esuchOr dinancesast hecir cumst ancesappeart ohi mt o
require.
(2)AnOr dinancepr omulgat edundert hisar ti
cleshal lhavethesamef orceandef f
ectasanActofPar li
ament ,butev erysuchOr dinance–( a)shal lbel aidbef orebot hHousesof
Parli
amentandshal lceaset ooper at
eatt heexpirati
onofsi xweeksf rom t hereassembl yofPar li
ament ,or,ofbef oret heexpi rati
onoft hatperi
odr esol ut
ionsdi sappr ovingitar epassedbybot h
Houses,upont hepassi ngoft hesecondoft hoser esolutions;and( b)maybewi thdrawnatanyt imebyt hePr esi dent.Expl
anat i
on:Wher et heHousesofPar li
amentar esummonedt o
reassembl eondi ff
er entdat es,t
heper iodofsi xweeksshal lber eckonedf rom thel at
eroft hosedat esf orthepur posesoft hisclause. (
3)Ifandsof arasanOr dinanceundert hisarti
clemakes
anypr ovisionwhi chPar l
iamentwoul dnotundert hi sConst i
tutionbecompet enttoenact ,itshallbev oid.I
nfoBi tsRel atedWi thOr dinanceMaki ngPoweroft hePr esidentofI ndia:
Presi
dentcan
i
ssueor dinancewhenoneoft hehousesoft hePar l
iamenti snoti nsessi on.Themaxi mum v ali
dityofanor di
nancei s6mont hsand6weeks. Anor dinancewi l
lexpi reaf t
er6weeksoncebot h
housesoft hePar l
iamentar ei
nsessi on.Aconst ituti
onalamendmentcannotbemadet hroughor di
nancer oute.Ordinancer outei senv i
sagedf orimmedi ateact ioni e.ifPr esidentissatisf
ied
thatcircumst ancesexi stwhi chrenderi tnecessar yf orhimt ot akeimmedi ateacti
on, hemaypr omul gat esuchOr dinancesast heci rcumstancesappeart ohi mtor equir
e.Ar t
icle213deal swith
theOr dinancemaki ngpoweroft heGov ernorofast ate.Howev er,t
heGov er
norcannoti ssueanOr dinancewi thouti nstructi
onsf rom thePr esi
denti nt hreecaseswher et heassentoft he
Presidentwoul dhav ebeenr equiredt opassasi mi larBil
lie( a)ifaBi l
lcont aini
ngt hesamepr ovi
sionswoul dhav er equiredthepr evi
oussanct ionoft hePr esi dentf orintroducti
oni nt
ot he
l
egislature;( b)iftheGov er
norwoul dhav edeemedi tnecessar ytor eserv eaBi l
lcont ainingt hesamepr ovisionsf ort heconsi der ati
onoft hePr esident;and( c)i fanActoft helegisl
ature
containingt hesamepr ovisionswoul dhav ebeeni nvali
dunl essi tr
eceivedt heassentoft hePr esident.
Doct r
ineofDelegat edNonPr ot estDelegare:
Thismaxi mi smost l
yusedi nConst i
tut i
onalandAdmi nist r
at i
velawandi tst at
est hat“ onet owhom poweri sdel egatedcannothi mselffurt
her
del
egat ethatpower ”Howev er,subjecttothepr ovi
sionsoft heenabl i
ngAct .
IntheIndi anlegalscenario, i
tcameupf i
rsti
nAKROYv .StateOfPunj ab,(1986)4SCC326, thatsubdelegationof
del
egat edpowerisul travir
est ot heactthatenablesit.
Inotherwor ds,Anydel egat
edpowercannotbef urtherdel egatedunlesst hedel egatingauthori
tyexpresslypermi tssuchdel egati
on.Ult
ra
TechCementLi mitedv s.TheUni onofIndiaandOr s.
,theKer el
aHChel dthatsub-delegat i
onreferstot hef urtherdelegati
onoft hesamepower sthatwasor i
ginal
lydel egatedbyt helegisl
ature.
Inthiscontext
,ifthel awconf erspoweront hecent r
algov ernmentt omaker ulesonbehal fofthel egislature,theCGcannotf urtherdelegat ethepowert oanyot herofficerunlessthatparent
actper mi
tssuchdel egation.
Int hecaseofTheSt atevsKunj aBehar iChandraAndOr s.,thePatnaHCwhi ler efer
ringtoDel egatusNonPot estDelegarehashel dthatthel egislat
ivepoweroft he
Gov er
nmenti svestedexcl usi
v elywiththelegisl
atureandanyact i
onabdi cateort r
ansf ersuchpowershal lbev oid.Inotherwor ds,t hest atecannev ertr
ansfert hepowerofpol icy-
maki ngor
for
mul ati
onoflawst oanyagencyot herthanthelegisl
ature.Anysuchdel egationshal lbeunconst i
tuti
onal .

Colourablelegislat i
on: Separat i
onofpower smeansdi vi
dingorshar ingofpower s.Inor dertopr eventthemi suseofpowerbyany oneor ganoft hegov ernment ,theConst i
tuti
onsay st hateach
oftheseor gansshoul dexer cisediff
erentpower s.Thi sdev elopsasy stem ofchecksandbal ances.TheConst itutionhasdi vi
dedpower sbetweent heCent reandt hest at
eswi ththeirpar ticular
subjectmat ters.Butsomet i
mes,t hel egi
slati
vebodyenact slegisl
at i
onwhi chf all
sout si
deitsar eaofcompet ence.Thi smeanst hatithast ransgr essed i tspower sandhasi ndir
ect lydone
somet hingwhi chcoul dnothav ebeendonedi rectly
.Thisi scall
edcol ourableexer ciseofl egislati
vepowerori ndi r
ectl
ymaki ngl awswhenpr ohibitedf rom doingsodi r
ectl
y.So,t ocheckt he
tr
ansgr essi
onofl egislati
veaut hori
ties,thedoct r
ineofcol ourabl
el egislati
oncamei ntoexistence.Supposey ouhav eaf rui
tgar denandbesi det hatt hereisapl ayground.Ther ear et ruant s
playi
ngi nthepl ay groundandev erytimet heythrowt hei
rbal li
ntoy ourgar denandcomet otakei tback, t
heyt akesomef r
uitsfrom thereaswel l
.Butt heyescapebysay i
ngt hattheyhadonl y
comet ocollectt hebal l
.Her e,thetruantsseem t oengagei noneactundert hegar bofanot herascol lecti
ngt heirownbal l
sf r
om t hepr emisesi sper mi ssi
bleandcannotbepr ohibited.The
colourablelegislational sodeal swithsuchquest ionswher einonel aw i ssupposedl ypassedundert hegar bofanot her.Colourablelegislat
ioncomesf rom al egalmaxi m-“ Quandoal iquid
prohibeturexdi r
ect o, prohibeturetperobl iquum”whi chmeanswhi chi sprohibiteddi rectl
yisal soprohibitedindi r
ectly
.Itmeanswhenal egisl
at ur
edoesnothav ethepowert omakel awsona
parti
cularsubjectdi r
ect l
y,i
tcannotmakel awsoni tindirectl
y.Colourabl el
egislationisoneoft hedoctri
nesundert heIndianConst it
ution.Itbasicallymeanscol ouredl egi
slat
ionwhi chi snoti ts
tr
uecol our.So,whenev ertheUni onorst ateencroachest heirr
espect ivelegislativecompet enceandmakessuchl aws,colourablelegislati
oncomesi ntothepi ctur
et odetermi nel egislative
account abi
li
tyoft hatlaw.
Growt hofAdmi nistrati
v eTribunals:Theconceptoft ri
bunali
sati
oncamei ntoexistencei nI ndi awi t
ht heest abli
shmentoft heI ncomeTaxAppel lateTribunalbef oretheindependenceoft he
count r
y.Af terindependence,aneedwasbei ngf eltforresolvi
ngadmi nistrativ
edisput eswi thf lexibil
it
yandspeed.Thecor eobj ectiveoft ri
bunalisat i
onwast opr ovidespeciali
sedandspeedy
j
usticet othepeopl e.Afterthedr af
tingoftheI ndianConst i
tuti
on,severalrightsforthewel fareoft hei ndividualswer eguaranteedbyt heConst i
tution.Peopl ehav ether i
ghttospeedyt ri
alsand
ofspeci ali
sedqual i
tywhi chcannotbedel i
veredbyt hepr evail
i
ngjudi
cial system duet ot heov er burdenofcasesandappeal s,techni cali
ti
esinpr ocedur eetc.Hence, theneedf orthei
ncept ionof
theadmi ni
st r
ativetribunalscoul dn’
tbei gnor ed.
The42ndAmendmentt ot heConst it
utioni ntr oducedPar tXIV-Awhi chincludedAr t
icle323Aand323Bpr ovidi
ngf orconst i
tuti
onoft r
ibunal s
dealingwi thadmi ni
st r
ativemat ter
sandot heri ssues.Accor di
ngtothesepr ovisi
onsoft heConst i
tuti
on, t
ribunalsaret obeor gani zedandest abli
shedi nsuchamannert hattheydonotv iolate
theintegrit
yoft hejudicialsystem givenintheConst ituti
onwhi chfor
mst hebasi cstructureoft heConst i
tution.Theintr
oduct i
onofAr t
icle323Aand323Bwasdonewi ththepr i
maryobjectiveof
excludingt hejur i
sdicti
onoft heHighCour tsunderAr ti
cle226and227, exceptt hejuri
sdi ctionoft heSupr emeCour tunderAr ticle136andf oror i
gi nati
nganef fi
caciousalternati
veinsti
tutional
mechani sm oraut hor i
tyforspeci f
icjudi
cialcases. Thepur poseofest ablishingtri
bunal st ot heexcl usionoft hej uri
sdict
ionoft heHi ghCour tswasdonet oreducet hependencyandl owert he
burdenofcases.Ther efore,tri
bunalsareor gani sedasapar tofcivilandcr iminalcour tsy st em undert hesupr emacyoft heSupr emeCour tofI ndi
a.From af uncti
onalpointofv iew,an
admi ni
st r
ativet r
ibunali sneitheranexclusivelyjudicialbodynoranabsol uteadmi nistr
ativ ebodybuti ssomewher ebetweent het wo.Thati swhyanadmi nistrati
vet ri
bunalisalsocall
ed‘ quasi-
j
udicial’body .

Characteri
sticsofAdmi nist
rati
veTr ibunal
s:Thefoll
owingar ethefew attri
butesoftheadmi nist
rat
ivetribunal
swhi chmaket hem quitedispar at
efrom theor dinarycour ts:
1.Administ
rat
ive
tr
ibunalsmusthav estatutor
yor i
gini.e.t
heymustbecr eat edbyanyst atute.
2.Theymusthav esomef eaturesoft heor di
narycourtsbutnotall.
3.Anadmi nist
rat
ivet ri
bunalper formsthequasi-
j
udicialandjudicialfuncti
onsandi sboundt oactjudi
ciall
yi neveryci
rcumst ance.
4.Theyarenotadheredbyst ri
ctrulesofevidenceandpr ocedur e.
5.Admini
strativetri
bunal sareindependent
andnotsubj ecttoanyadmi nist
rati
vei nt
erf
erenceinthedi schar
geofjudicialorquasi-
judi
cialf
uncti
ons.6.I
nt heproceduralmat t
ers,anadministrati
vetri
bunalpossessest hepower sofacour t
tosummonwi tnesses,toadmi ni
steroathsandt ocompelt heproduct
ionofdocument s,et
c.7.
Thesetribunalsareboundt oabidebyt hepri
ncipleofnaturalj
ustice.8.
Af air,openandi mparti
al
actistheindispensablerequisit
eoft headmi ni
str
ati
vetribunals.
9.Theprerogativewri
tsofcerti
orar
iandpr ohibi
ti
onar eavail
ableagainstthedecisionsofadmi ni
strati
vetribunals.
Natureofadmi ni
strativet ri
bunal s:InAdmi nistrati
v elaw, thet ermt r
ibunalisusedi nasi gnif
icantsenseandr eferstoonlyt headjudi
catorybodi eswhi char eout sidet hespher eoft heor dinary
courtoflaw.Techni callyinIndia, t
hej udicialpower sar ev estedi nt heCour t
swhi chaimt osafeguardt herightsoft heindivi
dualsandpr omot ejustice.Ther ef
ore, t
oi nst i
tuteanef fecti
vesy stem
ofthej udici
ar ywithf ewercompl exities,thej udicialpower sar edel egatedt otheadmi nist
rati
veaut horit
ies,thus,givingr i
set oadministrat
ivet ri
bunalsoradmi nistrati
v eadjudicatorybodi es
whichhol dsquasi -judicialfeatures.Thet r
aditionalt heor yoflai ssezf air
ehasbeengi v enupandt heol dpolicest atehasnowbecomeawel f
ar estate.Thi sradicalchangei nthephi l
osophyof
theroleoft hest ateexpandedt hef unct i
onsoft hest ate.Nowt hest ateisoverburdenedwi thsovereignf unctions,socialsecurit
y,soci
alwel fare,socio-economi cact i
v i
tiesandsoon.I tisnot
possibl
ef ort heor dinarycour t
sofl awt oent ertainal lsoci o-economi cproblemswhi char enotrelatedt opur elylegalissues.I
nDur gashankarMeht av .Raghur ajSi nghAI R1954SC520. The
Supremecour tdef i
nedTr ibunalas: Theexpr essionTr ibunalasusedi nArti
cle136doesnotmeant hesamet hingas' court'butincl
udes,wi t
hini t
sambi t ,al
ladjudi catingbodi es,providedt hey
areconst i
tutedbyt hest ateandar einv estedwi thjudi cialasdi stinguishedfrom admi nistr
ativ
eorexecut i
vef unctions.
Accor dingtoTheFr ankscommi ttee, Tr
ibunalshav ecer tai
nchar acteri
stics
whichof t
engi v ethem adv antagesov erthecour ts.Thesear echeapness, accessibi
l
ity,fr
eedom f r
om t echnicalit
y,expediti
onandexper tknowl edgeoft hei rparti
cularsubj ect.

Qualif
icati
onandAppoi nt
mentofMember sofadmi nist
rati
v etribunals:Sect
ion6oft heAdmi nistrat
iveTr i
bunalsAct ,1985,lay
st heprovi
sionsspeci f
yingt hequalif
icat
ionsandappoi ntmentof
themember soft r
ibunals.
Chairman:Tobeappoi ntedasachai rman, apersonmusthav ethefollowingqual if
icati
ons-Heisorhasbeenaj udgeofaHi ghCour tor:
Hehashel dt heof f
iceofVi ce
Chairmanf ort woy earsor;Hehashel dthepostofsecr etar
yt ot heGov ernmentofIndiaor;
Hehashel danyot herpostcar r
yingthescalepayofsecr et
ary.Vice-Chair
man: Aper sonisqual i
fi
edf or
thepostofVi ce-Chairmani fhe-I
sorhasbeenaj udgeoft heHi ghCour torHasf or2y ear
shel dt hepostofSecr etar
yt otheGov ernmentorhol dinganyot herpostcarryi
ngthesamepayscal e
undert heCent ralorSt ateGov ernmentsorHashel df or5y earst hepostofanAddi ti
onalSecr etarytot heGov er
nmentofI ndiaoranyot herpostcar ryingthescalesofpayofAddi tional
Secretary
.Judi cialMember :Apersontobeappoi ntedasaj udicialmembermust -
Beorhav ebeenaj udgeoft heHi ghCour torHav ebeenamemberofI ndianLegalSer vi
ceandhashel dapost
i
nGr adeIoft heser viceforatl east3y ears.
Admi ni
strat
iveMember :Aper sont obeappoi nt edasanAdmi nistr
ati
vemembermust -Havehel dthepostofanAddi t
ionalSecr etar
yt othe
GovernmentofI ndiaoranot herequiv
alentpostf oratl east2y ears,orHaveheldt hepostofaJoi ntSecr etarytot heGov ernmentofI ndiaorot herequivalentpost,or Haveadequat e
administr
ativeexper i
ence.TheChai rman,Vice-Chai rmanandot hermember sshallbeappoi nt edbyt hePr esident.TheJudi cialMember sshallbeappoi nt
edbyt hePr esidentwi t
ht he
consultat
ionoft heChi efJust i
ceofIndi
a.TheChai rman, Vice-Chai r
manandot hermember soft heSt ateTribunalshallbeappoi ntedbythePr esidentafterconsultati
onwi t
htheGov ernorofthe
concernedst ate.
Commi ssi onofi nqui ry :Weboar di nasoci et yi nwhi chpur sui toft hegener alpubl i
cgoodhasmeantt hataf fairsoft hei ndi v i
dualci t
izensar ei ncr easi ngl ysuf f eringf rom t hechoi ceoft he
gov er nmentdepar tment s.Demandf ort hecommi ssi onofappoi nt mentofi nqui rybypol it
icalpar tiesandot hermember soft hesoci et yhasbecomeademandoft heday .Thenecessi tyofsuch
ani nqui ryi smai nlyt ogat hert hev i
ewsofv ar iousgr oupsofpeopl ewhoar elikel yt obesuf fer ingf rom t heexer ciseofsuchadmi ni strat i
vepowerbyt heaut hor ityconcer ned.Addi tional ly ,tot he
collect i
onofv i
ews,t hecommi ssi onofi nqui ryser vest heai m ofgat her ingnecessar ydat aorf actsr egar di ngaspeci ficsubj ectofpubl ici mpor tance.Thebasi cai m orpur poseoft heacti s
rulemaki ng, lawenf or cement , adj udi cat i
onofdi sput e, super v ision, licensi ng, collect i
ngi nf ormat ionandal sot aki ngact ionagai nstt heaccusedper son.Forexampl e, theRai l
wayAcci dent , Pol i
ce
aut hor i
ty ,depar tment ali nqui ry ,et c.Thebasi cobj ecti st oexpl or eanddi scov err ealf act s,thei nv est igat ionwi thapar tialandunsat isfact oryr ol eofadmi nist r
at ors. Bef or et her at ificat ionof
theCommi ssi onofI nqui r yAct ,1952,t hegov er nmentusedt oor dert hepubl i
cei therbygi vingexecut i
v eor derornot i
ceundert hePubl icSer v ant sI nqui ri
esAct ,
1850orbymaki ngadhoc
commi ttees( commi tteesmadef oraspeci alpur poseandaf tert hepur posei sf ulfi
lledi tget sdi ssol v ed) .TheActi snotspeci f
ict oanyki ndofmat ter ,inf act ,iti ncludesal mostal lki ndsof
mat ters.TheChagl aCommi ssi oni st hef i
r sti nqui ryoft hei ndependentI ndiawhi chcr eat edabust li
ngi nt er estamongt hepeopl eandwassetupbyt hegov ernmentofI ndi at oexami newhet her
thef undsoft hel i
fei nsur ancecor por ationofI ndi ahav ebeenpr oper l
yut i
lized.Thepr ocedur et hathasbeenr at i
fiedbyt hegov ernmentwasf oundt obebur densomeandf aul t
y .Sot osat isf ythe
ever -growi ngneedf ort heev er-incr easi ngdemandf orpubl i
ci nqui riesbyt hei ndependentandi mpar tialaut hor i
ty .Hence,t heneedwasf eltt hatasui t abl eActi sbr oughtoutont hesubj ect,
whi chr esul tsi nt hei nt roduct ionoft heCommi ssi onsofI nqui ryBi ll
, 1952i nt hePar liament .Commi ssi onofEnqui r
yAct ,1952: ThisActi smadef ort heappoi nt mentofcommi ssi onst oi nquire
i
nt omat ter swhi char er el atedorconcer nedoraf fect st hepubl icatl arge.Thi sActappl i
est ot hewhol eofI ndi apr ov idedi tshal lalsoappl yt ot hest at eofJammuandKashmi r.Whent hecent ral
gov er nmentmay ,bynot i
ficat ioni nt heof f i
ci algazet teappoi nt sacommi ssionf rom t hatdayonl yt heactshal lcomei ntof or ce.UnderSect i
on2oft hecommi ssi onofi nqui ryAct ,ithaspr ov ided
cert aindef i
ni tionsf orr efer encewhi char ef ur therusedi nt hisactl i
ke“ appr opr iat eGov ernment ”whi chmeansonl yCent r
alandSt at egov ernment shast her ightt oappoi ntacommi ssi ont o
makeani nqui ryr elatedt oanyoft heent ri
eswhi char ement ionedi nLi stIorLi stI IorLi stI I
Iint heSev ent hSchedul eoft heConst itution.I thasal soexpl ainedt hemeani ngofcommi ssi onwhi ch
meansacommi ssionofi nqui ryappoi ntedunderSect ion3, “prescr ibed”meanst hatr uleswhi char emadeundert hisactshoul donl yber efer red.Appoi nt mentoft hecommi ssionwast her ein
sect ion3oft heAct ,Sect ion4def inest hepower soft hecommi ssi on.Sect ion5hasaddi tionalpower swhi char ebeengi vent ot hecommi ssi on.Sect ion6deal swi tht hepr ov isionsoft he
stat ement smadebyt heper sont ot hecommi ssi oni nt hissect ioni tal soment i
onst hatcommi ssioncannotf or ceanyper sont odi scl oset hesecr etpr ocessofmanuf act ureofgoodsexcepti n
somecases.Sect i
on7say st hatcommi ssi oncanceaset oexi stwhenev eri tisnot ified.Sect i
on8deal swi tht hepr ocedur et hatneedst obef ol l
owedbyt hecommi ssi on.Sect i
on9deal swi th
thepr ot ect ionofact i
ont hatshoul dbet akenagai nstt heper sonwhoact edi nagoodf aith.Sect ion10say st hatanymemberoft hecommi ssi onappoi ntedshoul dnecessar ilybeapubl i
c
serv ant .Sect ion11say st hatt hisacti sappl icabl et oot heri nqui ri
ngaut hor i
tiesal soi nexcept ionalcasesorwher ev ert heneedi sf ound.Last l
y ,Sect ion12oft heActwhi chgi vespowert ot he
commi ssi ont omaker ulest ocar ryoutt hepur posesoft hisAct .Ther ear eal most12pr ovisionswhi char edef inedundert heCommi ssionofI nqui ryAct ,1952butonl ysomeoft hepr ov isions
aremai n:Sect i
on3: Thi sSect iondeal swi tht heappoi ntmentofcommi ssi onandsay st hatanappr opr iat egov ernmentbygi v i
ngnot ificationi nt heof f i
ci algazet tecanappoi ntacommi ssi onof
i
nqui ryt ol ooki ntot hemat tersofpubl i
ci mpor tancewi thinaspeci fiedper iodoft imeasgi veni nt henot ificat ion.Al so, nost ategov er nmentcanappoi ntanot hercommi ssi ont oi nqui rei nt ot he
samemat ter.Thecommi ssi oncanhav emor et hanonememberappoi ntedbyt heappr opriat egov er nmental sowhent hecommi ssi onhasmor et hanoneormor emember st henoneoft hem
shoul dbeappoi ntedast heChai rmanoft hecommi ssi on.Thecommi ssional sohast osubmi tt her epor tofi nqui r
yal ongwi thamemor andum oft heact iont akenwi thinaper i
odofsi xmont hs
oft hecapi tulat i
onoft her epor t.Sect i
on4 : Undert hisSect i
on,power soft hecommi ssi onhasbeendef inedwhi chsay st hatt hecommi ssionhast hepowerofaci v i
lcour tundert heCodeof
CivilPr ocedur e, 1908wi t
hr espectt ot hef ol l
owi ngmat t
er s:Aski ngandpr osecut i
ngt heat tendanceofanyper sonf rom anypar toft hecount ryandexami ni nghi m ont hedayoft heoat h.Mat t
ers
whi chr equi resanydi scov eryorpr oduct ionofanydocument .Mat t er swhi char er ecei vingmat ter sonaf fidav its.Mat ter sr elatedt oanyr equi sitioningofpubl icr ecor dorcopyt her eoff rom any
cour torof fice.I ssuesr el atedt ot heexami nat i
onofwi tnessesanddocument s.Oranyot hermat terwhi chmaybepr escr ibed. Sect i
on5: Addi tionalpower soft hecommi ssionhav ebeen
descr i
bedi nt hi ssect ionwhi chsay s:Thecommi ssionhast hepowert or equi reanyper sonori ndi v i
dual ,orsubj ectt odi spensei nformat iononsuchmat terswhi chi nt heopi ni onoft he
commi ssi onmi ghtbeusef ulorr elev antt ot hesubj ectmat terofi nqui ry.
Noof ficerbel owt her ankofaGazet tedOf ficeri snotaut hor i
zedt oent eranybui ldingf ori nqui ry.butt hosewhoar e
abov eint hehi erarchycanont hebehal foft hecommi ssi onent eranybui ldingorpl acewher et heybel iev et hatanydocumentort hebookofaccount swhi char er elev antt othesubj ectmat terof
thei nqui r yandcanal sosei zeunderSect ion102andSect ion103oft heCodeofCr i
mi nalPr ocedur e, 1898. Anyof fenceunderSect ion175, Sect ion178, Sect ion179, Sect ion180, orSect ion228
oft heI ndi anPenalCodeandaf terther ecor di ngofanyf act sort hest at ementoft heaccusedwast akent hecaseshoul dbef or war dedt othemagi st rat ewhohast hej ur i
sdi ctiont ot ryt hesame.
Anypr oceedi ngsshal lbedeemedt obeaj udi ci alpr oceedi ngunderSect ion193andSect i
on228oft heI ndianPenalCode. Sect i
on8: Sect ion8deal swi tht hepr ocedur et hatneedst obe
followedbyt hecommi ssi on.Thought hecommi ssi onhast hepowert or egul at eormakei tsownpr ocedur esbutst illar eboundbycer tainpr ov i
sions: Thei nqui ryshoul dnotgeti nt er rupt edby
ther easonf oranyv acancyi nt hecommi ssi onoranysor tofchangest hatoccuri nt heconst itutionoft hecommi ssi on.Atanyst ageoft hei nqui ry,ift hecommi ssi onwant st hati ti snecessar y
toi nqui rei nt ot heconductoft heper sonort hecommi ssi oni soft heopi ni ont hatt her eput at i
onofanyper sonwi llgeti njur edbecauseoft hei njur y ,thent hecommi ssionshoul dgi vea
reasonabl eamountoft imet ot heper sont opr oduceev idenceandal sot heper sonshoul dgetanoppor tuni tyofbei nghear d.Al lt hiscanbedoneonl ywheni tdoesn’ tdi scredi tt hewi tnessof
thecase. Theappr opr iat egov er nment ,oranyot herper son,wi t ht heacknowl edgementoft hecommi ssi on,whoseev i
dencei sbei ngr ecor dedhast her i
ghtt ocr oss- exami neawi tnessot her
thanawi tnesst hathasbeenpr oducedbyt hecommi ssi onbef or e.Canaddr esst hecommi ssi on, andAl so, itshoul dber epr esent edbyal egal pract iti
oner .
Scopeoft heFunct ionsofaCommi ssionofI nqui r
y :
Thei nqui rymadebyaCommi ssionofI nqui ryundert heActof1952i snotaj udicialorquasi -
judi
cialinqui ry .Itsonlyf unct i
oni st o
i
nv estigatef actsandr ecor di tsf i
ndi ngst her eonandt hent or epor tt ot heGov ernmenti nor dert oenabl ei ttomakeupi tsmi ndast owhatl egislativ
eoradmi nist r
at ivemeasur esshoul dbe
adopt edt oer adicat etheev i
lfoundort oi mpl ementt hebenef i
cialobj ectsi thasi nview. TheCommi ssionhasnopowerofadj udi cati
oni nt hesenseofpassi nganor derwhi chcanbeenf or ced
propr i
ov i
gore.Fort hesamer eason, event hought hecommi ssionmaymaker ecommendat i
ont ot heGov er nmentast owhatmeasur esmaybeadopt ed,incl
udingpuni shmentf orf ut ureact ion
asadet err
entf ordel i
nquent sinf uture,y et,notbei ngacour t,itcannotr ecommendt het akingofanact ionbywayofpuni shmentoft hewr ongdoerf orpastact s,forpuni shmentf orwr ongs
alreadycommi ttedcanbei mposedonl ybyacour tofl aw.Thepur poseofi nquirymaybe: Toascer t
ainf act sast oenablet heappr opri
at eLegi slaturetoenactl egislationsr el
atingt omat tersof
publici mpor tance. Tomakeanadmi nistrati
v einv estigati
oni ntocer tai nfact s,iti
sl egiti
mat et ohol dani nquiryforinvesti
gationoff act sf ort hepur poseoft aki ngappr opri
at el egi sl
ativeor
admi nistrati
vemeasur est omai ntaint hepur ityandi ntegr
ityofpol iticaladmi nistr
ationi nt hest ate.Amat terdoesnotceaset obeofpubl i
ci mpor tancemer elybecauset hemi nist erwhoi s
i
nv olvedhasceasedt ohol dhi sof fi
ce,[xi]orbecauset her
ehasbeennopubl i
cagitationov eri t.I
n or dert hataCommi ssi
onmayef fectivelycar ryoutt heforegoi ngpower s,i tmayexer cise
ancill
ar ypower sliket hef oll
owi ng: Tocol lectmat er i
als;
Tor ecor di tsf indingsont hef actsi nv estigated;Toexpr essitsviewsont hef actssof ound;Tor ecommendf utur eact i
on,asanadv isory
body ;Toper mi tinspect ionofdocument spr oducedbef oreit
, toapar tyappear i
ngi nthemat ter.[
xiiiOnt heot herhand, t
heLegi slatureort heexecut i
vecannotusur pj udi cialpower sbel ongingt o
thecour tsbyset t
ingupaCommi ssionofI nqui ry.[
xiv]Hence, aCommi ssionofI nquirycannotbesetupwi thpower“ torecommendanact ionwhi chshoul dbet akenasandbywayofsecur i
ng
redressorpuni shment ,t hel att
erbei ngf unct ionsofacour tofl aw. TheSupr emeCour thashel d[ xvi](6:1)t hatal l
egati
onsi ntot heconductofMi ni
stersofaSt ateGov ernmenti samat terof
publici mpor tance,whi cht heUni onGov ernmentwoul dbecompet entt oi nquireinto,ast he‘ appr opr i
at eGov er nment’underS.3( 1)oft heCommi ssionofInqui ryAct ,1952.I fso,i nsucha
mat ter,botht heUni onandSt ateGov er nment swoul dbeent itl
edt oexer ciset hi
spowerundert heAct ,toappoi ntparall
elCommi ssions.UnderS.7( 1)(a),theGov er nmenthast hedi scretiont o
discont i
nueaCommi ssi oni fatanyt i
mei tisoft heopi nionthatt hei nqui r
ywasnecessar y; andt hecour tcannotquashsuchor derint heabsenceofmal afi
des.Sincet heCommi ssioni ssimpl y
af act-fi
ndingbody , withoutanypowerofadj udication, t
herei snobart oi tsappoi ntmentpendi nganyl i
tigation.

Natur aljust iceisanexpr essionofEngl ishcommonl aw,andi nvolvesapr ocedur alr equirementoff air
ness.Thepr i
nci
plesofnat uraljusti
cehav egr eatsignif
icancei nt hest udyof
Admi ni
strativelaw.Itisalsoknownhassubst antialj
usti
ceorfundament alj
usticeorUni versaljusticeorf airplayinact i
on.Thepr inciplesofnat uraljusti
cear enotembodi edrulesandar enot
codified.Theyar ejudgemader ulesandar er
egar dedhascount erpartoftheAmer i
canpr ocedur alduepr ocess. Defi
niti
on:Ther ei
snopr eciseandsci entif
icdef i
niti
onofnat uralj
ustice.Howev er
,
thepr i
nciplesofnat uraljusti
cear ebei ngaccept ableandenforced.Di f
ferentjudges,l awy ersandSchol arsdef i
neitinv ari
ousway s.InVi onetv .Bar r
ettLor dEsherM. Rhasdef inedi tast he
natur alsenseofwhati sr i
ghtandwr ong.Lat er,hehadchosent odefinenat uralj
ust iceasf undament aljusticei nasubsequentcase( Hopkinsv .Smet hwi ckLocalBoar dOfheal th)[2].Lord
Parkerhasdef i
nedi tasdut yactf airl
y .Mr .JusticeBhagwat ihast akenitasf ai
rpl ayi nact i
on.Ar t
icle14and21oft heI ndianConst i
tutionhasst rengthenedt heconceptofnat uralj usti
ce.The
pri
nci plesofnat uraljusti
ce,originatedf r
om commonl aw inEngl andar ebasedont woLat inmaxi ms,( whichwer edr awnf rom j usnat ural)
.I
nsi mpl ewor ds,Englishl aw r
ecogni zest wo
pri
nci plesofnat uraljusti
ceasst at edbel ow-NemoJudexi ncausasuaorNemodebetessej udexinpr opr i
acausaorRul eagainstbi as( Nomanshal lbeaj udgei nhisowncause) .
AudiAl ter
am
partem ort heruleoff ai
rhear i
ng( heart heothersi de).
Ruleagainstbiasorbi asofi nterest-thet erm biasmeansany thingwhi cht endst oormayber egardedast endingt ocausesuchaper son
todeci deacaseot herwisethanonev idencemustbehel dt obebiased.I nsimplewor ds,biasmeansdeci dingacaseot herwiset hanont heprinciplesofev idence.Thispr i
nciplei
sbasedont he
fol
lowi ngr ules;
Nooneshoul dbeaj udgei nhisowncause. ;
Just
iceshoul dnotonl ybedone, butmani f
est l
yandundoubt edl ybeseent obedone. Theabov erulesmakei tclearthatjudi ci
arymust
bef reef r
om bi asandshoul ddeliverpur eandi mpar ti
alj
usti
ce.Judgesmustactj udiciall
yanddeci det hecasewi thoutconsi deri
ngany thingotherthant hepr incipl
esofev i
dence.
Rul esofNat ur alj ust ice:Rul esofNat uralj ust icehav edev elopedwi tht hegr owt hofci vilizat i
on, andt hecont entt her eofi sof t
enconsi der edasapr opermeasur eoft hel evelofci vil
izat ionand
ruleofl aw pr ev ailingi nt hecommuni ty.Nat ur alj ust icei mpl iesf airness,r easonabl eness,equi tyandequal ity.Nat uralj ust icei saconceptofcommonl aw,andi ti st hecommon- law wor l
d
count er par toft heAmer i
can“ DuePr ocess”andci vill aw“ propor tional ity”
.Theexpr essi onsnat ur alj ust i
ceandi llegalj ust i
cedonotpr esentawat er ti
ghtcl assi ficat ion.I tist hesubst anceof
j
ust icewhi chi st obesecur edbybot h,andwhenev erl egalj ust icef ai l
st oachi evet hispur pose,nat ur alj ust icei scal l
edi nai dofl egalj ust ice.32Nat uraljust i
cecont ent sei thert ochangewi th
exigenci esofdi f
fer entsi tuat ionsandt her efor edonotappl yi nt hesamemannert osi tuat ionswhi char enotal ikef ort hi sst uf ftheyar enei thercasti nar igi
dmol dnorcant heybeputi nal egal
stat ej acket .Nat uralj usticei saper vasivef acetofsecul arl awwher easpi ri
tualt ouchenl ivensl egi slation,admi nistrat i
onandAdj udicationt omakeFai rnessacr eedofl ife.I thasmanycol or s
andshades,manyf or msandshapes,andsav ewher ev alidl aw excl udesi t,Apl acewhenpeopl ear eadv er selyaf fect edbyact sofanyadmi nistrativeaut hority.I ti st hebaneofaheal thy
gov er nment ,r ecogni zedf rom ear l
iestt i
mesandnotamy stict est amentofaj udgemadel aw.Nat ur alj ust icer epr esent shi gherpr ocedur alpr inciplesdev elopedbyJudgeswhi chev er y
admi nist rat i
v eagencymustf ollowwhent aki nganydeci sionadv ersel yaf fect i
ngt her i
ght sofapr i
v atei ndi vi
dual .ThePr i
nci plesofnat ur alj usticear enotf ixed,butar ef lexi bleandv ariabl e.
Thesepr inci plescannotbeputi nast r
aightj acket .Thei rappl icabi l
itydependsupont hecont extandt hef act sandci rcumst ancesofeachcase. 33Tosust aint hecompl aintoft hev i
ol ationof
principl esofnat uralj usticeonemustest abl isht hathewaspr ejudi cedf ornon- obser v anceoft hepr inci plesofnat ur alj ust i
ce.Thepr inci plesofnat uralj usticear enotr igid,i mmut ableor
“embodi ed”r ules, butar ef l
exi ble.Nat uralj ust icei sanot hernamef orcommonsensej ust iceandi sbasedont henat ur alsenseofmanofwhati sr ightandwhati swr ong.Nat ur aljust icei snot
anar ticul at i
onofanySai ntorSage. Nat ur all awhasi nher entr at ional itywhi chi si nconf or mi t
ywi tht henat uraljust iceandmayl eadt oal lrightconcl usions.Appl icat i
onoft hepr inci plesof
nat uralj ust icecani mpr ovet hequal ityofadmi ni strativ edeci sion, enf orcer uleofl awandaccount abilityi nt headmi nist rat ionandshowr espectf orhumandi gnity.Thus, t
hebasi sofal lposi ti
ve
l
awi snat ur alj ust ice.Rul esofnat uraljust icear enotcodi fiedcannons.Theyar epr inci plesi ngr ainedi nt heconsci enceofman.Just icei sbasedatsubst ant i
all
yonnat urali deal sandv al ues
whi char euni v ersal .Nat ur aljust icei snotci rcumscr ibedbyl ingui st i
ct echni caliti
esandgr ammat icalni cet iesorl ogi calpr ev arication.Thepur poseofPr i
nciplesofnat ur aljusticei spr ev ent ionof
miscar r i
ageofj ust iceandhenceobser vancet her eofi st hepr agmat icr equirementoff airpl ayi nact ion. 34Theai m ofr ul esofnat uraljust icei st osecur ejust i
ceort oputi tnegat ivelyt opr ev ent
themi scar ri
ageofj ustice.Pr inciplesofnat ur alj ust icewhi char ej udge- mader ulesandst i
llcont inuet obeacl assi calexampl eofj udi cialact ivism wer edev elopedbyt hecour tst opr ev ent
acci dent si nt heexer ciseofout sour cedpowerofadj udi cat ionent rust edt ot headmi nist rativeaut hor i
ties.Forsomet hr eeorf ourhundr edy ears,Angl o-Amer i
cancour tshav eact i
v elyappl i
ed
twopr incipl esofnat uraljust ice.Howev er ,thi sr educt i
onoft heconceptofnat ur
alj ust icet oonl yt wopr inci plesshoul dnotbeal lowedt oobscur et hef actt hatnat uralj ust i
cegoest o“ t
hev er y
kerneloft hepr obl em ofadmi nist r
at i
vejust ice” .Theconceptent ailst woi deas:i )Nemoj udexi nr esua, i.e., theaut hor itydeci dingt hemat tershoul dbef reef rom bi as- Ruleagai nstbi as- Noone
shoul dbemadej udgei nhi sowncause, ort her uleagai nstbi as-Nemoi npr opr iacausaj udex, essedebet .
ii)Audial ter am par tem,i .
e.,aper sonaf f
ect edbyadeci sionhasar ightt obehear d-
Heart heot herpar ty, orther uleoff airhear ing, ort her ulet hatnooneshoul dbecondemnedunhear d. Thesear et het wopr inciplesnowt ranspar encyandgoodgov er nancemaybeaddedasa
newdi mensi onwhi chi ncludest hedut yt opassaspeaki ngor der .Thepr i
nciplesofnat ur alj usticehav eenr i
chedl awandConst ituti
onst hewor ldov er .Thought heI ndi anConst ituti
ondoesnot
uset heexpr essi onnat ural j
ust ice, theconceptofnat ur al just icedi vest edofal lit
smet aphy sicalandt heol ogi cal tr
appi ngsper vadest hewhol eschemeoft heConst itut ion.Theconceptofsoci al
andeconomi cj ust ice, i
nt hepr eambl eoft heConst i
tut ion,concept ual lyspeaki ng,i st heconceptoff airnessi nsoci alandeconomi cactiv iti
esofsoci ety
,whi chi st hebasi soft hepr inci plesof
nat uralj ust i
ce. Thedut yt oactf ai
r l
yi spar toff ai
rpr ocedur e,asenv i
sagedunderAr t
icl es14and21oft heConst itut ion.Ev eryact ivityofapubl icaut hor it
yort hoseunderpubl icdut yor
obligat ionmustbei nformedbyr easonandgui dedbypubl i
ci nt er est .Exer ciseofj urisdi ctionbycour tsi nI ndi a, inthi sbehal fisnotsomet hingext raConst i
tutional .Nowt hepr inci palsofnat ur al
j
ust icear ef i
r ml ygr oundedi nAr ti
cles14and21oft heConst itut i
on.
Appl icat i
onofNat uralj ust i
ce:I fanor deri senf orceabl eundert hel awhav inganadmi nist rat i
v enat uret hathasaci vileffect ,suchanor dershoul dbemadeconsi stentwi t
ht hepr inciplesof
nat ur aljust ice.ThePr inci plesofNat uralJust ice( “Nat uralJust i
ce” )actasanaddi tiont otheenact edl awwher eint headmi nist rat i
vebodywhoseact ionsar ehav ingci vilconsequenceshav et o
foll
owa“ fairpr ocedur e”i nwhi chaf airoppor t
uni tytobehear dhast obegr anted( pr ocedur alf air
ness)andt her eisaneedt omeett heendsofj ust ice.Thef ol l
owi ngcasesar et hosei nwhi ch
princi plesofnat uraljust i
cehav et obest ri
ctlyappl ied.I ll
ust r
at iveCase1–I fanadmi ni strat i
v eor deraf fect st her ight sandl iabi li
tiesofaper son,andt hepr ov i
si onoft hest at uteunderwhi ch
thesai dor deri spasseddoesnotexpr esslybart heoppor tuni tyt obehear d,int hatcase, Nat ur alJust icehast obeappl iedt oactasacheckont hear bitrar yadmi ni strat ivepower .Itis
per tinentt onot et hatashow- causenot icef rom t hesi deofanadj udi cat i
ngadmi nistr ativeaut horityi ssuf fi
cientt ocov ert heambi tofNat ur alJust icepr ov i
dedt hatt heor deri spassedont he
replygi v ent ot heshow- causenot icewi thoutev engi vingaper sonalhear ing.I ll
ustrativ eCase2–“ Nomanshoul dbeaj udgei nhi sowncause”i sapar toft heNat ur alJust icePr inciplewhi ch
hast obef ol l
owedal mostt hr oughoutal l admi nistrati
v epr oceedi ngsbuti nsuchcases, thebur denofpr oof( “onus” )r egar dingt hepr ovingofbi asi sv er yheav y,hencei tisper tinentt onot et hat
onusanddel i
v eryofNat uralJust i
cear econnect ed.Pur suantt oher ei nabov ediscussedI ll
ust rat i
veCase1andI l
l
ust rativeCase2i tisi mpor tantt onot et hatt her ear emat tersofpol i
cy ,lawand
orderi nwhi ch,i ft heNat uralJust icepr inciplesar enotf oll
owed,t hensuchadj udicat i
onshal lnotbej ust iciabl ebyanycour toft heRepubl i
cofI ndi a.Appl i
cat ionoft her ul eofaudial teram
par tem ( oppor tuni tyoff airhear i
ng)–Thi srulei sappl icabl etot hecasespendi ngadj udi cat ionbef oreacour tofl aw, tri
bunal andanyot heraut hor i
tyhav i
ngal egal discr etionar ypowert ohandl e
casessubj ectt ot hel imi tationsgi v enint hepar entst atute.I ssui nganot i
ce: Anot i
cei sadocumentt hatnot ifiest heopposi t
epar tyaboutsomef act s,inf ormat ionorci rcumst ances.I tist obe
not edt hati nor derf oranot i
cet obeef fect i
vei tshoul dcont aint het imi ngoft hehear ing, pl aceofhear i
ng, gr oundsonwhi cht hehear i
ngi st akingpl aceandnameoft headj udi cat i
ngaut hor it
y
andi ft hest atutedoesnotcont ainaspeci fi
cpr ov i
sionofi ssuanceofnot icet henanor dert ot hepr ej udiceofsuchper soncannotbewi thouti ssui ngsuchnot i
cewher einanequi tabl echancet o
behear dhast obegi ven.Anot iceshoul dexpl icit
lylaydownt hegr oundsonwhi chaper soni sbei ngcal ledbyt hesai dadj udi catingaut hor ity.Adduci ngev idencef ollowedbyl ay ingdownof
fact s,i ssuesandl egalgr oundsanddi vulgenceofal lmat erialev idence: Fort hehear ingt obei mpar t
ialanequi tableoppor t unityshoul dbegi v enaf tert henot icehasbeenser vedf ort he
adduct i
onofev idenceanddemonst rationoft hecasebyt heper sonwhor eceivedt henot i
ce.I nt hecaseofAmbal aCent ralCooper ativeBankv .St ateofHar yana&Or si twashel dbyt he
Supr emeCour tt hatwhent henot iceisr eceived,i tist her esponsi bilityoft hebodyt hatsentt henot icet ogi vef easi blet i
meandachancet opr oduceev idencef ort hepur poseofadj udicat i
on
wher easi ft hesai dchanceorhear i
ngi snotgi vent hecour tshal ldeem suchanot icet obei ll
egi timat e,ar bi
trar y,unaut hor i
zedandpr ohi bitedi nt heey esoft hel aw. Fr eedom t opr oduce
witnessesandcr oss- exami net hem : Anoppor tunityshoul dbegi v ent ot heper sonwhoi sbef or eanadj udi cat i
ngcour t,tri
bunalorl egalaut hor ityt oaskpoi nt edquest i
onst ot hosewi tnesses
whoar egi v i
ngt estimonyagai nstanypar typr esentbef oreanadmi nistrat iveaut hority .Int hecaseofHi raNat hMi shr aandOr s.v .ThePr incipal ,Raj endr aMedi calCol l
ege, RanchiandAnr ,the
cour tl aiddownt hatat rialwi l
lgetf r
ustr atedi ftheoppor tunityt ocr oss- exami neisnotgi venbuti ft hesubj ectofsuchexami nat i
oni sasensi tivesubj ectt hent hisr i
ghtmaybedeni ed. Rightt o
getr epr esent edbyanat tor ney :Thepr oceedi ngswhi char et akingpl acebef or etheadj udi cat ingbodyshoul dgi vet heoppor tuni tyt oaper sont ogetadequat er epr esent ationf ort hepr oceedi ngs,
butnotev eryper soncanaf for dal awy er .Hencei tist hedut yoft heSt atet hattheyshoul dar rangef orlegalhel pf orsuchaper sonwhocannotaf for dt heser vi
cesofal awy er .Thati swhyi n
India, wehav et heLegalSer vicesAut hor ityinchar geofpr ovidingl awy ersf orpeopl ewhoar enotabl et oaf for danat tor ney .Int hecaseofM. H.Hoskotv .St at eofMahar asht ra, itwasdeci ded
thatf oraf airandequi tabl ehear i
ngt heconceptoff reel egalai di sext remel yi mportantasi mpl iedunderAr ticle21oft heConst ituti
onofI ndia.Admi ni strat i
vel awi sadev elopi ngbr anchofl aw,
soi tbr ingsanumberofgr eyar easwi thi t.Oneofsuchgr eyar easi sr egar di
ngt heappl icat i
onoft hepr inciplesofnat uralj ust icei nmat tersofadmi ni strativ epr oceedi ngs.Whet hert he
princi plesofnat uraljust icewi llbeappl icableornotdependsonwhatt y peoff unctioni sbei ngper for medbyt headmi nist r
at ivebody .So, thef i
rstst epi st oi dent i
fyt henat ureoft hatpar ti
cular
admi nist rat i
vef unct i
on, whi chal sodoesnothav eanydef initivepar amet ers.Theext entoft heappl i
cabi l
it
yoft het hr eemaj orpr i
nci plesofnat ur aljust ice, asel abor at eduponatt hebegi nningof
thisar ticle,dependsont hecl assi fi
cationoft headmi nistrativef unct ion.I nt hi
spaper ,t heaut horhasat tempt edt ocl assifyt hev ar ioust y pesofadmi nist rativ ef unct ionsandi dent ifyasetof
par amet erst hatcanbeusedt odi fferent i
at ebet weent hem.Af tert hiscl assif
icat ion,t hepapergoesont odi scusst hepr osandconsofappl yi
ngt hepr inciplesofnat ur alj usticet o
admi nist rat i
veact i
ons.
Publ icUnder t
aki ng/ cor poration/ ent er priseessent ial l
yhast hef eat uresofsev er alindi v
idual swhoactasone.Theent erpriset husi sv iewedasanar ti
ficialper soni saut hor izedbyl awt ocar ry
onpar ti
cul aract i
vitiesandf unct ions.I tisdescr ibedasacor por atebodycr eatedbyt hel egislat ur ewi thdef inedpower sandf unct ionsandi nt er pedent lyhav i
ngacl ear -cutj ur i
sdict i
onov era
speci fi
edar eaorov erapar ti
cul art ypeofcommer cialact ivity.Publ icent erpriseispar tofgov ernmentappar at usandt hreei mpl icat ionsar eher ebyhi ghlight ed.Fi r st,apubl icent er
pr ise, byv i
rtue
ofitsi ntricat er elationshi pwi thgov er nment ,isani nst rumentofpubl icpol i
cyandi tspr i
mar ymi ssi oni si nconnect i
onwi thgov er nment alcont rol.Second,apubl icent erprise,byi t snat ure,
most l
ymanagespubl i
cr esour ces,especi allypubl i
cmoneyandt hi smeanst hatat tent i
onmustbepai dt omechani smsf orenf orci ngaccount abi l
it
y.Thi rd,thecombi nat i
onoff inanci aland
economi cobj ect iveswi thsoci alandpol iticalaimsi nv ar iabl ymakesi tdi fficulttodev i
seappr opr iateper for mancemeasur ementi nst rument .Or iginofPubl icEnt erpr i
ses: Theor i
gi nofpubl ic
enter pri
secoul dbet racedt oear lytwent i
et hcent ur ywhengov ernmenti nt ervenedi neconomi cmanagementt hr oughdepar tment alor gani zat i
ons, whi chdi dnoti nv olvecr eat ingaut onomous12
publ i
cbodi es.I nt heal ternat i
v e,i tgr ant edl i
censet oapr ivat eent er prisef orthemanagementofnat uralornat ionalmonopol iesandwher epubl icbodi eswer ei nv olvedi nmanagi ngeconomi c
vent ures,suchbodi esdi dnotenj oyf inanci alaut onomy .Publ icent er prisesmadeav eryst rongappear anceaf terWor ldWarIf orav ar ietyofr easons,i ncl udi ngmanagi ngt heconsequencesof
war ,especi all
yt heeconomi ccr isisoft he1930s.Howev er ,publ icent erpr i
sessect ordev elopr api dlybecauseoft hespr eadofKey nesi ani nter vent ionist.Bet weent het woWor l
dWar s, pol i
tical
andi deologi calconsi der ati
onpr ompt edt heest abl ishmentofpar ast atalsi nt hef ormercol oni almet ropol is. Themov ementt owar dst heest abl ishmentofpubl icent erpr iser ecei vedanew
i
mpet usaf terWor l
dWarI Iforr easonsr elatedt obot hi deol ogicalconsi derationsandeconomi cef ficiency .Economi cnat ional ism andt hesuccessoft hesov ietRev olut ionpav edt hewayf or
nationalism andst rongst atei nt er v
ent ioni nnat ionaleconomi cmanagement .Whent hef or merEur opeancol oni esi nAf ri
cabecamei ndependenti nthel ate1950sandt he1960s,t her ewer e
onlyaf ewpubl icent erprisesi ndi f
fer entcount r
ies.Thepubl icent er pr i
sessect ort hendev elopedatat r
emendouspacei nt hei mmedi atey ear saf terindependencet hrought he1980sanda
hugepubl icent erpr isewasf i
r ml yest ablishedi nmostcount r
ies.Theweaknessoft hepr ivat esect or,t hel ackofi nf r
ast ruct ur e,t hel ow l ev elofsoci alandhumandev elopment ,andt he
unfav ourabl esoci al, economi candf inanci alenv ironmentar esomeoft her easonsgi vent oexpl aint hepr olifer ationofpubl i
cent er pr isesi nal lar easofeconomi candsoci aldev elopment .Ot her
reasonsi ncl udet heur get ogener ater ev enuet ol imi tf or eigneconomi cdomi nation, andt opr ov i
deasubst itut ef orpr i
vat einitiat ivewher ei twasnotf orthcomi ng.Publ icent er pri
sesi nNi ger ia
datebackt ot hecol onialer awhencol oni algov ernmentest abl i
shedsomepubl i
cent erprisest opr ov ideessent i
alser vicesl i
keel ect ricity, rail
wayandwat er.Theposti ndependenter amar keda
water shedIt hegr owt handspr eadofpubl i
ccor por at ions.AtI ndependencei n1960,Ni ger iahad50publ i
cent erpr i
ses,200i nt he1970sand1, 500i n1987whengov ernmentembar kedupon
economi cr ef orm pr ogr ams.Thef act or st hataccount edf ort hephenomenali ncr easei nclude:t heev olut i
onoft hef eder aladmi nist rat ivest r
uct ur es, theoi lboom, andsuccessi vegov ernment s
commi t
mentt omaki ngpubl i
cent erpr iseani nstrumentofst ateeconomi ci ntervent i
oni nt he1970s. Char act er i
st icsofPubl icEnt erpr ises: Themai nchar act eri
st icsofpubl icent er pr i
sesi nt he
wor dsofEkhat orar e:i.Apubl icent er pr i
secomesi ntoexi stenceasar esultofanactpassedbyt hel egi slat iv eoradecr eeundermi l
itaryr ule.Publ icent er priseal sodef inesi tsai msand
object i
ves,power sanddut ies,i mmuni ti
es,t hef or m ofmanagementandr elati
onshi pwi thest abl isheddepar tment sandmi ni stries. ii.Iti sal egalper son,capabl eofsui ngandbei ngsued,
enter i
ngi ntocont ract s,acqui ringandowi ngpr oper tyi ni tsownnameandcanal sodi sposeofpr oper tyt hanor dinar ygov ernmentdepar tment s. i
ii.I tiswhol l
yownedbyt hest ate.iv
.Exceptf or
appr opriationst opr oducecapi tal ortocov erlosses, apubl icent er pr isei susual lyindependent lyf inanced.I tobt ai nsi tsfundsf r om t het reasur yort hepubl icandf rom r evenuesder i
v edf rom t he
saleofgoodsandser v
ices.I tisaut hor izedt ouseandr euse i tsr ev enues. v.I tisgener allyexempt edf rom mostr egulator yandpr ohi bitoryst at uesappl icablet oexpendi tureofpubl i
cf unds.
Ther ear enohar dandf astrul esbehi ndt hem i nt hemat terofmaki ngcont ractsofbuy i
ngandsel lingwor ks,et c.t hus,agr eatdealofl i
abi l
ityanddi scret ioni sl ef tfort hemanagementi nt he
mat terofpr ocedur e.v i
.I tisor di naril
ynotsubj ectt ot hebudget ,accountandaudi tlawsandpr ocedur esappl i
cabl et ogov ernmentdepar tment s.Ther eoranyot herper sonappoi ntedbyhi m.
Howev er, bot ht heaccount sandaudi tar ecommer ciali nnat ure.v oice.Excl udingt heof fi
cer stakenf rom gov er nmentdepar tment sondeput at ion, theempl oy eesofpubl iccor porationsar enot
civi
lser vant sandar enotgov er nedbygov ernmentr egul at i
onsi nr espectofcondi t
ionsofser vice.Ther ecr ui tmenti snotsubj ectt oCi v i
lser v icer ules,pr omot ioni sbyseni or i
tyandper sonnel
canbef iredeasi l
yi ft heyar ei ncompet ent .v i
ii
. Cor por at ionsar ef reef rom t hecont roloft hel egi slat ure.
Cont r olov erpubl iccor por ation: InI ndia, t
hedi ff
er entf ormsofcont rolt owhi cht hepubl i
ccor porat ionmaybesubj ectt oar e:Par li
ament ar yCont rol,Cont rolbyt hePubl ic,Gov ernmentCont rol,
Judi cialcont rolandCent ralagencycont rol.Parli
ament ar yCont rol:Thesepubl iccor porat i
onsar esol elycont r oll
edbyt hegov ernment .Aspubl icaut hor i
tiest heyar esubj ectt ot henor mal
cont rolsofconst i
tutionandadmi ni strati
v el awst osuper visionbyt heMi nister ,whoi nt ur ni sanswer abl et oPar liament ,andbyCour tst hrought hecont rolwhi cht heyexer ciseov er
admi nistrat i
v eaut horiti
es.Theannual repor tsoft hesecor por ationsar esubmi ttedt othegov er nmentofI ndi agi v i
nganaccountoft heact ivitiesandt hent heyar el aidbef orebot ht hehousesof
thepar l
iament .
Undert heI nsur anceCor por ationAct ,1956,besi dest heaudi tor ’
sr epor tandannualr epor t,t her eportoft heact uar i
escont ain­i ngt her esul tofani nv est i
gat ionmadebyt he
actuar i
esi nt ot hef inan­ci alcondi tionoft hebusi nessoft heCor por ationshoul dal sobesol ai d.Thepar liament arycont rolov ert hepubl iccor por ationi sconf inedt oonl ybr oadcr i
ticismsand
thedayt odayf unct i
oningoft hepubl i
ccor por ati
oni sout sidet hef unct ioningofpar liament ar ycont rolov ert hepubl iccor por ations. Cont rolbyt hepubl ic:Thepubl ical sohascont rolov ert he
publ i
ccor por ationsi nIndi a.Thesecor por ationsar eownedbyt hegov ernmentandcr eat edbyspeci alst at ut es.Thesecor por ationsar eaut onomousi nf unct ioning.Thesecor por at i
onsar ebui l
t
upf ort heov erallgoodoft henat i
onandt hepubl i
c.Sot hepubl i
ccanal socont rolthepubl iccor por ations. Gov er nmentCont rol:I nt hef ramewor kofeconomi cpl anningi nI ndi a,t hepol i
ci es,
i
nv est mentdeci sionsandpr ogr ammesf orgr owt handexpansi onofpubl iccor por at i
onshav et obeco- or dinat edwi thnat ionalpr iori
tiesandt hemobi li
sat i
onandal l
ocat ionofr esour ces.Ev en
wheni nv est mentandexpendi turedeci sionsofsomeoft heseent erprisesdonotdependongov ernment albudget ar ysuppor t,thei rov er alli mpactont heeconomyt hroughbackwar dand
forwar dl i
nkages,t heirdeci siont obuyequi pmentf rom i ndi genoussour cesori mpor t,andt hei rcl aim ont ot aleconomi cr esour ces( especi allyj nt hecor esect or )maybesoi mpor t
antast o
requi ret hei rr econci l
iationwi thnat ionalpl anni ngobj ect i
ves.Si mi larl
y ,wageandempl oymentpol i
ci esofdi ffer entpubl icent er pr i
seswi thi mpl icat i
onsf orot herent erpr i
sesandt henat ional
economyar esubj ect edt ot hesameov erallco- ordinat i
on.Ther ear et husanumberofar easwher et hei nt erv entionoft hegov ernmenti nt hemanagementofpubl i
ccor por ationsi si nev i
tabl ei n
thei nterest sofnat i
onalpl anni ngf ort hi st ypeofeconomy .
Cent r
alAgencyCont rol:
Cent ralagencycont rol sov ercent ralpubl icent er prisesi nI ndiaoper ateasf oll
ows[ 4] :
Boar dl ev el
appoi ntment soft hechi efexecut i
v esandf ull-t
imedi rec­t orsar emadebyt heAppoi ntment sCommi tteeoft heCabi netconsi s­t ingoft heMi nister-i
n-Char geoft headmi nist rativ emi nist ry
concer ned, Mi nister -i
n-Char geofHomeAf fai r
sandt hePr imeMi nister.Theseappoi ntment sar emadeont hebasi soft her ecommendat ionsoft hePubl i
cEnt erpr isesSel ectionBoar dundert he
Depar tmentofPer sonnel .Proj ectAppr aisalDi vi
sionandv ar ioussect or aldi v i
sionsoft hePl an­ni ngCommi ssi onpl ayani mpor tantr ol ei nt heaut hor izationofmaj orcapi talpr oject sof
i
ndi vidualpubl icent erprises, whi let heCommi ssi
onal somoni tor spr ogr essofpr ojectsdur ingconst ruct ionandofuni tsunderpr oduct i
on. Publ i
cI nv estmentBoar d, whi chi sheadedbySecr etar y
(Expendi tur e)andi sani nt er-
mi nister i
alcommi tt
eeofmi ni ster ialsecr et aries, aut ho­r izesmaj orcapi tali nv est ment sincl udi ngt hoseofpubl icent er pri
ses. Bur eauofI ndust rialCost sandPr ices
i
nt heMi nistryofI ndust r ymakesr ecommendat i
onsi nr espectofpr i
ceswhi char eadmi nist eredbygov er nment .BureauofPubl icEnt er prisesi nt heMi nist ryofI ndust rymoni tor sbudget ar y
i
mpl ement ationandper for manceofpubl i
cent erprisesandi ssuesgui del i
nesf orper i
odi cwageset tlement s.LabourMi nistryr egul atesempl oy mentpol i
ci es,pr ov idesgener algui danceon
i
ndust r
ialr elationsandi nter venest hr oughi tsagenci esi ni ndust rialdisput esi nv olv i
ngpubl i
cent erprises. HomeMi nistryhasawat chdogr ol et hr ought heCent ralVi gilanceCommi ssi on, Cent ral
BureauofI nvest igat i
on,andCent ralI ndust rialSecur i
tyFor ce. Commi ssionerf orSchedul edCast esandTr ibesmayr ecei vedi rectr epr esent ationsf rom economi callyandsoci al l
ybackwar d
communi ­t i
esi nr egar dt ot hepl acementandpr omot ionoft hei rmember si npubl icent erpr ises. Judi ci alCont rol
:Thej udici aryal socont rol st hepubl iccor por ationsi nI ndi a.Asst atutor y
corpor ationsort hepubl i
ccor por ationsi tselfar ecr eatedbyt hest at ut es.Thej udiciaryhasapower f ulcont rolov ert hepubl iccor por at i
ons.Di fferentpower sar ev est edt ot hepubl ic
corpor ationsbyt hej udi cialsy stem.Thej udi cialsy stem consi stsofj udgesandcour ts.I fther eisanymi suseofpowerbyt hepubl i
ccor por ationst hent hecor porat i
oni sanswer abl et ot he
j
udi cialsy stem oft hest ateofI ndia. Thesear ethev ar i
oust ypesofcont r olsov ert hewor kingofpubl i
ccor por ationsi nI ndia.Publ iccor por at ionsar eaut onomoussy stemsbutst il
ltheyar e
cont rolledbyt heabov ef orces.Thesecor porationsar ecr eat edbyst at uteandt hesear ecr eat edf ort heov erallwel far eoft hepeopl eoft hest ate.Sot hepr operf unct ioni ngoft hese
corpor ationsi sv eryi mpor tant .Thi scont r
ol ov erthewor kingofpubl i
ccor por at i
onshel pst hesecor por ationst of unct i
onpr oper lyandt ocr eat emaxi mum benef it.
Impor tantpubl iccor por ationi ni ndi a: DamodarVal leyCor por ation( DVC)i sagov ernment -ownedpowergener at orwhi choper atesi nt heDamodarRi v erar eaofWestBengalandJhar khand
statesofI ndi a.Thest at utor ycor por ationoper atesbot ht her malpowerst ationsandhy delpowerst ationsundert heowner shipofMi nist ryofPower , Gov er nmentofI ndi a.DVCi sheadquar tered
i
nt heKol kat aci tyofWestBengal , Indi a.Thev alleyoft heDamodarRi verwasf loodpr oneandt hedev ast atingf l
oodof1943, leadt ot hef or mat ionoft hehi gh-power ed" DamodarFl oodEnqui ry
Commi t
tee"byt hegov ernmentofBengal .Thecommi tteer ecommendedt hef ormat i
onofabodysi mi lart ot heTennesseeVal l
eyAut hor ityoft heUni tedSt ates.Subsequent ly, W. L.Voor dui n,a
seni orengi neerofTVA, wasappoi nt edt ost udyt hepr obl em.Hesuggest edt hemul ti
-pur posedev elopmentoft hev alleyasawhol ei n1944.DamodarVal leyCor por ationwassetupi n1948as
“thef irstmul tipurposer i
v erv alleypr ojectofi ndependentI ndi a.”DVCwasf or medwi tht hecent r
al gov ernmentandt hegov ernment sofBi har( l
aterJhar khand)andWestBengalpar ti
cipat ingi ni t
.
Themai nai msoft hecor por ationwer ef loodcont rol,i rrigat ion,gener ationandt ransmi ssi onofel ect ri
city ,andy ear -
roundnav i
gat ion.Thecor por at i
onwasal soexpect edt opr ov i
dei ndi r
ect
suppor tf ort heov er-alldev elopmentoft her egion.Howev er ,whi l
eVoor dui nhadpr oposedt heconst r
uct i
onofei ghtdams,DVCbui ltonl yf our .Mr .Voor duin's" Pr elimi nar yMemor andum"
suggest edamul tipurposedev elopmentpl andesi gnedf orachi evingf loodcont rol,ir ri
gat ion,powergener ati
onandnav igationi nt heDamodarVal l
ey .Fourconsul tant sappoi nt edbyt he
Gov er nmentofI ndiaexami nedi t.Theyal soappr ov edt hemai nt echni calf eat uresofVoor dui n'sschemeandr ecommendedear lyinitiationofconst ruct ionbegi nni ngwi thTi lai yat obef ollowed
byMai thon.ByApr il1947, fullagr eementwaspr act ical lyr eachedbet weent het hreeGov er nment sofCent ral ,WestBengalandBi haront hei mpl ement at ionoft heschemeandi nMar ch1948,
theDamodarVal l
eyCor por ationAct( ActNo.XI Vof1948)waspassedbyt heCent ralLegi sl at ure, requi ri
ngt het hr eeGov ernment s, TheCent ralGov er nmentandt heSt ateGov ernment sofWest
BengalandBi hart opar ticipat ej oi ntlyf ort hepur poseofbui ldi ngt heDamodarVal leyCor por ation.TheCor por ationcamei ntoexi stenceon7Jul y1948ast hef i
rstmul ti
pur poser iv erv all
ey
projectofi ndependentI ndi a.Oi l&Nat uralGasCor por at ionLt d.( BSE:500312,NSE:ONGC) Oi l&Nat uralGasCor por ationhad$61. 4bi l
lioni nrev enuei n2018,gr owi ng19. 9%i nt hepasty ear
wi t
h$4. 3mi l
lioni npr of its.Foundedi n1956byt hegov ernment ,ONGCi sI ndia'sl eadi ngupst ream pet roleum companyandi samongt hemostpr of it
ablePSUsi nt hecount ry.I tpr oduces1. 2
mi l
lionbar r elsofoi lequi valentperdayandi sr esponsi blef ordi scov ering83%ofest abl i
shedr eserv esi nt hecount ry.I nt he2018f i
scaly ear,itr epor tednetpr of itof199bi ll
ionr upeesand
produced22. 31MMTofcr udeoi l,noti ncludi ngi tsshar ei nj ointv ent ur es.TheReser veBankofI ndia( RBI )isI ndi a'scent ralbankandr egul at orybodyandi sr esponsi blef ort hei ssueandsuppl y
oft heI ndi anr upeeandt her egul at ionoft heI ndianbanki ngsy st em.I talsomanagest hecount ry'
smai npay mentsy stemsandwor kst opr omot ei tseconomi cdev elopment .Bhar atiy aReser ve
BankNot eMudr ani soneoft hespeci ali
seddi vi
si onsofRBIt hr oughwhi chi tpr ints&mi nt sI ndi anbanknot esandcoi ns.RBIest ablishedt heNat ionalPay ment sCor por ationofI ndi aasoneof
i
t sspeci aliseddi vi
siont or egulat et hepay mentandset tlementsy stemsi nI ndi a.Deposi tI nsur anceandCr edi tGuar anteeCor por ationwasest abl i
shedbyRBIasoneofi tsspeci aliseddi v i
sion
fort hepur poseofpr ov idingi nsur anceofdeposi tsandguar ant eei ngofcr editf acili
tiest oal lIndi anbanks. Itcommencedi tsoper ationson1Apr il1935i naccor dancewi tht heReser veBankof
IndiaAct ,1934. [
8]Theor i
gi nalshar ecapi talwasdi v idedi ntoshar esof100eachf ul l
ypai d.[9]Fol l
owi ngI ndi a'si ndependenceon15August1947,t heRBIwasnat ional i
sedon1Januar y
1949. Theov eralldi r
ect ionoft heRBIl ieswi tht he21- membercent ralboar dofdi rector s,composedof :thegov er nor ;fourdeput ygov ernor s;twof inancemi nistryr epr esent at i
v es( usual l
yt he
Economi cAf fairsSecr et aryandt heFi nanci alSer v i
cesSecr et ary );tengov ernment -nomi nat eddi rector s;andf ourdi r
ect or swhor epr esentl ocalboar dsf orMumbai , Kol kat a,Chennai ,andDel hi.
Eachoft hesel ocalboar dsconsi st soff ivemember swhor epr esentr egi onali nterest sandt hei nterest sofco- oper ativeandi ndi genousbanks. LifeI nsur anceCor por ationofI ndia( LI C)i san
Indianst atut or yinsuranceandi nv est mentcor por at ionheadquar teredi nt heci tyofMumbai , India.I tisundert heowner shi pofGov ernmentofI ndi a.TheLi feinsur anceCor por ationofI ndi awas
establ ishedon1Sept ember1956,whent hePar liamentofI ndi apassedt heLi f
eI nsur anceofI ndiaActt hatnat ional i
zedt hei nsur ancei ndust ryinI ndia.Ov er245i nsur ancecompani esand
prov identsoci eti
eswer emer gedt ocr eat et hest at e-ownedLi feI nsur anceCor porat i
onofI ndi a.TheOr i
ent alLi feI nsur anceCompany ,thef i
rstcompanyi nI ndiaof feringl ifeinsur ancecov erage,
wasest abl ishedi nKol kat ai n1818.I tspr imar yt ar getmar ketwast heEur opeansbasedi nI ndi a,andi tchar gedI ndi anshef t
ierpr emi ums. [
4]Sur endr anat hTagor ehadf oundedHi ndust an
Insur anceSoci ety,whi chl aterbecameLi feI nsur anceCor por at ion.TheBombayMut ualLi feAssur anceSoci et y,f ormedi n1870,wast hef irstnat ivei nsur ancepr ov ider .Ot heri nsur ance
compani esest abli
shedi nt hepr e- independenceer ai ncl udedThePar liamentofI ndi apassedt heLi feI nsur anceofI ndiaActon19June1956cr eat ingt heLi feInsur anceCor por ationofI ndia,
whi chst artedoper ati
ngi nSept emberoft haty ear .Itconsol idat edt hebusi nessof245pr ivat el ifeinsur ersandot herent iti
esof feringl ifei nsur anceser vices; thisconsi stedof154l i
fei nsur ance
compani es,16f oreigncompani esand75pr ov i
dentcompani es.Thenat ional izationoft hel ifeinsur ancebusi nessi nI ndi awasar esul toft heI ndust rialPol icyResol ut ionof1956,whi chhad
creat edapol icyf ramewor kf orext endi ngst at econt rol ov eratl east17sect or soft heeconomy ,includi ngl if
ei nsur ance
LocusSt andi:
Inlaw, standi ngorl ocusst andi ist het ermf ortheabi l
ityofapar t
yt odemonst r
atet ot hecour tsufficientconnect i
ont oandhar mf rom t helaworact ionchallengedt osuppor tthat
party
'spar tici
pationi nt hecase.St andi ngexi st sf rom oneoft hreecauses: 1.Thepar t
yi sdirect l
ysubj ectt oanadv er
seef f
ectbyt hest atuteoract i
oni nquest i
on,andt hehar m suf f
eredwi ll
conti
nueunl esst hecour tgr antsr eli
efi nt hef orm ofdamagesoraf indingt hatt hel awei therdoesnotappl ytot hepar tyort hatt helawi sv oi
dorcanbenul l
ifi
ed.Thi siscalledt he" somet hing
tolose"doct r
ine,inwhi cht hepar tyhasst andi ngbecauset heydi r
ect l
ywi l
lbehar medbyt hecondi ti
onsf orwhi cht heyar easki ngthecour tf
orr eli
ef .
2.Thepar t
yi snotdi r
ectlyhar medbyt he
conditi
onsbywhi cht heyar epet i
tioningt hecour tforr el
iefbutasksf ori tbecauset hehar mi nvolvedhassomer easonabl er elati
ont otheirsituation,andt hecont i
nuedexi stenceoft hehar m
mayaf fectot herswhomi ghtnotbeabl et oaskacour tforreli
ef.IntheUni tedSt ates, t
hisist hegr oundsf oraskingf oral awt obest r uckdownasv iolat
ingt heFi rstAmendment ,becausewhi l
e
theplaintif
fmi ghtnotbedi rectlyaf f
ect ed, thel awmi ghtsoadv erselyaf fectot herst hatonemi ghtnev erknowwhatwasnotdoneorcr eatedbyt hosewhof eartheywoul dbecomesubj ectto
thelaw –t heso- called" chill
i
ngef fect s"doct rine.3.Thepar t
yi sgrant edaut omat icst andingbyactofl aw.Undersomeenv i
ronment allawsi nt heUni t
edSt ates,apar tymaysuesomeone
causingpol l
utiontocer tainwat erway swi thoutaf eder alpermit,eveni fthepar t
ysui ngi snothar medbyt hepol l
utionbei nggener at ed.Thel awal l
owst hem t or eceiv
eapor t
ionofanyf ines
coll
ectedbyt hegov ernmentf rom t heirv i
ol at
ionofl aw.I nsomeU. S.st ates,aper sonwhobel ievesabook,f i
lm orot herwor kofar tisobscenemaysuei nt heirownnamet ohav et hewor k
banneddi r
ectlywi t
houthav ingt oaskaDi stri
ctAt torneyt odoso. IntheUni tedSt ates,t hecur rentdoct r
ineisthataper soncannotbr i
ngasui tchal l
engingt heconst it
utionali
tyofal awunl ess
theplaintiffcandemonst ratethathe/ she/ i
tisorwi ll"immi nently"behar medbyt hel aw.Ot her wise,t hecour twi llrul
et hatt hepl aint i
ff"l
acksst andi ng"t obr ingt hesuit,andwi lldismisst he
casewi thoutconsi der i
ngt hemer itsoft hecl aim ofunconst i
tuti
onality.Tohav eacour tdeclareal awunconst it
ut i
onal,t heremustbeav alidreasonf orthel awsui t.Thepar tysui ngmusthav e
somet hingt olosei nor dert osueunl essi thasaut omat icstandingbyact ionofl aw.
Judi ci alrev iewofadmi nistrativeact i
on:Thedoct rineofj udi cialr ev i
ewhasacqui reddi ffer entnuancesdur ingt hecour seofi tsev olutioni nUK, USA, andI ndi a.I tsor i
ginscanbet racedt oUK
whi chhasnowr it
tenConst i
tution.I thasbecomef irml yest abl i
shedi nUSAwi thawr ittenConst itutionest ablishingaf eder alpol ity.Howev er,t hedoct ri
ner eachedi tscul mi nat i
onundert he
IndianConst ituti
onwhent heSupr emeCour tofI ndi abest owedonj udicialreviewt hewi destambi tandampl it
udei nt hecasuscél èbr eKeshv anandBhar t
iv .St at eofKer ala.Int oday ’sera,t he
admi ni str
at i
onpl ay sani mpor tantr olei nev eryi ndividual ’
sl ife.Wehav eaccor dingl yseent hesubj ectofadmi nist rati
v el aw r emar kabl yexpandi ngt omeett hechangi ngdemandsofnew
political ,economi candsoci alcondi t
ions.Goi ngbyt hewor dsofJust i
ceQuadr i
,“ Theessent ialdi fferencebet weenaGov ernmentofdespot sandaGov er nmentofdemocr at i
callyelect ed
per sonsi st hati nt hef or mercase, ther ear enol imi tationsont hepower sort heirexer cisewher easi nt hel attercase, t hepower sar edef inedandt heirexer cisei sr egul atedbyl aw”t henecessi ty
ofj udi cialrev iewofadmi nistrat i
v eact ionscanbei nfer red.I nademocr acylikeI ndiawhi chi sgov ernedbyr uleofl aw, thepr incipl e“bet housohi ght helawabov ey ou”isr ightlyimpl i
ed.Judi ci al
reviewi sanessent i
alcomponentoft her ul
eofl aw. Judi cialr ev iewhasbeenr ecogni zedasanecessar yandbasi cr equi r
ementf ort heconst ruct i
onofanadv ancedci vil
izationt osaf eguar dt he
l
iber tyandr ight soft heci ti
zens.Thepowerofj udi cialr ev i
ewi nI ndiai ssi gnifi
cant lyv est edupont heHi ghCour tsandt heSupr emeCour tofI ndi a.Judi cialrev iewi sthecour t’
spowert oreview
theact ionsofot herbr anchesofgov er nment ,especi allyt hecour t’
spowert odeem i nv al idact ionsexer ci sedbyt hel egi slat i
v eandexecut i
v eas‘ unconst i
tut i
onal ’
.Br oadlyspeaki ng,judici al
reviewi nIndi adeal swi th:Judi cialRev i
ewofLegi sl ativeAct i
ons. Judi cialRev iewofAdmi nist rati
v eAct ions. Judicialr ev iewofJudi cialAct i
ons. Admi nistrativeact i
oni sther esiduar yact i
onwhi ch
i
snei therl egi sl
at i
venorj udicial .Itisconcer nedwi tht het r eat mentofapar ticularsi tuat ionandi sdev oidofgener al it
y .Ithasnopr ocedur alobl igationsofcol lecti
ngev i
denceandwei ghing
argument .Itisbasedonsubj ect ivesat i
sfactionwher edeci si oni sbasedonpol i
cyandexpedi ency .Itdoesnotdeci dear ightt houghi tmayaf fectar ight.Howev er,itdoesnotmeant hatt he
princi plesofnat uralj ust i
cecanbei gnor edcompl etelywhent heaut hor i
tyisexer cisi ngadmi ni strat i
vepower s.Unl esst hest atut epr ov i
desot herwi se,ami ni mum oft hepr i
nciplesofnat ur al
j
ust icemustal way sbeobser v eddependi ngont hef actsi tuat ionofeachcase. I
ncaseA. K.Kr aipakv .Uni onofI ndi a,( AIR1970SC150)t heCour twasoft hev iewt hati nor dert odet ermi ne
whet hert heact ionoft headmi nistrati
v eaut horityi squasi -j
udi ci aloradmi ni
st r
ative, onehast oseet henat ur eofpowerconf er r
ed, t
owhom poweri sgiv en,thef ramewor kwi thinwhi chpoweri s
conf er redandt heconsequences. Judi cialRev i
ewofAdmi nist rativeact i
oni spar tofenf orci ngt heconst itut i
onaldi scipl i
neov ert headmi ni strat i
v eagenci eswhi leexer cisingt heirpower s.Ithas
origini nEngl andwhi chwasadopt edi ncommonl awcount ries.I ndiat ooi nher i
tedt hei deaofj udi cialr eviewf r
om Engl and.I ndi ahadl aidi tsst r
uct ur eonEngl ishpr er
ogat ivewi t
hpat t
ernwhi ch
wasi ssuedbyt hecour tofKi ng'sBenchwi thav iew t oexer cisegener alsuper i
nt endenceov ert hedueobser vanceofl aw byof fi
cials/aut hor it
ieswhi leper for mingj udicialornon- j
udici al
funct ions.Judi cialRev iewi sagr eatweapont hr oughwhi char bitrar y
,unj ust,har assi ngandunconst itutionall awsar echecked.Judi cialr ev iewi st hecor ner stoneofconst i
tutionalism,whi ch
i
mpl iesl i
mi tedGov ernment .
Admi nistrat i
veact ionmaybest atut ory,hav i
ngt hef orceofl aw,ornon- stat utory,dev oi dofsuchl egalf or ce.Thebul koft headmi nistrativeact ioni sst atutor y
becauseast atuteort heConst i
tutiongi v
esi tal egalf or cebuti nsomecasesi tmaybenon- stat utor y,suchasi ssui ngdi r ect i
onst osubor dinat esnothav ingt hef orceofl aw,buti tsv i
olati
on
maybev isit
edwi t
hdi sci plinaryact ion.Thoughbyandl ar geadmi nistrati
v eact i
oni sdi scr etionar yandi sbasedonsubj ect ivesat isfact i
on,howev er,theadmi nist rativeaut hor i
tymustactf airly,
i
mpar tiall
yandr easonabl e.I nt hepr ocessofj udi cialr ev i
ewofl egi slativeandexecut iveact i
on, thecour tspi ckoutt hegol dent hr eadofr easonandmeani ngi nal aw;t heyshapeandmoul dt he
l
aw,r ev ealit sf i
tnessandnuances,smoot ht heangul ar i
ties,st rikedownt hebadl aw ori l
legalact ion,andmostessent i
alt oal l,exer tt hest rongmor alf or cesofr est r
ainti nt i
meswhen
expedi encyi sal l
.
Article136-j udi ci alr eview: Thepowerofj udi cialr eviewi snotonl yani nt egralpar toft heConst itutionandbutal soanessent ialfeat ur eoft heConst ituti
onofI ndi aandapar toft hebasi c
structur et hereof , whi chcannotbeabol i
shedorwhi t
tl
eddownev enbyanamendmentoft heConst itution.I nanydemocr at i
csoci etyjudi cialr ev iewi sthesouloft hesy stem becausewi thoutit
thedemocr acyt her uleofl awcannotbemai ntai ned.Thus,ext r aor di nar yj uri
sdictionoft heSupr emeCour tunderAr t
icle32or136oft heConst i
tutioncannotbet akenawaybyl egisl ationor
pri
nci pleofel ect ionorest oppelorev enbyamendi ngt heConst i
t ution. Ar t.136whi chi sint henat ur eofar esi duar yreservepowerofj udi cialrev i
ewi nthear eaofpubl iclawl ay sdownt hatt he
Supr emeCour tmay ,ini tsdi scret i
on,gr antspeci alleav et oappealf rom anyj udgment ,decr ee, det ermi nat i
on,sent enceoror deri nanycauseormat t
erpassedormadebyanycour tor
tri
bunal .TheAr t.136doesnotconf erar ightt oappealonanypar ty, buti tconf ersadi scret i
onarypoweront heSupr emeCour ttoi nterferei nsui tablecasest oadv ancet hecauseofj ust ice.On
onehandt hepowerunderAr t.136i sanexcept ionalpowerwhi chi st obeexer cisedspar i
ngly,ont heot herhandi tisanov erri
dingpowerwher eundert hecour tmaygener ousl yst epi nt o
i
mpar tjust iceandr emedyi njust i
ce.TheSupr emeCour t'
spowert ogr antspeci alleav etoappealagai nstdeci si
onofadmi nistrati
v et r
ibunal sandot heragenci es, hasbeennowr egar dedasan
i
mpor tantmodeofj udi cialreviewofadmi ni st r
at i
v eadj udicatoryact ions.TheSupr emeCour tmayexer cisei tspowert opr ev entt hemi scar r
iageofj usticewher et her ehasbeenani l
legal it
yor
i
rregul arit
yofpr ocedur eorv iolati
onoft hepr incipl esofnat uraljust ice. theSupr emeCour thas, inEngi neer i
ngMazdoorSabhav .HindCy cl esLt d.[1], heldt hatanar bi tr
ationundersect i
on10Aof
theActi snotat ribunalf orthepur poseofAr ticle136oft heConst itut i
on.Hencet heCour tcannotent ertainanappealunderAr ti
cle136f rom adeci sionoft he" arbi trator".
Fori nvoki ngAr t
.136
(1)t wocondi ti
onsmustbesat isfied.Fi rst,t hepr oposedappealmustbef r om aj udgment ,decree,det ermi nat ion,sent enceoror der( i
tmustnotbeagai nstpur elyexecut i
veoradmi nist r
ative
order )i.e.,thedet ermi nat i
onoror dershoul dbeaj udi cialorquasi -judi cialdet ermi nati
onoror der.Secondl y ,thesai ddet er mi nationoror dermusthav ebeenmadeorpassedbyanycour tor
tri
bunali nt het er ri
tor yofI ndia.Regar dingf irst,iti sbey ondcont rov er syt hatanawar dofanar bitratorundersect i
on10Ai saquasi -
judici alact .
UnderAr ti
cle136, theSupr emeCour tmaygr ant
speci alleav et oappealagai nstanydeci sionofaTr i
bunal .Whati saTr i
bunali snotdef i
ned,butt heSupr emeCour thasi nterpr etedi tinal i
ber alway .At ri
bunali sabodyoraut horitywhi chi s
vested, withjudi cialpowert oadj udi cateonquest ion' ofl aworf act , af fect i
ngt her ightsofci ti
zensi naj udicialmanner .Suchaut horiti
esorbodi esmusthav ebeenconst itutedbyt hest at eand
vestedwi t hjudi cialasdi sti
ngui shedf rom admi ni strativeorexecut ivef unct i
ons.Ar ti
cle136doesnotconf erar ightofappealassuchbutadi scr etionar ypoweront heSupr emeCour tt ogr ant
speci alleav et oappeal .TheSupr emeCour thashel dt hatev eni ncaseswher especi alleav ei sgrant ed,t hedi scr eti
onar ypowercont inuest or emai nwi tht hecour tev enatt hest agewhent he
appealComesupf orhear i
ng.Gener ally,thecour tdoesnot ,grantspeci alleav et oappeal , unlessi tisshownt hatexcept i
onalandspeci alci rcumst anceexi st,thatsubst antialandgr av ei njustice
hasbeendoneandt hecasei nquest i
onpr esent ssuf ficientgr avit yt owar rantar eviewoft hedeci si onappeal edagai nst.Itconf ersav erywi dedi scret i
onont heSupr emeCour tt obeexer ci
sed
forsat isfyingt hedemandsofj ustice.InBhar atCoki ngCoalCo.v .Kar am ChandThapar( 2003( 1)SCC6. ),theSupr emeCour thel d,Article136“ hasbeenengr af t
edbyt hef oundingf ather soft he
Const itutionf ort hepur poseofav oidingmi schi efofi njust iceont hewr ongassumpt ionofl aw.Thej ust i
cedel i
ver ysystem oft hecount rypr ompt st hiscour ttoi nt erfer eunderAr ticle136oft he
Const itutionwhent heneedoft hesoci etyst andsest abl ishedandt hej udgment ,i
flef toutst anding, woul dnotonl ycreatepr ejudi cebutwoul dhav eot herwiseadv er seef fectupont hesoci et y
.”
Soci alAct ionl itigationorpubl ici nter estl i
tigat ion:Publ icI nt er estLi tigat i
onorPI Li sl i
t igat ionf ort hepr ot ect i
onofpubl i
ci nt erest .Iti sl itigat ioni nt roducedi nacour tofl aw,notbyt he
aggr i
ev edpar tybutbyt hecour ti tselforbyanyot herpr ivat epar ty .I tisnotnecessar y ,f ort heexer ciseoft hecour t’sj ur isdi ction, thatt heper sonwhoi st hev i
ct im oft hev i
ol at i
onofhi sorher
ri
ghtshoul dper sonal l
yappr oacht hecour t.PIL,atl eastasi thaddev elopedi nI ndi a,i sdi ffer entf rom cl assact ionorgr oupl it
igat ion.Thel at teri sdr i
v enpr imar i
lybyef ficiencyconsi der at ions,
wher east hePI Li sconcer nedatpr ov idingaccesst oj ust icet oal lsoci etalconst i
tuent s.PI Li nI ndi ahasbeenapar toft heconst i
tut ionall iti
gat ionandnotci villitigat ion. [i]
Af t
ergai ni ng
i
ndependencef rom t heBr i
tishr uleonAugust15,1947,t hepeopl eofI ndi aadopt edaConst itut ioni nNov ember1949wi tht hehopet oest abl isha‘ ‘
sov erei gnsoci al i
stsecul ardemocr at i
c
republ ic’’.
[ii]Amongot her s,t heConst i
tut ionai mst osecur et oal li tsci tizensj ust ice( soci al,economi candpol iti
cal ),l i
ber ty( oft hought ,expr essi on,bel ief ,f aithandwor shi p)andequal ity( of
stat usandofoppor t
uni ty) .
[iii
]Theseai mswer enotmer el yaspi rat ional .Thef oundi ngf at her swant edt oest abl ishanI ndi awi thoutanydi v isionsofcast e, cr eed, rel i
gionandsex, wher eev er yone
hadequalr i
ght sandoppor tuni ties.Theywant edt odev elopI ndi ai nt oaper f
ectegal itariansoci et ywher eal lfundament alr ight swer esecur ed, freef rom expl oitat ionandsubj ugat i
onoft hel ong
suppr essedpeopl eofI ndi a.Themai nt ool sempl oy edt oachi ev esuchsoci alchangewer et hepr ov isionsonf undament alr ight s( FRs)andt hedi rect ivepr inci plesofst atepol icy( DPSPs) , whi ch
Aust indescr ibedast he‘ ‘
consci enceoft heConst itut i
on’ ’
.[iv]I nor dert oensur et hatFRsdi dnotr emai nempt ydecl ar ations, thef oundi ngf at her smadev ar iouspr ov isionsi nt heConst i
tut iont o
est abl i
shani ndependentj udi ciar y .
Thepr ov i
si onsr elatedt oFRs,DPsandi ndependentj udi ciar yt oget herpr ov idedaf irm const itut i
onalf oundat i
ont ot heev olut i
onofPI Li nI ndi a.Themaj or
hur dlet ot hedev elopmentofPI LorSALi nI ndi awast hel ocusst andir ule.Locusst andii st het er mf ort heabi l
ityofapar t yt odemonst rat et ot hecour ti nsuf ficientconnect iont oandhar m
from t hel aworact i
onchal lengedt osuppor tt hatpar ty ’
spar t i
cipat ioni nt hecase.Ot her wi se,t hecour twi llr ulet hatt hepl ai nt if
f“ lacksst andi ng”t obr ingt hesui tandwi lldi smi sst hecase
wi t
houtconsi der i
ngt hemer itsoft hecl ai m. Modi fi
cat i
onoft het radi tionalr equi rementofst andi ngwassi nequanonf ort heev ol ut i
onofPI Landanypubl icpar ticipat ioni nj ust iceadmi nist rat ion.
Theneedwasmor epr essi ngi nacount ryl i
keI ndi awher eagr eatmaj or ityofpeopl ewer eei theri gnor antoft hei rr ight sorwer et oopoort oappr oacht hecour t.Real isingt hi sneed,t heCour t
heldt hatanymemberofpubl icact ingbonaf ideandhav ingsuf ficienti nt eresthasar ightt oappr oacht hecour tforr edr essalofal egalwr ong, especi allywhent heact ualpl ai nt i
ffsuf fer sf rom
somedi sabi lityort hev i
ol at i
onofcol lect ivedi f fusedr i
ght si satst ake. [vii
i]Oncet hehur dlesposedbyl ocusst andi andt hepr ocedur et of il
ewr itpet itionswer er emov ed, thej udi ciar yf ocusedi ts
attent iont opr ov i
dingar obustbasi st opur suear angeofi ssuesunderPI L.Thi swasachi ev edbybot hi nter pret i
ngexi st ingFRswi del yandbycr eat ingnew Fundament alRi ght s.Ar ticle21
prov edt obet hemostf er til
epr ov isioni nt heev ol utionofnewFundament alRi ght s. [
ix]‘ ‘
Li fe’’ int hisar ti
cl ehasbeeni nt er pr et edt omeanmor et hanmer ephy sicalexi st ence; it‘ ‘
incl udesr ightt o
l
ivewi thhumandi gnityandal lthatgoesal ongwi thi t’
’.[x]Theev er -wi deni nghor i
zonofAr ticle21i si ll
ust ratedbyt hef actt hatt heCour thasr eadi nt oi t,int eral ia, ther i
ghtt oheal t
h, livel ihood,
unpol lut edenv i
ronment , shel ter,cl eandr i
nki ngwat er ,pr i
v acy ,legalai d, andv ar i
ousr ight sofunder -tr
ials, conv ict sandpr isoner s.I tisi mpor tantt onot et hati namaj orityofcasest hej udi ciar y
relieduponDPSPsf orsuchext ensi on.Thej udi ciar yhasal soi nv okedAr ticle21t ogi v edi rect i
onst ogov er nmentonmat ter saf fect ingl ivesofgener alpubl i
c, ort oi nv alidat est at eact ions, ort o
grantcompensat ionf orv iol at i
onofFundament alRi ght s.Publ icI nt er estLi ti
gat i
onpopul ar lyknownasPI Lcanbebr oadl ydef inedasl it
igat ioni nt hei nt er estoft hatnebul ousent ity:t hepubl i
ci n
gener al .Pr iort o1980s, onl yt heaggr i
ev edpar tycoul dper sonal lyknockt hedoor sofj ust iceandseekr emedyf orhi sgr i
ev anceandanyot herper sonwhowasnotper sonal lyaf fect edcoul dnot
knockt hedoor sofj ust i
ceasapr oxyf ort hev i
ct im ort heaggr ievedpar ty.Inot herwor ds, onl yt heaf fect edpar tieshadt hel ocusst andi( st andi ngr equi redi nl aw)t of ileacaseandcont inuet he
l
itigat ionandt henonaf fect edper sonshadnol ocusst andit odoso.Andasar esul t,t her ewashar dlyanyl inkbet weent her ight sguar ant eedbyt heConst i
tut ionofI ndi anUni onandt hel aws
madebyt hel egi slatur eont heonehandandt hev astmaj or i
tyofi llit
er ateci ti
zensont heot her .TheCour tent er tainedal et terf r
om t wopr of essor satt heUni ver sityofDel hi seeki ngenf or cement
oft heconst itut ionalr ightofi nmat esatapr ot ect ivehomei nAgr awhower el i
v i
ngi ni nhumananddegr adi ngcondi tions.I nMi ssVeenaSet hiv .St ateofBi har [xv i
],t hecour tt reat edal etter
addr essedt oaj udgeoft hecour tbyt heFr eeLegalAi dCommi tt
eei nHazar ibagh, Bi harasawr itpet iti
on.I nCi tizensf orDemocr acyt hroughi tsPr esi dentv .St at eofAssam andOt her s[xv ii],the
cour tent er tainedal et terf rom Shr iKul di pNay ar( aj our nal i
st ,inhi scapaci tyasPr esi dentofCi tizensf orDemocr acy )t oaj udgeoft hecour tal legi nghuman- right sv i
ol ationsofTer ror i
stand
Disr upt iv eAct iviti
es( Prev ent i
on)Act( TADA)det ainees;i twast reat edasapet itionunderAr ticle32oft heConst itutionofI ndi a.Andasar esul tanyci ti
zenofI ndi aoranyconsumergr oupsor
soci alact iongr oupscanappr oacht heapexcour toft hecount ryseeki ngl egalr emedi esi nal lcaseswher et hei nt er est sofgener alpubl icorasect i
onofpubl icar eatst ake.Fur ther ,publ i
c
i
nt er estcasescoul dbef iledwi thouti nv est mentofheav ycour tf eesasr equi redi npr ivat eci v i
ll itigat i
on. TheSupr emeCour t,thr oughpubl ici nt er estl it
igat ion,hasf oundanewhi st oricalbasi s
fort hel egi timat i
onofj udi cialpowerandhasacqui rednewcr edi bi li
tywi tht hepeopl e.Thi sdev el opmenthasbeent her esul tofi nt ensesoci alact ivism ont hepar tofsomeoft hej ust icessuch
asJust iceP.N.Bhagwat iandJust iceV.R.Kr ishnaI yeroft heSupr emeCour tofI ndi a.Thepor tal soft heCour tar et hr ownopent ot hepoor , thei gnor antandt hei lli
ter ate, andt hei rcaseshav e
star tedcomi ngbef oret heCour tt hr oughpubl ici nt er estl iti
gat ion. Publ ici nterestl i
tigat ioni nI ndi ai schannel ledt hr ought woav enues.I ft hecompl ainti sofa‘ legalwr ong’ t
heappr opr iatef or um
i
st heHi ghCour toft hest at eunderAr ti
cl e226oft heConst itut i
on.I fa‘ f undament alr ight ’i sal legedt ohav ebeenv iolat edt her emedymaybesoughtf rom t heHi ghCour tordi rect l
yf rom t he
Supr emeCour tunderAr ticl e32. Par tI IIoft heI ndi anConst itutionenumer atesaBi llofRi ght swi thinAr ticl es12t o32.Ar ticle13pr ov idest hatanyl awswhi char ei nconsi stentwi tht he
Const i
tut ionar ev oid.Whi leAr ticle13doesnotdi rect lyspeakoft heSupr emeCour tofI ndi ahav ingt hepowert odecl ar et hel aw unconst itut ional ,thi shasbeent akent obet hest r uct ur al
assumpt i
onoft heConst itut ionandi npar t
icul arofAr ti
cl es13and32.Ar t
icle14enshr inest heequalpr ot ect ionoft hel awsandequal it
ybef or et hel aw,andl at erar ticlessett hisouti nmor e
det ailinspeci ficar eas.Ar ticle19i soneoft hemostf undament alar ticles,saf eguar di ngf reedom ofspeech,associ at i
on,assembl y,ther ightt omov eandr esi dewi thi nt het er ritoriesofI ndi a,
andt opr act iceanyt radeorpr of essi on. Thef irstt hemeoft hef oundat ionofPI Li st henecessar yi nter rel at i
onshi pbet weenPar tsI I
IandI Voft heConst itut i
on.Not wi thst andi ngt hi scl ea
rconst itutionalpr ovisiont heCour thasf orgedaconnect ionbet weenPar tsI I
IandI Vi nt wor el atedway s.Thesecondt hemewhi chi sev identwi thint hel eadi ngcasesi st heemphasi spl aced
upont her espectf orl egal ityandt her ul eofl aw.Thi si spar ti
cul ar l
yappar entwi thi ncaseswhi chdonotont hei rst rictf act si nv olveani nt errel at i
onshi pbet weenPar tsI I
IandI Voft he
Const i
tut ion,ev en t hough cer tain oft he di ct at her ein ar e,asseen abov e,di rect lyr el ev antt ot hatr el at i
onshi p. Col lect i
v er ight s,t hus,can be sai dt o possess t he f ol l
owi ng t hr ee
char act erist ics: Suchar ightexi stsbecauseanaspectoft hei nt er estofhumanbei ngsj ust i
f ieshol dingsomeper sont obesubj ectt oadut y .
Thei nt er est sar ei nt erest sofi ndi v i
dual sas
member sofagr oupi napubl icgood,and‘ ther ighti sar i
ghtt ot hatpubl i
cgoodbecausei tser v est hei ri nt er estasmember soft hatgr oup’ .
Thei nt er estofnosi ngl ememberoft hatgr oupi n
thatpubl i
cgoodi ssuf fi
ci entbyi tsel ftoj ust ifyhol dinganot herper sont obesubj ectt oadut y.Basedont hesepr i
nci pl es, theCour thasst at edt hatPI Lsar ef ort hesev eralmi ndl ess, speechl ess
poor ,thosewhoar enotawar eoft heirr ight sandl ackt hemeanst oknockoft heCour t’sdoort odemandj ust ice.I ti sf ort hemi l
lionsofI ndi ansl i
vingi nabj ectpov er ty, i
lli
ter acyandcompl ete
obl i
v ionoft hei rr ightst hatt hel ocusst andir ulehasbeenr el axedbyCour tswi thr espectt oPI Ls.PI Li st her ef or e,t hev oi ceoft heot her wi sespeechl essmi llionswhosei nt er est scannowbe
repr esent edi nCour t
s.I tist heswor dpr ov idedt ot hecommonmant of i
ghtt hei nj ust iceofsoci etyaswel last heGov er nment .Itensur est hatt heGov er nmentdoesnotbecomeaut hor itar i
an.I t
cur bst hepoweroft heGov er nment , bot hi ni mpl ement ingunconst itut i
onal lawsaswel l asi nt heappl icat ionoff airl aws.
Abus/ compl exi tyofPI L:Howev er ,thedev elopmentofPI Lhasal souncov eredi tspi t
fall
sanddr awbacks.Asar esul t,theapexcour titselfhasbeencompel ledt ol aydowncer taingui del i
nest o
gov er nt hemanagementanddi sposalofPI Ls.Andt heabuseofPI Li salsoi ncr easi ngal ongwi t
hi tsextendedandmul ti
facet eduse.ofl ate,manyoft hePI Lact ivi
st si nthecount r
yhav ef ound
thePI Lasahandyt oolofhar assmentsi ncef rivolouscasescoul dbef il
edwi thouti nvest mentofheav ycour tf eesasr equi redinpr i
vateci villi
tigationanddeal scoul dt henbenegot iatedwi th
thev ictimsofst ayor dersobt ainedi ntheso- calledPI Ls. Justasaweaponmeantf ordef encecanbeusedequal lyef fectivelyforof f
ence,t hel ower ingoft hel ocusst andir equirementhas
per mi ttedpr ivatel ymot ivat
edi nter eststoposeaspubl ici nterest s. TheabuseofPI Lhasbecomemor erampantt hani tsuseandgenui necausesei therr ecededt ot hebackgr oundorbegant o
bev iewedwi t
ht hesuspi ci
ongener atedbyspur i
ouscausesmoot edbypr ivat elymot iv
at edi nterestsint hedi sgui seoft heso- call
edpubl i
ci nterests.St epsnecessar y:Witht hev iewt or egulat e
theabuseofPI Lt heapexcour titsel fhasf ramedcer taingui delines( togov ernt hemanagementanddi sposalofPI Ls.)Thecour tmustbecar efult oseet hatt hepet i
tionerwhoappr oachesi tis
act i
ngbonaf ideandnotf orper sonalgai n,pr ivatepr ofitorpol iticalorot herobl iqueconsi derati
ons.Thecour tshoul dnotal low it
spr ocesst obeabusedbypol i
ticiansandot herst odel ay
l
egi timat eadmi nistrativ
eact ionort ogai npol i
ticalobj ectiv es.Pol iti
calpr essur egr oupswhocoul dnotachi evet hei raimst hrought headmi nistrati
v epr ocessorpol it
icalpr ocessmayt r
yt ouse
thecour ts(throught hemeansofPI Ls)tof ur thert heircl osel yv est edai msandi nterests.Ther emaybecaseswher et hePI Lmayaf fectther ightofper sonsnotbef or et hecour t, andt her eforei n
shapi ngt her elieft hecour tmusti nv ari
abl yt akei ntoaccounti t
si mpactont hosei nterest sandt hecour tmustexer cisegr eatestcaut i
onandadoptpr ocedur eensur ingsuf fi
ci entnot i
cet oal l
i
nt erest sl i
kelyt obeaf fect
ed. Atpr esent,thecour tcant reatal etterasawr itpet iti
onandt akeact i
onuponi t.But , itisnotev eryl
etterwhi chmaybet reatedasawr itpet i
tionbyt hecour t.The
cour twoul dbej ust if
iedi ntr
eat ingt heletterasawr i
tpet itiononl yint hef ollowi ngcases( i)Itisonlywher ethel etteri saddr essedbyanaggr ievedper sonor (ii)apubl icspi r
itedi ndi vi
dualor (i
ii
)a
soci alact i
ongr oupf orenfor cementoft heconst it
ut ionalort hel egalright sofaper soni ncust odyorofacl assorgr oupofper sonswhobyr easonofpov erty,disabi l
ityorsoci allyor
economi callydi sadv antagedposi tionf i
ndi tdi ffi
cul ttoappr oacht hecour tforr edress. I
nt helandmar kcaseofRaunaqI nternat i
onalLimi tedv /sI VRConst r
uct ionLt d, JusticeSuj ataVManohar
ri
ght lyenunci at edt hat-whenast ayor deri sobt ainedatt hei nst anceofapr ivat epar t
yorev enatt heinstanceofabodyl i
tigati
nginpubl i
ci nterest ,anyi nt erim or derwhi chst opst hepr oject
from pr oceedi ngf urthermustpr ov idefort her eimbur sementofcost stot hepubl i
ci ncaseul ti
mat elytheli
tigat i
onst artedbysuchani ndi vi
dualorbodyf ails.I not herwor dst hepubl icmustbe
compensat edbot hfort hedel ayi nt heimpl ement ati
onoft hepr oj ectandt hecostescal ati
onr esul t
ingfrom suchdel ay .
Ev ent houghi tisv erymuchessent ialt ocur bt hemi suseandabuseof
PIL,anymov ebyt hegov ernmentt oregul at et hePI Lr esul t
si nwi despreadpr otest sf rom t hosewhoar enotawar eofi tsabuseandequat eanyf orm ofr egul ationwi ther osionoft heir
fundament alr ight s.Undert heseci rcumst ancest heSupr emeCour tofI ndiai sr equiredt ost epinbyi ncorpor ati
ngsaf eguar dspr ovi
dedbyt heci vi
lpr ocedur ecodei nmat tersofst ayor der s
/injunct ionsi nt hear enaofPI L
PowerofSupr emeCour t:ThePowerofj udi cialr eviewi saconst itutionalpowersi ncei ti
st heConst itut i
onwhi chi nvestst hesepower si nt heSupr emeCour tandt heHi ghCour tsint heSt at es.
Sof art heSupr emeCour ti sconcer nedt her elev antAr ti
clesar e32wi t
hAr ti
cles12and13andAr ticle136.Ar ticle32empower stheSupr emeCour ttoi ssuedi rections,or dersorwr its( whi ch
arespeci f
icallyment ionedt her ein)f ort heenf orcementoff undament alr ight s.Whati suni queaboutAr t
icle32i sthatt her ightt omov et heSupr emeCour tundert hisAr ti
clei si tsel fa
Fundament alRi ght .Thust heSupr emeCour ti smadeguar antororpr ot ectoroft hef undament alr ight s.Dr .Ambedkarcal l
edi tt hesouloft heConst i
tution.TheSupr emeCour thasf ur t
her
expandedt hescopeoft hisAr ticl eev eni ncaseswher enof undament alrighti sinv olved.InJhummanSi nghv .CBI( 1995( 3)SCC420.Al soseeM. C.Meht av .Uni onofI ndi a, A.I
.R1987, SC965) ,
i
twashel dt hatwher eaper sonmani pul at edf act sinor dertogetadecr eebyacour tt odef eatt heendsofj ust i
ce,insuchasi tuat i
onpet it
ionwashel dt obemai nt ainabl eunderAr t i
cle32.
ThoughAr ti
cle32i scalled. Ar ticle32oft heI ndi anConst ituti
ongi vest her ightt oi ndi vi
dual st omov et otheSupr emeCour tt oseekj usticewhent heyf eelt hatt hei rr i
ghthasbeen‘ undul y
depr i
ved’.Theapexcour ti sgi v ent heaut hor ityt oi ssuedi r
ectionsoror der sfort heexecut i
onofanyoft herightsbest owedbyt heconst itutionasi tisconsi dered‘ thepr ot ectorandguar ant orof
Fundament alRi ght s’
.UnderAr ticl e32, thepar l
iamentcanal soent rustanyot hercour ttoexer ciset hepoweroft heSupr emeCour t,pr ov idedt hatitiswi t
hini tsJur isdi ction.Andunl esst her ei s
someConst i
tut ionalamendment ,t her ight sguar anteedbyt hisAr ticl
ecannotbesuspended.Ther efore,wecansayt hatanassur edr i
ghti sguar ant eedt oi ndiv i
dual sf orenf orcementof
fundament alr ight sbyt hi sar ticleast hel awpr ov i
dest her i
ghtt oani ndividualt odi rect l
yappr oacht heSupr emeCour twi thoutf oll
owi ngal engt hi
erpr ocessofmov ingt ot hel owercour tsf irst
ast hemai npur poseofWr itJur i
sdi ct i
onunderAr ti
cle32i stheenf or cementofFundament alRi ghts. DrAmbedkarst at
edt hat :
“I
fIwasaskedt onameanypar t
icularar ticlei nt hi
sConst i
tut ionas
themosti mpor tant-anar ti
cl ewi thoutwhi cht hisConst it
ut i
onwoul dbeanul lity—Icoul dnotr ef ert oanyot herar ti
cleexceptt hisone.I tist hev erysouloft heConst itutionandt hev eryhear tof
i
tandIam gl adt hatt heHousehasr eal i
zedi tsi mpor tance. ”Thenat ur eofWr itJur i
sdictionpr ov idedundert hisAr ti
clei sdi scret ionar y.Ther ear ef ivei mpor tantf actor sf orgui di ngt his
discretion.Ant i
-freedom’ clauseswer ei ncl udedi nAr ti
cle32byt he42ndAmendment .Suchanamendmentwasmadedur i
ngt het imeofemer gencywheni twaspassedt or educe‘ bot hdi rectly
andi ndi r
ectly’t hej uri
sdi ctionoft heSupr emeCour tandt heHi ghCour t
st orev iewt heappl icat ionoff undament alr i
ghts.Then43r damendmentoft heI ndianConst itut i
onwaspassedwhi ch
repealedAr ti
cle32Ai mmedi atel yaf tert heemer gencywasr evoked.Fol l
owi ngt heamendment ,theSupr emeCour tagai ngai nedt hepowert oquasht hest atel aws.Al so, t
heHi ghCour tsgott he
powert oquest i
ont heconst it
ut ionalv alidit yofcent rallaws. Limitat i
onst oAr ticle32: Therear ecer t ainci rcumst ancesdur i
ngwhi cht heci ti
zensdonotgett hepr ivil
egeswhi cht heyoughtt o
underAr ti
cle32.Ther efore,t hesi tuat ionswhent hef undament alrightsmaybedeni edt ot heci ti
zensbutt heconst i
tutionalr emedi eswi llnotbeav ai l
ablei .e.Ar ti
cle32wi llnotbeappl icabl e
are:UnderAr ticle33,t hePar li
amenti sempower edt omakechangesi nt heappl icationofFundament alRightst oar medf orcesandt hepol i
cear eempower edwi tht hedut yt oensur epr oper
dischar geoft hei rduties.Dur i
ngt heoper at i
onofMar tiallawi nanyar ea, anyper sonmaybei ndemni fiedbyt hePar liament ,ifsuchper soni sinser vi
ceoft hest ateorcent ralgov ernmentf ort he
actsofmai ntenanceorr est orat ionofl awandor derunderAr ti
cle34. UnderAr ticle352oft heConst i
tut ionwhenanemer gencyi spr oclai med, theguar anteedFundament alRi ght soft heci tizens
remai nssuspended.Al so, Fundament alRi ght sguar ant eedunderAr ti
cle19i sr estrictedbyt hePar liamentunderAr ti
cle358dur i
ngt hependencyofanemer gency .Article359conf erst hepower
tot hePr esidentt osuspendAr t i
cle32oft heConst it
ut i
on.Theor deri st obesubmi t
tedt ot hePar l
iamentandt hePar liamentmaydi sappr ov ePresident ’sor der.Theconst it
ut i
onalr emedi es
prov i
dedt ot heci t
izensar et hepower fulor der swi t
hi mmedi ateeff ect.Andt hewr itsar emost lyinv okedagai nstt hest at eandar ei ssuedwhenPI Lsar efiled.TheWr itJur isdictionswhi char e
conf erredbyt heConst it
ut i
ont houghhav epr er ogat ivepower sandar edi scretionar yinnat ur eandy ett heyar eunboundedi ni tsl i
mi ts.Thedi screti
on, howev er, i
sexer cisedonl egalpr inci ples.
Ther efore,thef irstessent i
alonwhi cht heconst i
tutionalsy stem i sbasedi nt heabsenceofar bi tr
ar ypower .Hence,t hedeci sionmustbet akenont hebasi sofsoundpr incipl
esandr ulesand
shoul dnotbebasedonwhi ms, fanci esorhumour .Andi fadeci si
oni snotbackedbyanypr inci plesorr ules, t
hensuchadeci sioni sconsi deredar bi
trar yandi stakennoti naccor dancewi tht he
ruleofl aw.
PowerofHi ghCour t
st oi ssuecer tainwr i
ts.Ar t
icle226: (1)Not wi t
hstandi ngany thingi nar t
icl
e32, ever yHi ghCour tshal lhav epower ,t
hroughoutt het err
it
or iesi nr elati
ont owhi chi texer ci
ses
j
ur i
sdict i
on, toi ssuet oanyper sonoraut hority,i
ncludi nginappr opri
atecases, anyGov ernment ,wi thi
nt hoset err
itoriesdi rect i
ons, ordersorwr i
ts, i
ncludingwr it
si nt henat ur eofhabeascor pus,
mandamus, pr ohibiti
on, quowar rantoandcer t
iorari,
oranyoft hem, fort heenf or cementofanyoft her ightsconf err
edbyPar tIIIandf oranyot herpur pose.(2)Thepowerconf err
edbycl ause( 1)
toissuedi r
ect i
ons, order sorwr it
st oanyGov ernment ,authorityorper sonmayal sobeexer ci
sedbyanyHi ghCour texer cisi ngj ur i
sdicti
oni nrelat i
ont othet er ri
tor i
eswi t
hinwhi cht hecauseof
action, whol lyori npar t,arisesf ort heexer ciseofsuchpower ,notwithst andingt hatt heseatofsuchGov ernmentoraut hor ityort her esidenceofsuchper soni snotwi thint hoset err i
tories.(3)
Wher eanypar tyagainstwhom ani nterim order ,whet herbywayofi njunct ionorst ayori nanyot hermanner ,ismadeon, ori nanypr oceedi ngsr elatingto,apet iti
onundercl ause( 1),wi t
hout -
(a)
furnishingt osuchpar tycopi esofsuchpet it
ionandal ldocument sinsuppor toft hepl eaf orsuchi nterim or der ;and( b)gi vingsuchpar t
yanoppor tunit
yofbei nghear d,makesanappl i
cat iont o
theHi ghCour tf orthev acat i
onofsuchor derandf urnishesacopyofsuchappl icat iont ot hepar tyinwhosef avoursuchor derhasbeenmadeort hecounselofsuchpar ty, theHi ghCour tshal l
disposeoft heappl i
cationwi thinaper i
odoft woweeksf r
om t hedat eonwhi chi ti sr ecei vedorf rom t hedat eonwhi cht hecopyofsuchappl i
cat i
oni ssof ur nished, whichev erislater,orwher e
theHi ghCour tisclosedont hel astdayoft hatper i
od, beforet heexpi ryoft henextdayaf terwar dsonwhi cht heHi ghCour tisopen; andi ft heappl i
cationisnotsodi sposedof ,t
heint eri
m or der
shal l
,ont heexpi r
yoft hatper iod,or ,
ast hecasemaybe, t
heexpi r
yoft hesai dnextday ,standv acat ed.(4)Thepowerconf erredonaHi ghCour tbyt hisarticleshal lnotbei nder ogat i
onoft he
powerconf er redont heSupr emeCour tbycl ause( 2)ofar t
icle32.Enshr inedunderPar tVoft heConst itut i
onofI ndia,Ar ticle226pr ov i
dest heHi ghCour tswi t
ht hepowert oi ssuewr its,
i
ncl udingwr i
tsi nthef or m ofhabeascor pus,mandamus,pr ohibit
ion,quowar rant o,cer t
iorari,oranyoft hem,t oanyper sonoraut hority,includingt hegov ernment .Ar t
icle226oft heI ndi an
Const itutiongi vesHi ghCour t
st hepowerandabi l
i
tyt oenf orceanyoft hebasi cf undament alri
ght sguar ant eedbyPar tII
Ioft heConst i
tutionofI ndia,1949, orf oranyot herr eason. Accor di ngt o
Article226( 1) ,eachHi ghCour twithinIndia’st err
itori
alj uri
sdictionhast heabi lityandpowert oi ssueor der s,inst r
uct ions, andwr it
s,toanyi ndiv i
dualoraut hor ity,includingt hegov er nment ,for
theenf orcementofPar tIIIoft heIndi anConst i
tuti
onorbasi cfundament alr i
ghtsandot herlegalr i
ght swi thini tsownj urisdi ction. Arti
cle226( 2)empower st heHi ghCour tswi ththeaut hor it
yt o
i
ssueor ders, inst r
uctions, andwr it
st oanygov ernmentaut hor i
tyoranyi ndi vi
dual , out sidet heirownl ocalj ur isdicti
oni nci rcumst anceswhent hecauseofact ioni scompl et elyorpar tiallywi thin
theirlocalj ur i
sdi cti
ondespi t
et hef actthatsuchgov er nmentoraut hor i
ty’sseatort hei ndiv i
dual ’
sdomi cil
ei snotwi t hinthet erritory.Accor dingt oAr ti
cle226( 3) ,whenani nt erim orderi si ssued
agai nstt her espondentunderAr ticle226i nt hef orm ofani njuncti
onorast aywi t
hout :prov idingt her espondentwi thacopyoft hepet it
ionandanyr elev antev idence;andpr ov idingt he
respondentwi thanoppor tunitytobehear d.TheHi ghCour tshal ldeci deont heappl icationwi thintwoweeksofr ecei v
ingt heappl icati
onorwi t
hint woweeksoft hedat eonwhi cht heot her
partyr ecei vedt heappl ication, whichev erislater.Iftheappl i
cat i
oni snotsodi sposedof ,t
hei nter i
m or dershal lbev acat edont heexpi ryoft hatper iod,or,i
ft heHi ghCour ti scl osedont hel ast
dayoft hatper iod,befor et heexpi ryoft henextdayonwhi cht heHi ghCour tisopen, thei nter
im or dershal lbev acat ed.Accor dingt oAr ti
cle226( 4) ,
thejur i
sdi ctiongr antedt otheHi ghCour t s
underAr ticl
e226doesnotpr ecludet heSupr emeCour tfrom usi ngitspower sunderAr ti
cle32( 2) .
Pr ov isionofj udi cialcont r
olov eradmi ni strativ eact s:Ther ehasbeent remendousexpansi oni nt headmi ni strat i
vepr ocess.Thi sisnat ur alinawel farest at easawel far est at ei sbasi callyan
admi nistrativest ate.Soexpansi oni nt headmi ni strat ivepoweri saconsequenceoft heconceptofwel far est ate.Al llegalpower ,accor dingt oH. W. R.Wade,' asopposedt odut y,i si nev i
tabl y
discr et ionar yt oagr eat erorl esserext ent…'Ther efor e,i nor dert omai ntainr uleofl aw i ti sabsol ut elynecessar yt ocont rolt hi
sdi scret i
onar yel ementi nt headmi nist r
at i
v epower .Just ice
Dougl asoft heU. S.Supr emeCour thasr i
ght lyr emar kedt hati tist hemaj est yoft headmi ni strativel awt hati thasbeenabl et ocont rolabsol utediscr et i
onont hepar toft hegov er nmentorany
rulerorof fi
cialbecauseabsol utedi scr etioni sar uthl essmast er .Iti smor edest ruct iveoff r
eedom t hananyofman' si nv ent i
ons. Ther ef ore,t hej udici alcont rolov ert headmi nist rat iveact ion
becomesi mper at ive.Ther ear et wot y pesofr emedi esagai nstt headmi nistrativ ewr ongs–pr ivat elawr emedyofsui tandj udicialr ev i
ewt hroughwr its.Ci v illawr emedycoul dbeef fect iveift he
procedur ei ssi mpl echeapandexpedi tious,whi chi snotsoi nI ndi a.Ther ef ore,t hisr emedyi snotef fect iveagai nstt headmi ni
st ration.Ther ei st r emendousscopef ort hisr emedyi n
admi ni strativemat ter ssi ncei tliesatt hedoor -stepofal itigant .Iti st hepubl icl awr emedyofj udicialr ev iewt hroughwr i
tswhi chi sv eryef fect iveandexpedi tious, thoughi tiscost lyasonl yHi gh
Cour tsandt heSupr emeCour thav ethepowert oi ssuet hesewr its.Thepowerofj udi ci alrev iewi sasuper visor ypowerandnotanor malappel latepoweragai nstt hedeci sionsofadmi nistrat ive
aut hor i
ties.Ther ecur ringt hemeoft heapexcour t'sdeci sionr elat ingt onat ur eandscopeofj udicialr ev iewi st hati tisl imi tedt oconsi der ationofl egal ityofdeci sionmaki ngpr ocessandnot
l
egal ityofor derperse.Thatmer epossi bil
ityofanot herv i
ewcannotbeagr oundofi nt erfer ence. Thej udi ci aryi nI ndi ai sv i
talt odemocr acybecausei tnotonl ypr event sgov ernmentof fi
ci als
from mi susi ngt heirpower sbutal sosaf eguar dst her ightsofci tizensandguar dst heI ndi anConst it
ut ion.Asar esul t, I
ndi a’sConst it
ut i
onenv i
sionsapower ful, i
ndependent ,andwel l-or gani sed
j
udi ci ary .Ar t
icles32andAr ticle226pr ov idet heSupr emeCour tandt heHi ghCour tst heaut hor it
yt obr ingal awsui tagai nstagov ernmentent ityifanyci tizen’ sr i
ght sandf reedomsar ev iolat ed.
TheHi ghCour thasbr oadpower st oi ssueor der sandwr i
tst oanyper sonoraut hor ityunderAr t
icle226oft heI ndi anConst i
tut i
on.Bef or eawr i
toranor dermaybei ssued,t hepar tywhoi s
pet itioni ngt hecour tmustpr ov et hathehasar ightt hati sbei ngv iolat edorendanger edi l
legal ly.Ift hecauseofact i
onpar tl
yar i
seswi thini tsjurisdict i
on,t heHi ghCour tcani ssuewr it
sand
direct i
vest oanyGov er nment ,aut hority ,orper sonev eni ft heyar el ocat edbey ondi tsj ur i
sdi ction. I
ngener al, theHi ghCour tdoesnotusei tspowerunderAr ticle226wheni tcomest opr obl ems
off act .Si milarly ,whent hepet i
tionerhasanal ternat iv er emedy ,t heCour tswi l
lnothearAr ti
cl e226pet itions.I naddi tion,i ft her eisanexcessi vedel ayi ncont act ingt hecour t,t hecour tmay
refuset opr ov ider eliefundert hisar ticle. Simi l
arpower sar eav ai l
abl et ot heSupr emeCour tunderAr ti
cl e32oft heConst i
tut i
on.Theunder lyingr easonf orgr antingt heHi ghCour tpower sunder
Ar ti
cl e226i st oensur ethatt her uleofl awi suphel di nsoci ety .Whent heex ecut iveaut hor itiesov erstept hei raut hor ityandi nfringeonci tizens’ r
ights, theymustbehel daccount abl eandar ticle
226ensur esi t.TheSupr emeCour tofI ndi ar eliedonmanypr eviousconst itutionalj udgment soft heHon’ bleApexCour tint hecaseofSur y aDev iRaiv s.Ram ChanderRai ,oneofwhi chwas
Umaj iKeshaoMeshr am andOr s.v s.Smt .Radhi kabaiandAnrwhi chest abl ishedt hescope,power ,anddi fferencesbet weenAr ticl
es226and227. Af terr ev i
ewi ngi tspr iordeci si onsi nt he
mat terofSur yaDev iRaiv s.Ram ChanderRai ,theSupr emeCour tdet ermi nedt hef ol lowi ngdi f
ferences: Ar ticle226gi vesHi ghCour t
st heabi l
itytoi ssuei nst r
uct ions,or ders,andwr i
tst oany
per sonoraut hor it
y ,incl udingt hegov ernment .Wher eas,Ar ti
cle227gi vesHi ghCour tst hepowerofsuper i
nt endenceov eral lcour tsandt ri
bunal si nt het er rit
or yov erwhi cht heyhav e
j
ur isdi ction.Themostsi gnifi
cantanddi stingui shi ngdi stinct i
onbet weent het woar ti
cl esi st hatact ionsunderAr t
icle226ar ei nt heexer ciseoft heHi ghCour t’sor i
gi nalj urisdi ct i
on,whi lst
procedur esunderAr ticle227ar epur elysuper visor y.Thewr i
tofcer t i
or ariisanexer ci seoft heHi ghCour t’sor i
gi nalj urisdi ction( Ar ti
cle226) ;super visor yj urisdi ction( Ar t
icle227)i snotan
origi nalj urisdict i
onandi smor eanal ogoust oappel later ev isionorcor rect i
v ejur i
sdi ct i
oni nt hi sr egar d.Theaut hor itygi venbyAr ticle226oft heConst i
tut i
oncanbeexer cisedonapl eamadeby
oronbehal foft hepar tyaggr i
ev ed, al thought hesuper vi
sor yj urisdi ct ionconf er r
edbyAr ticle227canal sobeexer cisedsuomot o.InBandhuaMukt iMor chav .t heUni onofI ndi a( 1984) ,i
twas
hel dt hatAr t
icle226hasamuchbr oaderscopet hanAr ticle32,asi tgi vest heHi ghCour tst hepowert oi ssueor der s,di r
ect ions,andwr i
tsnotonl yf ort heenf or cementoff undament alr i
ght s
butal sof ort heenf orcementofl egalr ight st hatar egr antedt ot hedi sadv ant agedbyst atut eandar ej ustasi mpor tantast hef undament alr i
ght s.I
nVeer appaPi ll
aiv .RamanandRamanLi mi ted
(1952) ,itwashel dt hatt hewr itsr efer redt oinAr ti
cle226wer ecl ear l
yi nt endedt oenabl et heHi ghCour tt oi ssuet hem i ncaseswher esubor dinatebodi esorof fi
cer sactwi thoutj ur i
sdi ct i
on, or
i
nexcessofj ur i
sdi ct i
on,ori nv iolationofnat uralj ust i
cepr i
nci ples,orr efuset oexer ciseaj ur i
sdict ionv est edi nt hem,ort her ei sanobv iouser roront hef aceoft her ecor d,andsuchact ,
omi ssi on, error ,orexcesshasr esul tedi ni njust ice.Regar dlessofhowbr oadt hej urisdi ctioni s, itdoesnotappeart obesuf fi
cient lybr oadorl arget oal l
owt heHi ghCour tt ot ur ni ti nt oaCour t
ofAppealandev aluat ef ori t
sel ftheaccur acyoft hecont est eddeci sionsanddet ermi newhati st her ightposi ti
ont obet akenort heor dert obei ssued. InChandi gar hAdmi nistrat ionv .Manpr eet
Singh( 1991) ,itwasdeci dedt hatt heHi ghCour tdoesnotsi tand/ orf unct ionasanappel lateaut hor it
yov ert heor der s/act i
onsoft hesubor dinat eaut hor itieswhenwor kingunderAr ticle226.I ts
aut hor i
tyi spur el ysuper vi
sor y.Oneoft hej ur isdict ion’ skeygoal si st okeept hegov er nment ,aswel lasanumberofot heragenci esandcour ts,i nsi det hei rpar ticul arjur isdi ct ions.Whi l
e
per for mi ngt hisj ob, theHi ghCour tmustensur et hati tdoesnotgobey ondt hewel l-def i
nedboundar iesofi tsownj ur i
sdi ction.
Limi tationonhi ghcour tpowerunderAr t226:Thepower sgr ant edt oHi ghCour tundert heAr ticlear edi scret i
onar yone.Thi sdi scr et ionoft heHi ghcour tisenj oy edandhasbeenf oundt ohav e
beenusedv er ywi dely .ButHi ghcour tswi llber equi redt oexer ciset hej ur i
sdi ct ioni naccor dancewi thj udi cialconsi der ationsandwe' l
lest ablishedpr inci ples.Weseesomeconst it
utional
l
imi tationsupont heexer ci seoft hepower sundert hisAr t
icle.Thef ol l
owi ngar esomepr inci pleswhi chgov er nsuchl imi t
at i
ons: 1.LachesorUnr easonabl eDel ayi sdef inedas:Fai luretodo
somet hingatt hepr opert ime, especi al l
ysuchdel ayaswi l
lbarapar tyf r
om br ingi ngal egalpr oceedi ng.I tispr inci pallyaquest i
onofi nequi tyofper mittingcl aimt obeenf orced.Lacheasasel f
-
def ense:Lachesact sasadef enset oanequi tabl eact ion, thatbar sr ecov er ybyt hepl aintiffbecauseoft hepl aint iff'
sunduedel ayi nseeki ngr eli
ef .LachesandSt atuteofLi mi tation:Lachesi s
theequi tabl eequi valentofst atut esofl imi tat ions.Howev er,unl i
kest at utesofl i
mi tations, lachesl eav esi tupt ot hecour tt odet ermi ne, basedont heuni quef act soft hecase, whet herapl aint if
f
haswai tedt ool ongt oseekr elief.El ement sofLaches:Unr easonabl el apseoft imeTheconceptofLachesi sbasedont hel egalmaxi m" Equi t
yai dst hev igilant , nott hosewhosl umberont heir
ri
ght s."Lachesr ecogni zest hatapar tyt oanact ioncanl oseev idence,wi tnesses,andaf airchancet odef endhi msel forher sel faf tert hepassageoft imef rom t hedat et hewr ongwas
commi tted.I fthedef endantcanshowdi sadv ant agesbecausef oral ongt imeheorsher eliedont hef actt hatnol awsui twoul dbest arted, thent hecaseshoul dbedi smi ssedi nt hei nterestsof
j
ust ice.·I tisaf orm ofdel ayf orsucht imeast oconst ituteacqui escence.·Del aysuchast opr ecl udecour tf rom ar ri
vingatasaf econcl usionast ot ruth.·Del ayt hatmakesi tinequi tablet o
accor dr eliefsought .Del ayt hatwar rant spr esumpt iont hatpar tyhaswai vedhi sr i
ght .·Del ayt hatwor ksorr esul tsi ndi sadv antage, injury ,injusti
ce, det ri
mentorpr ej udice.·Fai l
uret opr osecut e
claim wi thinr easonabl eandpr operper iod.·I ti si mpl iedwai v erf rom knowl edgeofexi stingcondi t i
onsandacqui escencei nt hem. ·I nexcusabl edel ayi nasser tionofr ights.·I ti slackof
dili
genceonpar tofpl ai ntifft oi njury, prej udice, ordi sadv antageofdef endant .·Lapseoft i
meandacqui escencei nal legedwr ong.·Lapseoft imet oget herwi thchangei ncondi ti
onorr elationof
par ti
es.·Lapseoft imet oget herwi thpr ejudi ceorl apsesucht hatpr ejudicewi llbepr esumed.·Negl ectt oassetar i
ghtorcl aim.Anegl ectt oasser tar ightorcl aim mayoper at easar ightt o
wai ver.Awai teri st hev olunt aryr eli
nqui shmentorsur renderofcomeknownr ightorpr i
v il
ege. ·Lachesi mpl iesanegl ectt odot hatwhi cht hepar t
youghtt odof orhi sownbenef itorpr otect ion.
Hencel achesmaybeev i
denceofacqui escence.·Tot hedet rimentofanot her .I nt hehappeni ngofanev entwhent hedi sadv ant ageoft hepar tyal l
owst heot herpar tytonott oasser tther i
ght
ort hecl aim wi thint her easonabl et i
mehappenst obeanel ementofl aches.·I ti sani nequi t
yf oundedonsomechangei nt hecondi ti
onorr elati
onsoft hepr oper tyorpar ti
es.·Lachesi s, ori s
basedon,del ayat tendedbyori nduci ngchangeofcondi ti
onorr el at i
on.·I ti sanegl ectf orunr easonabl eandunexpl ainedl engt hoft imeunderci rcumst ancesper mi tti
ngdi ligencet odowhat
coul dhav eorshoul dhav ebeendone·I tisnegl ectf orunr easonabl el engt hoft imet odowhatshoul dhav ebeendone·Negl ectoromi ssi onf orunexpl ainedandunr easonabl el engt hoft i
me
·Negl ectoromi ssi ont oasser tr ightas, takeni nconj unct i
onwi thl apseoft imeandot herci rcumst ances, causespr ejudicet oadv er separ ty.Exampl e:I nt heev entofcausi ngl ossofmar riage
oft hedef endantt hepet i
tionermaynotpr esentt heor iginal phot ogr aphsoft hemar riagesot hatt hemar ri
agei shel dnul landv oid.Andi ft hepet i
tionercomest oknowaboutt hesameaf tert he
l
apseofr easonabl et imei tmi ghtbet hecaseofl achesandt hecour tmaypr esumet hesame. 2.Resj udi cat a:'Res' inLat inmeanst hinga' Judicat a'meansal readydeci ded.Thi sr uleoper at es
asabart ot het rialofasubsequentsui tont hesamecauseofact i
onbet weent hesamepar ties.I tsbasi cpur posei s-" Onesui tandonedeci sioni senoughf oranysi ngledi sput e".Ther uleof
'
resj udi cat a' doesnotdependupont hecor r ect nessort hei ncor rect nessoft hef or merdeci sion.I tisapr i
nci pleofl awbywhi chamat terwhi chhasbeenl itigat edcannotber eli
tigat edbet ween
thesamepar ti
es.Thi si sknownast her uleof" resj udi cat a"( thi ngdeci ded) .Theai m oft hi sr ulei st oendl iti
gat iononceamat terhasbeenadj udicat ed.I tai mst osav et hecour tt i
meand
prev enthar assmentt opar ties."Resj udi cat apr ov eritat eacci pitur "i st hef ul lmaxi m whi chhas,ov ert hey ear s,shr unkt omer e" resj udi cat a".Sect ion11cont ainst her uleofconcl usi venessof
thej udgment ,whi chi sbasedpar tl
yont hemaxi m ofRomanJur ispr udence“ int erestr eipubl icaeutsi tfinisl itium"( itconcer nst heSt at et hatther ebeanendt ol awsui ts)andpar tlyont he
maxi m" Nemodebetbi sv exar ipr ounaateadem causa"( nomanshoul dbev exedt wi ceov erf ort hesamecause) .Thesect i
ondoesnotaf fectthej urisdi ctionoft hecour tbutoper atesasabar
tot het rialoft hesui tori ssue, ifthemat teri nt hesui twasdi rect l
yandsubst ant iallyi ni ssue( andf inal l
ydeci ded)i nt hepr ev i
oussui tbet weent hesamepar ti
esl itigat i
ngundert hesamet itlei n
acour t,compet entt ot ryt hesubsequentsui ti nwhi chsuchi ssuehasbeenr aised.Thepr i
nci pleofr esj udi cat ai sbasedont heneedt ogi v efinalityandcer tai nt ytoj udicialdeci sions.The
principleofr esj udi cat ai ncl udesconst ruct i
v er esj udi cat aal so.Thet er mr esj udi cat ai ncommonpar lancer ef er st ot hev ar i
ousway si naj udgmenti nwhi choneact ionwi llhav eabi ndi ngef f ect
i
nanot her .Inmoder nt ermi nology ,thesebi ndi ngef fect sar ecal led“ cl aim pr ecl usi on” .I tmustbedi st i
ngui shedf r om t hesecondef fectwhi chi scal led“ col later alest oppel ”or“ i
ssuepr eclusion” .
Resj udicat ai sabr oadt er m“ whi chencompassesbot hi ssuepr ecl usi onorcl aim pr ecl usion” .Theef fectofi ssuepr ecl usioni sthatani ssuedet ermi nedi naf irstact i
onmaynotber e-agitat ed
whent hesamei ssuear i
sesi nal ateract i
onbasedonadi fferentcl aim ordemand. Essent ialsf orr esj udi cat a.—Thegener alpr inci pleofr esj udicat aisembodi edi ni tsdifferentf or msi nt hr ee
differentI ndi anmaj orst at utes—Sect ion11oft heCodeofCi vi
lPr ocedur e,Sect ion300oft heCodeofCr i
mi nalPr ocedur e,1973andSect ions40t o43oft heI ndi anEv i
denceAct ,yeti tisnot
exhaust ive.Her e,wear econcer nedonl ywi thSect ion11oft heCodeofCi v ilPr ocedur e.Fol l
owi ngcondi tionsmustbepr ov edf orgi vingef fectt ot hepr inci plesofr esj udicataunderSect i
on
11—i .t hatt hepar ti
esar esameorl iti
gat i
ngundersamet i
tle,ii
.t hatt hemat terdi r
ect lyandsubst ant iallyini ssuei nt hesubsequentsui tmustbesamewhi chwasdi rectlyandsubst ant i
allyi n
i
ssuei nt hef ormersui t,ii
i.t hatt hemat teri ni ssuehasbeenf i
nal lydeci dedear l
ier ,andi v.thatt hemat teri ni ssuewasdeci dedbyaCour tofcompet entj ur i
sdi ct i
on. Ifanyoneormor econdi tions
arenotpr ov ed, thepr inci pleofr esj udi cat awoul dnotappl y.Wher eal lthef ourcondi tionsar epr ov ed, t
heCour thasnoj urisdict i
ont ot ryt hesui tt hereaf terasi tbecomesnotmai nt ainableand
l
iabl et obedi smi ssed.Forappl icat i
onofpr inci pleofr esj udi cat a, exi st enceofdeci sionf inal lydeci dingar ightoracl aim bet weenpar t i
esi snecessar y.
Whoar eent it
ledt ogetr emedyt hroughwr its:i sacommonl awr emedypr ov idedt ot hepeopl eofI ndi at hrought heConst itution;v ideAr t.
32and226oft heConst i
tut ionofI ndia, 1950.Wr i
ts
areoneoft hesur estf or msofr emedyandonl yt heHi ghCour tandt heSupr emeCour tofI ndiacani ssueWr its,andnoot herl owerCour tisal l
owedt oi ssuewr its.Int heEngl ishCommonLaw,
writsar ei nt hef or m ofacor dedorwr i
ttenor der ,int henameoft heSov er eignaut hor it
yt hati sbi ndingont hepeopl e,butint hemoder nday ,wr itisal egal r
emedysoughtbyt hepeopl ef rom t he
Supr emeCour tUnderAr t.
32f ort hev i
olationofFundament alRi ght sorf rom t heHi ghCour tforv iol ationofFundament alRi ght soranyot herRi ght .
Hi storyofWr itEv oluti
on: Int heol dent imes
writcamef r
om t heKi ngsofEngl andi nf orm ofaseal edl etter, most lywr itteni nLat i
n, acommandbyt heKi ngt obr i
ngone’ scasebef oret heRoy alcour t.Abr i
efst udyoft heEngl ishCommon
Lawsshowst hatt hel awsear lierpr ovi
dedr emedi esonl yift her ewasanappr opriatewr itfori t,bef or ebei ngapar tyitselfhehadt oobt ainaj udici alwr it.I
nt hebegi nni ngnewwr i
tswer eal lowed
tobeconst r
uct edf oranycauseofact ion, butt hepr act icewasofr e-useoft heol df ormsbyt heChancer y ,i
nt hesameway sl i
ket odayl awy er’
suset hepr ecedent s.Byt het imeofHenr yII,the
useofwr i
tswasbecomi ngr elat i
v elycommonpl acei nt heEngl i
shl egalsy st em. [1]Newwr itswer edr af tedt oaccommodat enewsi tuationsTher ear osepr oblem becauset heabi lityt ocr eate
newwr it
swasl i
kecr eat i
ngev er ynewr ightsandnewf orm ofact i
onorl i
tigat ion.Ther eforet her est ar tedopposi t
iont ot hecr eat i
onofnewwr its.Fori nst ance,i n1256,acour twasaskedt o
quashawr itas“ nov el, unhear dof , andagai nstr eason”Opposi t
iont ocr eat ingnewwr itsledt ot headopt ionoft hePr ov i
sionsofOxf ord1258, whi chf or bidt hecr eat ionofnewwr i
tswi thoutt he
King’ssanct i
on.Thenont hewr i
tscoul donl ybemadebyt hesanct ionoft hePar liament ,andbyt he13t hcent uryt hewr itswer ecl assi fied,wi thdi ffer entf or msofact i
onsandt hosewer et he
onlyper mi ssiblewr its,ofwhi chsomeoft hem st illexi stasamaj orf orm ofr emedy .KindsofWr it
s: Ther emaybemanyki ndsofwr i
tsundert heEngl ishCommonLaw,br oadl yt heyar edi vided
i
ntoPr er ogat i
v eWr i
ts;Ot herwr it
s.Pr erogat i
v eWr itsar et hemostcommonl yusedwr i
ts.Thesear et hei mpor tantwr i
tspr ov idedbyt heConst i
tutionofI ndi a,namel yHabeasCor pus,Quo
War rant o,Pr ohibi to,Mandamus,andCer ti
or ar i
.Whi l
et heot herki ndsoft hewr i
tsknownbutnotv er ymuchi npr acticear eawr itofat tachmentper mi tst hear restofaper sonort hesei zureof
pri
v atepr oper ty ,awr itofsci ref aci asr evivesador mantj udgment ,
awr itofv eni ref aciassummonsj ur orst oappeari ncour t
,etc. Sincewear enotv eryi nneedoft heot herki ndsofwr i
tswewi l
l
broadlyst udyt hedef i
ni ti
onanduseoft hepr erogat i
v ewr i
ts.Obt aint heWr its:Undert heI ndi anConst itutiont herear etwoway showwr itscanbeobt ained,ei therunderAr t.32i nt heSupr eme
Cour tthati st heApexCour toft hel andorUndert heHi ghCour tint heSt at el ev el.Article32:UnderAr t.32onecanobt ai nwr itsonl yf ort hev i
olationofFundament alrightsi nPar tI IIoft he
Const itutionofI ndia,1950.Theseday sPI L( Publ icI nter estLi t i
gation)hasal sobeenoneoft heway swher eonecancomet ot heSupr emeCour tf ori nvoki ngwr i
ts,wher eonecomest ot he
cour twi thcl eanhandsf ort hei nter estoft hepubl i
ci ngener aloroneot herwayi st hatoft heSpeci alLeav epet it
ion( SPL)UnderAr ti
cle136oft heConst i
tutionwher ei ftheSupr emeCour tfinds
i
tper t
inentt heni tcani tsel facceptanymat teri nwhi chi tf eelst hatani mpor t
antquest i
onofl awi sconcer ned.Ar ti
cle226:UnderAr ticle226ofConst i
tution,t heHi ghCour tinempower edt o
grantwr itsf ort hev i
ol ationoff undament alr ight soral sof orr emedy ingv iolat i
onofanyot herl egalr ight .Itpr ovidesamor eexhaust i
v er emedysi nceonecanseek,wr itremedyf ormor et han
j
ustv i
olat i
onoff undament alr i
ght s.TheHi ghCour tal sohasSuper v i
soryJur i
sdi ctionunderAr ticle227oft heConst i
tuti
on. Usual ly,theper sonwhoser ighti si nfringedi sal lowedt oappl yfort he
Wr i
tsofMandamusbutaf t
ert heSupr emeCour tadopt edal i
ber alv iewandt headv entofPubl icI nter estLi ti
gationi nI ndia,apubl i
c-spi r
itedci tizencanal soappl yf ort heissui ngoft heWr itof
Mandamusonot herpeopl e’sbehal f.
Inor dert oi ssueaWr i
tofMandamust hef ollowi ngconsi der ationsar eofgr eati mpor t
ance: Thedut ywhi chi ssoughtt obeenf orcedi sapubl i
cdut y.
Such
dutyi senf orceabl ebyl aw. I
nt hecaseofRat lam Muni cipal ityv.Var dhiChand, i
twashel dt hatRat lam Muni cipalit
ywasast atutor ybodywhi choweddut i
est ot hepubl i
csuchasr emov ingni ght
soilandr ubbi sh, remov inganypubl icnui sanceet c.andt her eforet heWr itofMandamuswasi ssuedbyt heCour tt oenf orcet hesedut iesbyt heMuni ci pality.Thus, anappl i
cat ionf orMandamus
canbemadenotonl ybyt heaf f ectedpeopl ebutal sobyt hosewhowantt oenf or cet heseWr i
tsonbehal fofot hersi nthepubl icint erest .
TheWr itofCer t
ior ari:
Lit
eral l
y ,Cer tiorarimeanst obecer tif
ied.TheWr itofCer ti
or ar
iisissuedbyt heSupr emeCour ttosomei nf eri
orcour tort ribunalt otr ansf erthemat tert oi tort osome
othersuper i
oraut hor i
tyforpr operconsi der ati
on.TheWr itofCer ti
oraricanbei ssuedbyt heSupr emeCour toranyHi ghCour tforquashi ngt heor deral r
eadypassedbyani nfer i
orcour t.I
not her
wor ds,whi let hepr ohibiti
oni sav ai lableatt heear li
erst age,Cer t
iorariisav ailableonsi mi largr oundsatal at erst age.I tcanal sobesai dt hatt heWr itofpr ohibit
ioni sav ail
abl edur ingt he
tendencyofpr oceedi ngsbef oreasub- or dinatecour t,Cer tioraricanber esor t
edt oonl yaftert heor derordeci sionhasbeenannounced.I nPr ovinceofBombayv /sKhushal das[ 4]I nthiscasei t
washel dt hatwhenev erany bodyofper sonhav ingl egalaut horit
yt odet ermi nequest i
onsaf fectingt her i
ght sofsubj ectsandhav i
ngt hedut yt oactj udici all
yact si nexcessoft heirlegal
aut horit
y ,awr itofcer ti
orariwi lllies.i tdoesnotl iet or emov emer elymi nisterialactort or emov eorcancelexecut i
veadmi nistrati
v eact s.Wr i
tl i
esonJudi ci albodi esoneoft hef undament al
principlesi nr egar dt ot heissui ngofawr itofcer ti
or ariist hatt hewr itcanbeav ailedofonl ytor emov eort oadj udicat eupont hev alidityofj udicialact s.theexpr essionj udicialact si ncludest he
exer ciseofquasi -judicialfunct i
onsbyadmi nistr
at i
v ebodi esoraut hor i
ti
esorper sonsobl igedt oexer ci sesuchf unctionsandi susedi ncont r
astwhi char epur elymi nisteri
alact s.t hesupr eme
cour thasl aiddownt wopr oposi tionsf orascer tainingwhet heranaut horit
yi st oactj udicially-
-1.i fast atuteempower saaut hor it
yt odeci dedi sput esar isingoutofcl ai
m madebyonepar ty
undert hest at ute,whi chclai mi sopposedbyanot herpar ty,thenpr i
maf aci eandi ntheabsenceofany thingi nt hest atutetot hecont r aryi sthedut yoft heaut horit
yt oactj udi ciall
yandt he
deci sionofaut hor i
tyi saquasij udi cialact .2.ifast atutor yaut horityhaspowert odoanyactwhi chwi llprejudi ciall
yaf fectthesubj ectt henal thought herear enott wopar tiesapar tf r
om t he
aut horit
yandt hef inal determi nat i
onofaut hor i
tywi llbeaquasi -
judicialactpr ovidedt hatt heaut hor ityisr equiredbyt hest atuetoactj udi cially.Gr oundsonwhi chwr itcanbei ssued. I
ll
ustration:
Ther ei sacasei nt heDi strictCour tandt hecour thasnoj uri
sdictiont odeci desuchcases.St i
ll,theDi strictCour tJudget ri
esthecaseandgi veshi sdeci sionandanappl icat i
oni smadebyA
(theaggr ievedpar t ybysuchdeci sion)t ot heHi ghCour t.Her ebyt hepowerofi ssui ngWr its,theHi ghCour twi llissueaWr i
tofCer t
iorar iont heor deroft heDi st r
ictCour t
,asar esul t
,theor der
oft heDi st r
ictCour twi l
lbequashed.Pr e- 1991:Thewr itofCer tior
ar iusedt obei ssuedonl yagai nstj udi cialandquasi -
judici
alaut hor i
tiesandnotagai nstadmi ni
st r
ativeaut hor ities.Post-1991:
TheSupr emeCour truledt hatt hecer ti
or aricanbei ssuedev enagai nstadmi nistrati
veaut hori
tiesaf fect ingt her ight sofi ndivi
dual s.Itcannotbei ssuedagai nstl egislati
vebodi esandpr i
vat e
i
ndi vidual sorbodi es. TheSupr emeCour tofI ndia,ini tsear lyy ears,consi der edt heappl i
cationoft heWr itofCer tiorariint heIndiancont exti nBasappav .Nagappa[ 3].TheCour tinBasappat ook
caret oiterat emul t
ipletimest hatt hewr itofCer ti
or ariisnotanot hermechani sm ofappealandt hatt hesuper iorcour tdoesnotr ev iew orr ewei ght heev i
denceont hebasi sofwhi cht he
deci sionoft hei nfer i
ort r
ibunalpur por tst obebased.Fur ther, t
hecour thel dt hatt hewr i
tofCer tioraridemol i
shest heer roneousor derbutdoesnotsubst it
ut ei twi t
hi tsownv i
ews.Butwhata
cour texer cisingi tspowert oi ssuewr i
tofCer t
iorar idoeschecki st hej uri
sdi ctionoft het ri
bunalbel owandt hequal ifi
cat i
onsandcondi t
ionsofi tsexer cise;andt heobser vanceofl awi nt he
cour seofexer cisingsuchj ur isdi ction.
wr itofcer ti
or aricanbei ssuedt oj udi cialandquasi -judi cialbodyont hef ollowi nggr ounds1.wher et her eiswantorexcessofj ur i
sdi ctionThewr i
tofcer t
iorar iisi ssuedt oabodyper formi ng
j
udi ci alorquasij udi cialf unctionf orcor rect inger ror soft hej urisdi ct ion,aswhenani nf er i
orcour tort ribunalact swi thoutj ur i
sdi ctionori nexcessofi torf ailst oexer cisei t.thewantof
j
ur isdi cti
onmayar i
sef rom t henat ur eofsubj ectmat tersot hatt hei nf eriorcour thasnoaut hor i
tyt oent eront hei nqui ryoruponsomepar tofi t.wantofj urisdict ionmayal soar isef rom
absenceofsomepr eliminar ypr oceedi ngorupont heexi stenceofsomepar ticul arf act swhi char enecessar yt ot heexer ciseoft hecour tspowerandt hecour twr ongl yassumet hatt he
par ticularcondi tionex i
sts.2.Forcor r
ect inger rorofl awappar entont hef aceofr ecor dt hewr i
ti sal soi ssuedf orcor r
ect inganer rorofl awappar entont hef aceofr ecor d.itcannotbei ssuedt o
cor rectaner roroff act.whati saner rorofl awappar entont hef aceofr ecor di st obedeci dedbyt hecour tsont hef act sofeachcase.I nHar iVi shnuv /sAhmedI shaque[ 5]t heSupr emeCour t
heldt hatnoer rorcoul dbesai dt obeer roront hef aceofr ecor di fitwasnotsel f-ev identandi trequi r edanexami nat i
onandar gumentt oest abl ishi t.anar r
orofl awwhi chi sappar entont he
faceoft her ecor dcanbecor r
ect edbyawr itofcer ti
or ar ibutnotaner roroff act ,howsoev ergr avei tmayappeart obe.t her easonf orr ulei st hatt hecour tissui ngawr itofcer ti
orar iact si na
super v i
sor yj urisdi ctionandnotappel latej ur isdict i
on.accor di nglyi tcannotsubst itut ei tsowndeci si onont hemer itsoft hecaseorgi vedi rect iont obecompl iedwi thbyt hei nf eriorcour tor
tri
bunal .3.Di sregar dofpr i
ncipleofnat ur alj ust i
ce. Ont hegr oundsofj urisdi ct i
on,aWr i
tcanbei ssuedbyt hesuper i
orcour t.Whenev erani nf eriorov erstepsi t
sj urisdi ctionorabusest he
j
ur isdi ctionpr ov idedt oi torwhent herei sanabsenceofj ur i
sdi ct ionoft hei nf eriorcour t,theWr itwi llbei ssuedt oquasht heor dermadebyt hei nf eriorcour t
.Thev iolat i
onofpr inci plesof
nat ur aljust icei sanot hergr oundonwhi cht heWr itofCer tiorar icanbei ssuedbyt hecour t.Thepr inci plesofnat uraljust icef orm ani mpor tantpar toft heI ndianConst itut i
onast hesepr inci ples
hav ebeenr ecogni zedbyt heConst itutionsuchast hepr incipl eofAudial t
er um par tem whi chmeanshear ingofbot ht hesi desi sanessent ialpar toft heIndi anConst i
tut ion.Whent her ei san
errorappar entont her ecor d,i
tbecomesav al i
dgr oundf orissui ngt heWr itofCer tior ari.Thi sWr i
tcanbei ssuedwhent heer rori sbasedonacl eardi sregar dt ot hepr ov isionsofl awandnot
mer elybecauset hej udgementwaswr ong. Expl anat ion:- 1)WantofJur isdi ct i
on: -
TheSupr emeCour thasst atedi nEbr ahi m AbuBakarv .Cust odi an-Gener alofEv acueePr oper ty[8]t hatwantof
j
ur isdi cti
onmayar isef r
om. a)Thenat ur eofsubj ectmat ter.b)Fr om t heabuseofsomeessent ialpr el imi nar y,orc)Upont heexi stenceofsomef act scol l
ater alt ot heact ualmat ter,whi cht he
Cour thast ot ry,andwhi chi st hecondi ti
onspr ecedentt ot heassumpt ionofj urisdi ctionbyi t.Itmaybeaddedt hatj ur i
sdi ctional sodependson. d)Thechar act erandconst i
tut i
onoft he
tri
bunal .Ther ehav ebeenagoodnumberofcasesi nI ndi anAdmi nist rat i
v eLawwher et heuseofj ur i
sdi ctionhasbeencor rect edt hr ought hewr i
tofcer ti
orar i
.Thust heor der soft r
ibunal swhi ch
didnotwai tev enf or15mi nutest ohearapar tyandwhi chr esor tedt oi tsownt heor i
est oassesst hepr emi sesofpeopl eandact edundert hei nf l
uenceofpol iti
calconsi der ations,hav ebeen
quashed. TheCour tdoesnoti nter f
er ei nt hecaseswher et her ei sapur eex erciseofdi scret ion, andwhi chi snotar bitrar yi fitisdonei ngoodf aith.Theydonoti gnor et hel egi slativei nt ent i
oni n
thest atut ewhi chmi ghtgi veawi deapt itudeofpower st ot headmi ni strativ eaut hor ityort hesoci alneeds,whi chdemandt hebest owalofsomewi derj urisdi ction,ort hehi st or i
cal
circumst ancesunderwhi chacer taint r
ibunalgotexcl usi vej ur isdi ct i
onofapar ti
cul arsubj ect -mat t er.2)Vi olat i
onofNat uralJust i
ce: -
Thenextgr oundf ort hei ssueofwr itofcer t
ior ar iist he
violat ionofnat ur alj ust i
ceandhasar ecogni zedpl acei nI ndi anl egalsy st em asdi scussedi nt heear li
erpar toft her eadi ngmat erial.InBr ijLalManiLal&Co.v suni onofI ndiaandot her sA.I .r
1964SC1943t heSupr emeCour tuphol dingt hev i
ol ationofr ulesofnat uralj ust i
ceasagr oundf ori ssueofcer t
iorar ihel dt hatwher et henat ur eoft hej ur isdict i
onexer cisedbyt heuni on
Gov er nmentwhendi sposi ngofanappl icationf r
om r ev iewunderr ule59ofMi ner alConcessi onRul esi squasi- judicial,cer ti
or ariwi lllie.3)Fr aud: -Ther ear enocasesi nI ndi awher ecer tior ari
hasbeenaskedonaccountoff raud.Thecasesar ef oundi nBr itishAdmi nist rat i
vel awwher eont hegr oundoff raudt heCour thasgr ant edt hewr i
tofcer ti
or ar i
.Thesuper iorCour tshav ean
i
nher entj urisdict i
ont osetasi deor der sofconv i
ct i
onsmadebyi nf er iort r i
bunal si ft heyhav ebeenpr ocur edbyf r
audorcol l
usi onaj urisdictiont hatnowexer cisedbyt hei ssueofcer tiorar ito
quashWher ef raudi sal l
eged,t heCour twi lldecl inet oquashunl essi ti ssat isf iedt hatt hef raudwascl earandmani festandwasi nst rument ali npr ocur i
ngt heor deri mpugned.Rv sGi llyar d,
(1948)12Q. B, wher ef raudi salleged,t hecour twi lldecl i
net oquashunl essi tissat isfiedt hatt hef raudi scl earandmani festandwasi nst rument ali npr oduci ngt heor deri mpugned.4)Er rorof
Law Appar entonTheFaceofRecor d“ Aner rori ndeci sionordet er mi nat ioni t selfmayal sobeamenabl et oawr itofcer tioraributi tmustbeamani f
ester rorappar entont hef aceoft he
proceedi nge.g. ,wheni tisbasedoncl eari gnor anceordi sregar doft hepr ov i
sionofl aw. ”Inot herwor ds; itisapat enter ror ,whi chcanbecor rect edbycer ti
or aributnotamer ewr ongdeci sion.
]ITheSupr emeCour tofI ndia,ini tsear l
yy ear s,consi der edt heappl i
cat i
onoft heWr i
tofCer t
ior arii nt heI ndi ancont exti nBasappav .Nagappa[ 3].TheCour tinBasappat ookcar et oi ter ate
mul ti
pl et imest hatt hewr i
tofCer tiorar iisnotanot hermechani sm ofappealandt hatt hesuper iorcour tdoesnotr ev i
ew orr ewei ght heev idenceont hebasi sofwhi cht hedeci si onoft he
i
nf er i
ort r i
bunalpur por tst obebased.Fur ther ,thecour thel dt hatt hewr itofCer tiorar idemol i
shest heer roneousor derbutdoesnotsubst ituteitwi t
hi tsownv iews.Butwhatacour texer ci sing
i
tspowert oi ssuewr i
tofCer ti
orar idoeschecki st hej urisdi ctionoft het ribunal bel owandt hequal i
ficat i
onsandcondi tionsofi tsexer cise; andt heobser vanceofl awi nt hecour seofexer ci sing
suchj urisdict i
on.I twasf ort hef irstt i
mewhent heSupr emeCour ti ssuedt hewr itofcer tior ariont heonl ygr oundt hatt hedeci sionoft heel ect i
ont ri
bunalcl ear l
ypr esent edacaseofer rorof
l
aw, whi chwasappar entont hef aceoft her ecor d.Theer rormustbeappar entont hef aceoft her ecor ds.
Impor tantCondi tionsf orCer ti
or ar i:
Fort heWr itofCer ti
or arithef ollowingcondi tionsshoul dbef ulf
ill
ed: Thebodyorper sonhasl egalaut hority.
Suchaut hor i
tyi sr el
atedt odet er
mini ngt hose
questionswhi chaf f
ectt her ight soft hepeopl e. Suchabodyorper sonhasadut yt oactj udiciallyindoi ngi tsfunct ions. Suchaper sonorbodyhasact edi nexcessoft heirjuri
sdicti
onorl egal
authority .Whenal lthesecondi tionsar ef ulf
illed,onl ythenaWr itofCer t
ioraricanbei ssuedagai nstthebodyorper sonwhohasact edi nexcessoft hei rjurisdicti
on. RuleofPr oceedi ngi n
Personam: I
nt hecasesr elatedt ot heWr itofCer t
iorari
,theper sonwhoi saggr ievedbyt hewr ongf ulexer ciseofj ur i
sdi cti
onbyt hecour tshouldbr ingt hepet itionbef oret hesuper i
orcour t
.In
thi
sr egar d,thisWr itisdi f
fer entf rom t heWr itofHabeasCor pusasHabeasCor puscanbeappl i
edf orev enbyanon- aggrievedper sonandt hecour tswi l
lacceptsuchanappl ication. The
proceedi ngi ncaseofCer t
ior ariisanor iginalpr oceedingbef or ethesuper iorcour twhichcanbei nit
iatedbyapet i
tionerbef oreheHi ghCour tunderAr t
icle226andbef oret heSupr emeCour t
underAr ticle32oft heI ndi anConst i
tut i
on.Ther emustbeacour t,tri
bunaloranaut horisedper sonhav i
ngal egalr ightt oactj udi
cially.Suchcour t,tri
bunalorof ficermustact edorpassedan
orderwi thoutj urisdicti
onori nexcessofj udi cialaut hori
ty.Iftheor derwasagai nstt hepr i
ncipleofNat ur alJustice.Ift heor dercont ainsaner rorofj udgement .Ifiti sagainstt heconst i
tutionor
contrav ent i
ont ot hefundament alr i
ght s.Fort hei ssuanceoft hewr itofcer ti
orar i
,thef ollowingcondi ti
onsmustbef ulfill
ed:Theexi stenceofanof ficerorat ri
bunalhav ingt hej udi
cialaut hor ity
aspert hel awt odeci deont hecasesaf fectingt herightsofpeopl e.Suchanof ficerort het r
ibunalmusthav eacted-i nexcessofj udicialpower ,orwi t
houtr equi sitejuri
sdi ct
ion,orinv iolationof
thepr i
nci pl
esofnat uralj ust ice.Thehonor abl eSupr emeCour thascl ari
fiedt hatt hiswr i
tcannotbei ssuedagai nstpur elyadmi nistrativeactions.Thi simpl iest hatitcanbei nvokedonl yin
thosesi t uati
onswher ei ti st heconcer nedaut hority’
sdut yt oactj udi ci
ously,af terhear i
ngbot ht hepar tiesandwi thoutanyext raneousconsi derations.Howev er ,inthesubsequentdeci sions,
thi
sv iewhasbeenr ej
ect ed.Soev eni ftheaut horityisnotr equi r
edt ohearbot hsi desbef orecomi ngtoadeci sion,t hepr i
nciplesofnat uralj
ust i
cemustbeobey ed.Thus, thewr i
tofcer tiorari
canbei ssuedev eni ntheadmi nist r
ativecases.Abodyi ssai dt ohav eact edbey ondi tsj uri
sdictionint hef ol
lowi ngcases: Wher et hecour tconsi deri
ngt hemat terhasnotbeenconst ituted
properlyaspert hel aw, liket her equi r
ement sofmember s,et c.Wher ethesubj ectmat t
erofi nqui r
yliesbey ondt hescopeoft hebody ’spower saspert hel aw.Whent hej ur i
sdict
ionhasbeen
basedonawr ongassumpt ionoff acts.Whent hereisaf ailureofj ust i
ceduet ov i
olati
onofpr i
nciplesofnat uraljust i
ceorpr esenceofel ement slikef r
aud, collusion, orcor rupti
on.Ev ent hough
thebodyhasact edwel lwi thint hel i
mi tsofi tsjurisdi
ction,adeci sioncanbequashedi ft herei sabl atanter rorpr i
maf acie.Theer rorheremeansaner rorofl aw. Thus,i nallt heabov e-
ment i
onedcases, awr i
tofcer t
ior aricanbei ssued.

.Agai
nstwhom thi
sWr i
tli
es?TheWr i
tofCer ti
orar
ili
esagainstt
hosebodieswhi
charejudi
cialorquasi-
judici
ali
nnature.Thus,whenanybodyoraper
sonisper
for
mingaj udici
alact
,thei
ract
s
canbesubject
edtotheWr i
tofCert
iorar
i.
Italsomeanst hatthescopeoft
heappli
cat
ionofthisWriti
slimitedtoonl
yt hejudi
cialbodi
esorthebodi
eswhi
chperf
ormjudi
cialfunct
ionsanditwi
ll
notextendt
otheCentr
al,St
ateorLocalGov ernmentsbecausetheirf
unct
ionsar
eadminist
rati
veinnatureandnotjudici
al.
Wr i
tofMandamus:Mandamusl i
terallymeansacommand.“ Itcommandst heper sont owhom i tisaddr essedt oper form somepubl icorquasi -publi
cl egaldut ywhi chhehasr ef usedt o
perform andt heper formanceofwhi chcannotbeenf orcedbyanyot heradequat elegalr emedy ...”wher eanyt r
ibunalinferiorcour torbodyofper sonschar gedwi tht heper f
or manceofapubl i
c
dutydonotdi schar get hatduty ,mandamusl iest ocompelhi mt odoi t.
”Itisconsi deredasar esiduar yremedyofpubl icl aw.I tisagener alremedywhenev erjusticehasbeendeni edt oany
person.I tisaj udicialremedyi ssuedi nt hef orm ofanor derfrom t heSupr emeCour toraHi ghCour ttoanyconst it
utionalst atutoryoranon- statutoryagencyt odoort of orbearf rom doi ng
somespeci ficactwhi cht hatagencyi sobligedt odoorr efrai
nfr om doi ngundert helawandwhi chi sint henat ur eofapubl icdut yorast atutorydut y.Itcanbei ssuedt oundowhathasal ready
beendonei ncont r
av entionofast atute,ort oenforceadut ytoabst ainf r
om act i
ngunl awfull
y.Forexampl e,mandamuscanbei ssuedt orestraint hegov er
nmentf rom super sedi ng,ar eference
madebyi tearli
erofani ndustri
aldi sputef oradjudicat i
ont oal abourt r
ibunalbecauseundert hel awt hegov ernmenthasnoaut hor i
tytodoso. Thus,thef unctionoft hemandamusi st okeep
thepubl icauthoritieswi thinthel i
mi tsoft heirjuri
sdictionwhi l
eexer cisi
ngpubl icf unctions.Howev er,awr i
tofmandamuscannotbei ssuedt odi r
ectthegov er
nmentt orefrainf r
om enf orcing
thepr ovisi
onsofl awort odosomet hingwhi chi scont rar ytolaw. Mandamuscanbei ssuedt oanyki ndofaut hori
tyisr espectofanyki ndoff unctionadmi nistrati
v e,legi
slative,quasi-judi ci
al,
j
udicial.TheSupr emeCour tinMansukhl al Vit
haldasv .St ateofGuj ar at,
142hasobser vedt hatmandamuswhi chi sadi scret i
onar yr eli
efunderAr ticl
e226i sr equest edt obei ssuedi nteral ia,to
compelper formanceofpubl i
cdut ieswhi chmaybeadmi nist
rative,mi nister
ialorst atutoryinnat ure.InBi renderKumarv .Uni onofI ndia,
143whent heTelephoneoft heapplicantwaswr ongly
disconnect edi nspi teofhi spay i
nghi sduesr egularl
y ,theCal cut t
aHi ghCour tdirectedt het elephoneaut hor it
iestor est oret heconnect ionwi thi
naweek. Accordi ngt otheNi nthEdi tionof
Black’sLawDi ctionar y,wr i
tofmandamusi sonet hati si ssuedagai nstani nf
eriorcour t,agov ernment albodyorof f
icerbyasuper i
orcour tt or ecti
fyanact i
onoft hepastoromi ssiont oact
alongt hel i
nesoft her esponsibi l
i
tyt hattheyar eent itl
edt o.Wr itofMandamuscanal sobei ssuedagai nstpubl iccorpor ationsandt r
ibunals.Asi tisdirectedt osett heindolentaut hor i
tiest o
task,i
ti salsodescr ibedasa“ wakeni ngcal l”
,dictati
ngt heiracti
v it
yandset t
ingthem i nact i
oni npur suanceofdi schargi
ngpubl icdut y.

Hi storyofMandamus:TheWr itofMandamuswasi ntroducedi nIndiabyt heBr i

ti
shint hey ear1773wi t
ht heest ablishmentoft heSupr emeCour tofCal cutt
aandal lt
hesupr emecour t
st hat
wer esi tuatedint hePr esidencyTowns( Calcut ta,Madr asandBombay )wer ev estedwi tht hepower sofi ssuingt hiswr itundert heLet tersPat entAct .Lateron,int hey ear1877,t hewr itof
mandamusf rom t heLet tersPatentActwasr eplacedbyanor derundert het hennewl yi ntroducedSpeci f
icRel iefActt hatr equir
edt hecompl eti
onorf orbearingofaspeci fi
cact i
v i
tywi t
hint he
“locall i
mi tsofi tsor dinarycivi
ljurisdicti
on”byacompet entauthor i
sedof f
ici
al.Howev er,wi tht hei nst
itutionali
sationoft heconst itut
ionalr egimei nIndiaandt heint roduct ionoft henew
Speci ficRel i
efActi n1963,t hi
sor deri ncorpor atedwi t
hint he1877’ slaw wasdoneawaywi thast heprov isi
onf orwr itofmandamuswasal readyenshr i
nedi ntheConst it
ut ion.Thel at t
er
pr ovisi
onwasf armor ecompet entandhadawi derscopeofappl icabili
tywhi l
et hef ormerwaspr et t
yrest ri
ctiv
ei nnat ureasi tappl iedonl yt oapar t
icularnatureofcases.Addi ti
onally,the
const i
tuti
onalpr ovisi
onal soprovidedt heHi ghCour t
swi tht hepowerofi ssuingwr it
s,thusi ncl udingmandamusaswel lfortheenf or
cementi ncasesofcont rav
entionoff undament alaswel l
asl egalr ights.
TheSupr emeCour tofI ndiahasbeenaut hor i
sedwi ththepowerofi ssuingwr itsunderAr ticle32oft heConst it
ut ion.Outoft hef i
vecat egoriesofwr i
tst hatar eapar toft he
Indianl egalframewor k,themostappr opriatef ort heenforcementoft her ightsofthecl aimantshal lbeappl iedbyt hecour t
.Rightlydescr ibedast he“ verysouloft heConst ituti
onandt hev ery
hear tofi t”byDrBhi mr aoAmbedkar ,Rightt oConst it
utionalRemedi esorAr ti
cle32st atest hatt heremustbeacl earbr eachoff undament alr i
ghtsnoti ncorpor at
ingcont entiousf actual
quest i
ons.UnderAr t
icle32,t hewr itcannotbei ssuedf ort heenfor cementofgov er
nment alpol icyandast atutev i
ol atingaf undament alr ightcanbecont endedagai nstbymandamus.Any
execut iveorst atut or
yor dercanbeenf orcedbyMandamusf ol
lowingduepr ocessofl aw.Ov ert hecour seofy ears,i thasbeenf oundt hatcont inuousmandamusort hewr i
tofmandamus
i
ssuedagai nstapr ol
ongedf ail
uretoactont hepar tofst ateagencies.Al thought helawi spr ettycl earwithr egardst ot hecasesori nstanceswher etheappl icabil
it
yoft hewr i
tofmandamus
stands, i
thasnotbeenaneasydeci si
onf ortheI ndiancour t
sandj udiciar
yappl yingthiswr itindi stinctcases.Thus, ithasbecomeasi gnificantquest ionofl awi nthemoder n-dayl egalsy stem
ofI ndia.
Ty pesofmandamus: Ther earet hreet ypesofMandamust hatexi stwi thintheIndianj urispr udenceandhasbeendev elopedov ert hey ear sthroughcasel awsandj udgement s.Thesehav ebeen
discussedundert hef ollowingheadi ngs. Cer ti
orari
fiedmandamus: Thebasi cdif
fer encebet weent het wowr i
tsofcer ti
orar iandmandamuscanbeexpl ainedont hebasi sofj ur i
sdiction;whi l
e
formerpr ovi
desf orjudi cialreviewofanal readytriedcasebyasubor di natecourtandcheckswhet heraj uri
sdi ct
ionhasbeenexceeded, thelatt
ert akesintoaccountwhet heraj ur
isdictionhas
beenr efusedfrom get t
ingexer cise.IfCer ti
oraristands,t heor deroft hesubor dinat ecour tort r
ibunalst andsquashedandv oid.I ncer t
aincaseswi t
hpecul iarfactsandmooti ssues,bot ht he
wr i
tsofcer ti
orariandmandamuscompl ementeachot herprov idedt hei ssuanceofbot harewar rant edbyt heci r
cumst ancesoft hecasei nhandanddonotendupdi schar gingt heissue
altoget her.Acasemi ghtber escindedduet oappl icationofcer tiorariandmayendupget ti
ngdeci dedbyf ollowingt heduepr ocessofl awbecauseofasubsequenti ssuanceofmandamus.
Thi ski ndofwr i
tisknownascer tior
arifi
edmandamus.I nY.MahaboobSher if
f&ot hersv .My soreSt ateTr anspor tAut hority,ther enewalofaper mi t,despitegetti
ngsanct ionedf ort hreeyear s,
wasonl ygrantedf oray ear.I npur suanceoft hewr i
tofcer t
ior ari,theSupr emeCour tofI ndiainv alidat edt hepr eviousj udicialor deroft hesubor dinatecour tandi nt heef fectoft hewr itof
mandamus, di
rectedt heconcer nedaut hor ityforther enewaloft hreey ears.Thisisani nst anceofcer tior ari
fi
edmandamus. Anticipatorymandamus: I
nMaganbhaiI shwar bhaiPat elv .Unionof
India, thegr oupofpet it
ionersi ssuedawr itofant i
cipator ymandamusi nor dertor estraint heGov ernmentofI ndiaf r
om sanct i
oni ngcer tainareasly i
ngi nRannofKut chtoPaki stanasapar tof
theawar d.TheCour thel dthatt hemandamusshal lnotbegr ant edmer elyonthesuspi ci
onoft hev iolationofr i
ght sunl esssomeact ualdamageori nfri
ngementhashappened.I nplentyof
othercases,bot hinI ndiaandot hercount ri
es,ithasbeenhel dbyt hecour tsofl aw thatont hemer ebasi sofper turbat ionofget ti
ngone’ sst atutoryorf undament alr ightsv iolatedoran
ant i
ci patoryomi ssionoft hedut iesorr esponsi bil
it
iesofapubl icaut hor i
tyarenotsuf fi
ci entgr oundsf orgr anti
ngt hei ssuanceofawr itofmandamus. Cont i
nuingmandamus: Incer taincases, it
shal lbedeemedf itbyt hecour tofl awt hatmer eissui ngoft hewr i
tofmandamuswi llnotbesuf ficientf orexact i
ngt het askf rom t hepubl icauthor it
yandt hatcont i
nuoussuper visionoft he
situat ionneedst obeconduct edi nor dert oensur et hepr operf ol l
owi ngoft hev er di
ct.Thi sisdonebyt hecour tsbypr ov i
dingf orcour tv i
sit
sandpr esent i
ngar eportofcompl i
anceoft heir
verdi ctonbehal foft hepubl icaut horit
y .Thi slegalesehasdev el opedandbecomeapar toft hej urispr udenceaf t
ermuchj udicialactivism andsev eralpubl i
cinterestli
tigat ions.TheSupr eme
Cour t ,inChhet riy
aPar dushanMukt iSami tiv.Stat eofUt t
arPr adesh,hel dt hatbesi desensur i
ngt headequat eenf orcementoft hef undament alrights,itisalsot heCour t’
sr esponsi bil
i
tyt o
ascer tainthepr eventi
onofmi suseofaut hor it
ativ
epowerandf ulladher enceoftheor der .
Conditi
onsf ori ssueofmandamus: a)Theremustbepubl iclawdut y-Mandamusi susedt oenf or cet heperformanceofpubl icduti
esbypubl i
caut hori
ti
es.Mandamusi snoti ssuedwhent he
governmenti sundernodut yundert helaw.Mandamuscannotbei ssuedt oenf or
ceadmi nistrativedi rect
ionwhi chdonothav etheforceofl aw,hencei tisdiscretionarythattheaut hor
ity
acceptitorr ejectit.Butwher et headmi ni
strat
ivei
nstr
ucti
onsar ebindingmandamuswoul dl i
et oenf orcethem. b)Petit
ionermusthav eari
ghtt oenforcet heduty-Tomai nt
ainapet it
ionfor
mandamus,t hepet iti
onermustshowt hathehasar i
ghttocompelt hegov ernmentt oactinapar ti
cularmanner .Intheabsenceofanysuchr ight,mandamuscannotbei ssued.c)Ther ehad
beenademandandr efusal-Fort heissueofmandamusagai nstanadmi ni
strati
veaut hor
ityt
heaf f
ect edi ndi
vidual mustdemandj ust
iceandonlyonr efusalhehasar i
ghtt oappr oachthecour t
.
Thus,awr i
tofmandamusdoesnotl i
eintheabsenceofdemandandj ust
ice.(StateofHar yanav .ChannanMalAI R1976SC1654) .d)TheWr i
tpet i
ti
oni sfi
ledbonaf ideandi sgoodf aith-t
he
court
shav ehel dt hatt hel aw iswel lsett
ledthattheywillnotinterfereatt heinstanceofaper sonwhodoesnotappr oacht hecourtwi thcleanhandsanabuset hepr ocessoft he
court
.Conditionsf orthei ssueofWr itofMandamus -( i
)LegalRight- Thepet iti
onermusthav el egalr i
ghts.I nUmakantV.St at
eofBihar,I
nthi scaseSupr emeCour tofIndiaheldthatwhen
thepet i
ti
onercont endedt hatt heGov ernmenthadpr omotedhi sjuniorsandhehadbeenl eftout ,andi twasf oundt hatthepetiti
onerwasnotqual if
iedf orthepost ,hencepet iti
onwas
dismissed.(ii
)LegalDut y: Al egaldutymusthav ebeenimposedont heaut horit
yandt heper for manceoft hedut yshouldbei mperativ
e.Suchdut ymustbest atutoryeitherimposedbyt he
Constit
utionorbyanyot herst atuteorsomer ul
eofcommonl awbutshoul dnotbecont ract
ual.(i
ii)GoodFai th:Anappl icationforawr i
tofMandamusmusthav ebeenmadei ngoodf ai
thand
notforanyul teri
ormot ive.Itwi l
lnotbei ssuedifiti
sdesignatedtohar assther espondentorav iewt ocauseper sonalgri
ev ances.

Instanceswher emandamuswi l
lbei ssued:Thewr itofmandamuscanbei ssuedf orthef oll
owi ng:
Agai nsttheSt atetor efundt het axitcollect edil
legall
y.AgainstaUni ver
sit
yiftheychanget he
regul
at i
onsafterthecandi dat ehasappear edint heexam, tohisdi sadvantage.Wher et heGov ernmentnei therrecordsnorcommuni catest ot hepar ti
esther easonsf ornotmaki ngareference
underSect i
on12( 5)oft heI ndust r
ialDisputesAct ,1947,theaggr i
evedpar tycanseekt hel egalrecour seofmandamus. WhenanI ncomeTaxTr ibunalpassesanor derandt heIncomeTax
Offi
cerr ef
usest ocarryoutt heinstructi
onspassedbyt heTr i
bunal .
Wher ethel andacqui sit
ionof f
icererroneousl yrefusest opayt hei nterestont hecompensat ionamount .
Wher eanor derof
detenti
oni spassedagai nstt hepet iti
onerbuthei snotunderdet enti
on.Thewr i
tofmandamushasbeeni ssuedbyt heSupr emeCour tunderAr t
icle32f orenfor cementoff undament alri
ghts
andHi ghCour tsunderAr ticle226f orenforcementoff undament alaswel lasst at
utoryr ights.Theaptexampl eoft hei ssuanceoft hewr itofmandamusbyt heHi ghCour tofMadr asi sthe
CaseofShankar acharya,wher etheSpeci alInvestigati
onOf f
icerhadf rozent hebankaccount sofShr eeSankar aMut t,usingt hepr ov i
sionsofSect ion102oft heCRPC.TheShankar acharya
wasaccusedi namur dercase, andi twascont endedbyt herepresentativeoft heMut tt hatthepol i
ce,justt oharasst heof ficial
soft heMut t,trespassedi nt
ot hepr emi seswithoutcari
ngabout
thesanct i
tyoftheplace,andhav eal sofrozent hebankaccount s.Itwasal socont endedt hatt heendowment sr eceivedf rom t hedev oteesar ebeingkepti nbankaccount sandt heamounti s
usedf orrunni
ngt heday -t
o- dayaf f
airsoft heMut tandalsoforper formingr eli
giousrituals.Themal a-fi
deswer eattri
but edt ot hepol i
ce.TheMadr asHighCour ti ssuedt hewritofmandamus
andnegat edtheact i
onoft hepol iceandhel dthatt heacti
onoft hepol i
ceisul tr
a-vir
esofSect i
on102oft heCRPC, andt her efore,declaredillegalandsetasi de.
Mandamuswi llhowev ernotbegr antedagai nstt hef ollowingper sons: ThePr esidentort heGov er
norofast at e,fort heexer ci
seandper formanceoft hepower sanddut iesofhi sof fi
ceorf or
anyactdoneorpur por tingt obedonebyhi mi nt heexer ciseandper f
or manceoft hosepower sanddut ies.Mandamusal sodoesnotl ieagai nstapr i
v ateper sonorbody ,whet heri ncorporated
ornotexceptwher et hest atei sincol l
usi onwi thsuchpr i
vat epar ty.
Inst anceswher emandamuswi llnotbei ssuedUndert hefoll
owi ngsi t
uati
ons,mandamuscannotbei ssued: Itcannotbe
i
nv okedt oenfor cecont ractualr i
ght sandobl i
gat ions. Privatei nsti
tutesr ecei vi
nggr ant sdonotbecomepubl ic,thusnodut yisenj oinedbyl aw andt husnomandamuswi lllie.I
tdoesnotl i
e
againstapr ivatear bi tratordi recti
nghi mt of i
leanawar d.Anor deroft heGov ernor ,commut ingdeat hsent encewhi chhadbeenconf i
rmedbyt heHi ghCour tcannotbei nterferedwi thby
mandamus. Grantofl icencebyanaut hority( dulyv est edundert hel awwi thsuchpower )cannotbei nt erf eredwi th,byt hei ssuanceofmandamus. Judi ci
alact iv
ismswi thr egar dtot hiswr i
tin
recentt imeshav egi venr iset onewt ermsl ikecont inuingmandamus, ant i
cipator ymandamusandcer tior arifi
edmandamus.Theact ivism under t
akenbyt heCour t
sint hisr espectcomesdown
tot hei nacti
onont hepar toft hest atemachi ner ywhi chi smor eoftent hannotl acedwi thapat hy .
Thi swr itmakessur et hatthepowerort hedut iesar enotmi susedbyt heexecut i
veor
admi nistrati
onandar edul yfulfil
l
ed.I tsaf eguar dst hepubl i
cf rom t hemi suseofaut horitybyt headmi ni strati
v ebodi es.i
twi l
lnotbegr antedin1)Pr ivatedut y:Thewr itofmandamuscanbe
i
ssuedwher et heper sonoraut horit
yagai nstwhom t hiswr itissoughtt obei ssuedmusthav epubl icdut i
est oper form andt heremusthav ebeenf ailurei nper f
ormanceoft hatdut ybyhi m.
Thiswr i
tcannotbei ssuedf orper formanceofpr i
v at edut y. Wher ethedut ycastont hepubl icof f
iceri sdi scret i
onar yi nnat ure,t
hewr i
tofmandamuswi l
lnotbegr anted.Forexampl e:int he
caseofSt ateofM. P.v .G.C.Mandawar a,AI R1954SC493madear ulemaki ngi tdi scr etionar yt ogr antdear nessal lowancet oit
sempl oy eesatapar ticularr ate.TheSupr emeCour tHel dthata
Wr i
tofmandamuscoul dnotbei ssuedt ot heGov er nmentt oexer cisei t
spowerofgr ant ingdear nessal lowance.2)Dut ymustbemandat ory:Theper sonort heaut horityagai nstwhom t hewr i
t
i
ssoughtt obei ssuedmusthav esomepubl icdut iest oper form.Theper formanceofDut ymustbemandat or yandnotdi screti
onary,andt herehav ebeenf ailureonhi spar tt oper formt hat
duty .Thewr itofmandamuswi llnotbegr ant edagai nstpr ivatei ndivi
dualorpr i
vateor gani zat i
onbecauset heyhav enotbeenent rustedwi thanypubl i
cdut yt oper f
orm.I thasbeenhel dassuch
byCal cut taHighCour tinBar adaKantv .St ateofWestBengalAI R1963. Cul catta161. 3)Pet it
ionermusthav eal egalr ighttocompelt heper f
ormanceofpubl icdut y:Thepet i
t i
onershoul dhav e
alegalr ighttocompelt heper formanceoft hatpubl i
cdut yt ot hepubl icof f
icert or efrainf r om doi ngt hatdut y .Thatdut yshoul dnotbecont ract
ual.Awr itofmandamuscannotbegr antedt o
enfor ceanobl igati
onar isingoutofcont ract .4)Pr esi dentofI ndiaandGov ernorofaSt atecannotbecompel ledt oper f ormt heirdut y:Wr itofmandamuscannotbei ssuedagai nstt he
Presi dentofI ndi aort heGov ernorofaSt atef ort heexer ciseofpower sanddut iesofhi sof ficeoranyactdoneorpur porti
ngt obedonebyhi mint heexer ciseandper formanceoft hosepower s
anddut ies.Int hiscont extAr ti
cle361oft heConst ituti
onpr ov i
dest hatt hePr esi dentort heGov er norofaSt ate,shal lnotbeanswer abletoanyCour tf ort heexer ciseandper formanceof
power sanddut i
esofhi sof ficeorf oranyactdoneorpur portingt obedonei ntheexer ciseandper formanceoft hesepower sanddut i
es.5)JudgesofHi ghCour tandSupr emecour tcannotbe
compel l
edt oper formt heirdut y.Si mil
arly,wher et heHi ghCour toranyj udget hereofact si nj udicialcapaci ty,asdi stinguishedf rom admi ni
str
ativecapaci ty ,thewr itofmandamuswi l
lnotbe
grant edagai nstt heHi ghCour tort hejudget hereof .Ithasbeenhel dsobyKer alaHi ghCour tinPr abhakar anv sSt ateAI R,1970Ker ala27.
Groundsoft hewr itofmandamus: Mandamusi sremedi ali
nnat ureandcannotbeexpr essedasawr itofrightasi ti
sissuedonlyatt hediscreti
onoft hecourtaf tertheappl i
cantofthesamei s
abletoprov etot heCour tthatsomeut i
li
tari
anorjustquest i
onwoul dbeanswer edbyt hewr it
.Theessent i
algr oundsnecessaryf orthei
ssuanceofMandamushav ebeenenl i
stedbelow:There
exi
stsal egallysanct i
onedr i
ghtoft hepet i
ti
onerort heapplicantofthewr i
tandav iolationorcompromi seoft hi
srighthasbeencommi t
ted.Theinfri
ngementoft her ightsofanappl i
cantcan
bedonebyapubl i
caut hor
ityinthefollowingmanner s:Crossingthelimitsoft hepower sanddut i
esv estedtot heiroffi
ce.
Fail
ureoromi ssiont oactresponsiblyaccor dingtothecondi t
ionslai
d
downbyt helaw f ortheexer ci
seoft heirpower.
Deni albyanof fi
cialorauthor i
tyt oper formtheirstatutorydut i
es.Acompl etedisr
egar df ororcont r
aventionoft hepr i
ncipl
esofnat ural
j
ustice.
Anot hergr oundf orthelegalit
yofi ssui
ngt hewr itofmandamusi sthef ail
uret oactorperformt hel egaldut ydespi
tebei ngdemandedbyt heappl i
cantf ort hesame.Thi swasal so
upheldbyt heSupr emeCour tinSar aswatiIndustrialSyndicatev.Uni onofI ndi
a. Thewr i
tshoul
dbeappl iedf oringoodf ait
h,withoutanyul teriormot iv
eori nt entont hepartoft he
appli
cant.Lastly
,thewr itofmandamuscanonl ybei ssuedwhennoot herrecourse,redr essalmechanism orlegalal t
ernati
veshav ebeenleftatt hedi
sposal oftheappl icant.

Limitati
onsOfmandamus: Wri
tofmandamusi sbasi call
yapubl iclawr emedyoft hecommonl aw system that,thoughcanber ightful
lyappl i
edf orbyanyci t
izenwhoser i
ght shav ebeen
viol
atedbygov ernment alorjudicialbodi es,isnotsanct ionedt obeav ail
edi ncasesofpr ivatewr ongs.Thewr itofmandamuscannotbei ssuedagai nstt hef oll
owing:Pr i
v ateper sons,
i
nst i
tuti
onsoror ganizati
ons,ifdefault, cannotbehel daccount ablef ortheirinact ionbyt heissuanceofmandamus. Ifthedutyortheact ivit
ythati sint hequest i
onoft hepubl i
caut hori
tyi snot
mandat edbyacompul soryobli
gationbuti sdiscretionaryi nnature,thewr itofmandamuscannotbei ssuedf ortheenf or
cementofsuchdut i
es.Thewr i
tofmandamuscannotbei ssuedagai nst
theHeadoft heSt at
e,thatis,t
hePr esidentonanat i
onall evelorGov ernoratt hest atelevel
.TheincumbentChi efJusti
ceoft heSupr emeCour tanddi stincthighcour t
sar ealsoexempt edf rom
beinghel daccount ablebyt hei ssuanceofawr itofmandamus. Fort heenf orcementofacont r
actualrelati
onshipt hatisprivateinnat ure,wr itofmandamuscannotbei ssuedf ori ts
enforcement.Awr itofmandamuscannotbei ssuedagai nstanyMemberofPar l
iament( MPofLokSabhaorRaj yaSabha)andanyMemberofLegi slativeAssembl y( MLA)ofanyst atef ort he
purposeofpr ovidingasmoot hfunct i
oni ngandconductoft hepar l
iament arydel iberati
ons.Mandamuscannotbei ssuedagainstanyl egisl
ativeinstitutionwhi chispassi ngsuchal awt hati sin
contraventi
onoft hefundament alr i
ght spr omisedunderPar tII
Ioft heConst itution.Thiswassubsequent lyuphel dbytheapexcour ti nChoteyLalv .St ateofUt tarPr adesh&Or s.Thepet itioner
hadmov edawr itpeti
tionagainsttheSt ateofUt tarPr adeshast hest at
el egislaturehadpassedZami ndariAbol i
ti
onandLandRef ormsBi l
li
n1951whi chwasconsi deredtobeunconst itutional
accor di
ngtot heappl i
cant.El
ectoralmat tershav ebeenkeptawayf r
om t hepur viewoft hewr itofMandamusandt hoseof f
ici
alsthatar eengagedi ndi ff
erentlev elsoft heelect oralpr ocess
cannotbedi rectedbymandamus.Howev er,t
hisisappl i
cableonl yforel ectionst oUnionandst at
epar l
iament .Mandamuscanbei ssuedi nmat ter sofcont enti
onr el
atingtoMuni cipall ev el
electi
ons.Thus,themaj orlegalrequi r
ement sf ortheissuanceoft hewr i
ti sthepubl icnatureoft hebody ,personoraut hori
tyagainstwhom t hewr itisget t
ingappl i
edf orandav ali
d,just if
ied
rati
onaleofthecl aimsont hepar toft hepet iti
oner.
Wr i
tofpr ohibition:TheConst it
ut i
onofI ndi ahasgi v eni nherentf undament alr ight st oal ltheI ndianci tizensment i
onedunderAr t
icle12- 35oft heI ndianConst itution.I fanyI ndi anci ti
zen’ s
fundament alr i
ght sar ev i
olatedbyt heSt at eorbyapr ivatebody ,theycanr ecei ver emedi esbyf il
ingwr i
tpet i
tionst otheHi ghCour torSupr emeCour tunderAr ticles226and32oft heI ndi an
Const i
tut i
on.Thisar ti
clecov erst hewr i
tofpr ohi biti
on,somet i
mesknownast he‘ StayOr der.’Thepur poseoft hewr i
tofpr ohi biti
oni stopr ev entorf orbi danact .Itisawr i
tt hatst opsl ower
cour tsort ri
bunalcour t
sf r
om i ssuingor der sorf rom car ryingoutanactor der edbyt hehi ghercour ts.Int hef ollowi ngar t
icle, ther easonsf orissui ngt hiswr i
t,thedi st i
nct ionbet weencer t
ior ari
andpr ohi bit
ionwr its,casel aw,andwr i
tofpr ohi bitioni nv ari
ousnat ionsar ebr ieflydi scussed. Prohi bitioni sal egalt er
mt hati mpl ies‘ topr ohi bit,restr ain,prev ent ,orf or bid. ’Ahi ghercour t
i
ssuesawr i
tofpr ohi bit
ionagai nstt hel owercour tt opr ev entitf rom exceedi ngi tsaut hor i
tyorgoi ngbey ondi t srequi r
edj urisdiction.I tcannotbeenf or cedagai nstadmi nist rat i
veagenci es,
statutor yaut hor iti
es,orpr ivateper sonsorent er pri
ses.I tisexcl usivelyappl icabl et oj udi cialandquasi -judi cialbodi es.Wr itofPr ohibi t
ioni sissuedt oasubor dinat et oceasedoi ngsomet hing
whichi ti snotsupposedt odoasperl aw.Nor mal l
y ,thiswr i
ti si ssuedbyt hesuper i
orcour tst ot hel owercour tswhent hel owercour tt r
iest oexceedt hel imitofj ur i
sdi ct i
onv est edi ni t.
Likewi se,i fthecour tact sinabsenceofj ur isdict i
on,t hiswr i
tcanbei ssued.Oncet hiswr i
tisi ssuedt hel owercour tisunderanobl igationt ost opi tspr oceedi ngs.Onecannoti ssuet hiswr it
agai nstapubl i
cof f i
cialwhodoesnothav ej udi cialorquasij udi cialpower s.Thi swr itisi ssuedbef oret hel owercour tpassesanor der .
Thi swr i
tcanonl ybeusedagai nstt hej udi cialbodyand
Quasi -judicialbody .I
tisissuedagai nstt hei nfer iorcour tswhent heyar eaboutt omakeadeci siont hatdoesnotf al
lunderi tsj udicialambi t.Ther efore,itkeepsi ncheckt hef unct i
oni ngoft he
j
udi cialbodi es, andt heissueoft hiswr itisdonei nuni quecasesonl y.Thef ollowi ngsar et hescopeoft hiswr it:
Whent hesubor dinatecour tact smor e, t
hati soutoft heirsov er eignordoesnot
actast heyshoul dhav e.Whent heydi sobeyt hecl ausesofnat ur aljust i
ce.Thi swr itwillbei ssuedwhent hecour tactsunl awf ullyandorbey ondi tsaut hor i
t y
.Whent heyv iolat ef undament al
ri
ght s.Theor igi
noft hewr i
tofPr ohibiti
oni sper hapsasol dast heor i
gi nofCommonLawi tself.I ssuedbyacour ttoani nfer i
orcour t
,itisusedt opr ev entl owercour tsf rom ov er steppi ngi t
s
j
ur i
sdi ctionoraut hor it
y.Thisi sdonei nsituat i
onswher et hel owercour thasy etnotr ender edi tsj udgement .Manyal sot ermi tasa` st ayor der'.Thescopeoft hiswr itisv erynar rowasi tappl ies
toonl yv eryspeci ficcasesandonl yagai nstj udicialbodi es,andnotadmi nistrat i
v eaut horities.I tcoul dal sobeseenast hepol aropposi t
eoft hewr itofmandamus.Awr i
tofmandamus
compel ssomeact ionwhi l
et hewr i
tofPr ohi bitionmandat escer taininact ivi
ty.Thi scanbebet terunder st oodwi tht hehel pofcasel aws. I
nt hecaseofS.Gov i
ndaMenonv .Uni onofI ndia( AIR
1967SC1274) ,t hecour thel dthat" thejur isdict ionf orgr antofawr i
tofpr ohibiti
oni spr imar i
lysuper visor yandt heobj ectoft hatwr itist or estr aincour tsori nferiort ri
bunal sf rom exer ci
singa
j
ur i
sdi ctionwhi cht heydonotpossessatal l orel set opr ev entthem f rom exceedi ngt hel imi t
soft heirjur isdi ction.I not herwor ds, theobj ecti st oconf i
necour tsort ribunal sofi nf er i
ororl imi ted
j
ur i
sdi ctionwi thint heirbounds. "Hence, t
her ear et hr eesi tuat i
onwher ewr i
tofPr ohi biti
oncanbei ssued: 1.Ov erst eppingofj urisdiction2.Lackofj ur i
sdiction3.Dev i
at i
onf rom t her ulesofnat ur al
j
ust ice.Thei mpor tanceoft hiswr itissimpl e-i tpr event sanysor tofar bi t
raryact ionbyacour tt hatl acksj urisdi ctiont oadj udi cateonapar ticularmat t
er .Ital soensur est hatt hesanct ityoft he
const itutionalhi erar chyoft hecour tsismai ntai ned.Ev erycour tcannotdeci deonev erypet it
iont hati spr esent edbef oreit-thewr i
tofpr ohibi t
ionensur est hesamei sf ollowed.Soi nev erycase
wher et herei sanabsence,orexcessorj ur i
sdi cti
onorpl ainly,adev iati
onf r
om t her ulesofnat ur aljust i
ce,t hewr itofpr ohi bit
ioni sempl oy ed. Thewr itofpr ohi bitioni si ssueddur i
ngt he
pendencyofpr oceedi ngsandhencei sdiffer entf r
om v ariousot herwr i
tswhi char ei ssuedaf tert heconcl usi onofcour tproceedi ngs.
Groundsonwhi cht hewr itofPr ohi
bi t
ioncanbei ssued:Awr itofpr
ohibit
ionisi ssuedunderpar t
icularcondi tionswhent helowerorsubor di nat
ecour tortri
bunal-
Actswithoutit
sjuri
sdict
ionor
exceedsit
sjuri
sdi
ct ion, i
.e.,j
uri
sdictionalerr
or;
Goesagai nstitspowers,i.
e.,actedasi nval
idlaw;Violatesnat uralj usti
cestandards,i.
e.,
f ail
ureofnat uralj
usticewhichisequit
yandequal it
y;Acts
ult
ravir
esorunconst i
tuti
onal l
y;Actsi nviol
ati
onofbasi crights;
Behavesasaner r
oront hebasisoft her ecor d;Tr uthfulj
udgment sarenotsuppor tedbyev i
dence.
Foll
owingar ethegroundsf or
i
ssuingawr i
tofpr ohibiti
on: Absenceorexcessofj ur
isdi
ction–wher ethereisat otall
ackofjurisdicti
onoranabsenceofj uri
sdicti
on.Nat uralj
usticeviol
ation–Whent hepri
ncipl
esofnat ur
al
j
ustice ar
e notf ollowed,orwhen t hey arefollowed,t hereisav i
olati
on oft hose pri
nciples.Fori nst ance,i fthe opposing par tywas notser ved wit
ht he noti
ce and was not
heard.
Unconsti
tut
ional i
tyofSt atute–Awr i
tofpr ohibi
ti
oncanbei ssuedagai nstanyt ri
bunalorcour tthatpr oceedst oactunderal awt hatisultr
av ir
esorunconst i
tuti
onal.
Inf
ri
ngementof
FundamentalRi
ght s–I fthecont estedact i
onviol
at esanyoft hepeti
ti
oner'sfundament alri
ghts,awr itofprohi bi t
ioncanbei ssued.Legal blunderont hesurfaceoftherecord

Howist hewritofProhibi
ti
oni ssued:AnyHighCour tortheSupremeCour tofIndi
adeali
ngwi t
hAr ti
cles226or32oft heIndianConst it
uti
onrespectiv
elyi
ssuesapr ohi
biti
onwr i
t.I
tisissued
agai
nstlowercourt
s,tr
ibunals,i
nferi
orcourts,orquasi
-j
udici
albodiestorestri
ctorprev
entthesecour t
sf r
om act
ingagainstj
urisdi
cti
onorf rom exer
cisi
ngpowersthatv i
olat
ebasicright
s.This
for
m ofwriti
sissuedwhent heseCour t
s’j
urisdi
cti
onsareexceededort heirpowersarebreached.Itcanonlybeissuedagainstjudi
cialandquasi-j
udici
albodi
es,notagainstpr
ivat
eindividual
s
orent
it
iesandadmi ni
strat
ivebodies.Iti
salsoknownasa‘ StayOrder.
’Thiswritli
mit
sorpreventsthem from doi
nganactf r
om happeni ng.

Casel awsr egardi

ngt hewritofPr ohibi
tion:Bri
jKhandelwalv .Indi
a(1975) :
TheDel hiHighCour tref
usedt oissueapr ohibi
ti
onagainsttheCentralGov ernmentf rom engagingi naboundar y
disputeagr eementwi thSr iLanka.Thej udgmentwasf oundedont hebasist hatthereisnobaragai nstthegov ernmentper f
ormingexecuti
veoradmi nistrati
vedut i
es.Wi t
hthei deaofnat ural
j
ust iceandt hegrowthoft heconceptoff airness,t
hereisnol ongerat ol
erableview,eveninadmi ni
strati
vetasks.Thest if
fnessaboutcert
ior
ariorprohibi
tionwr ithasalsobeensof tened.Ifany
oft hegr oundsonwhi chthewr itofprohibit
ionisissuedispresent ,t
hewr i
tcannowbei ssuedtoany body,regardlessofthenatureofthedutyful
fil
ledbyi t.Prohibi
ti
oniscur rentlyconsidered
asabr oadr emedyf orjudicialcontrolofimpact i
ngquasi -
judicialaswel lasadmi nist
rati
veact i
ons.S.Gov i
ndMenonv .UnionofI ndi
a(1967): Awr i
tofpr ohibi
ti
oncanbei ssuedi nbot h
circumst ancesofexcessj ur
isdicti
onandabsenceofj ur
isdi
ction.Wr i
tofprohibit
ionwasi ssuedbyahi ghercourt
, namelytheKeralaHighCourt
,toal owercour tinordertotakeov erjuri
sdicti
on
thatwasnoti ni
ti
all
yv ested,ori notherwor ds,tocompellowercour t
stor etai
nt hei
rjuri
sdict
ionalli
mi t
ati
ons.Thewr i
tcanbei ssuedwhent hereisanexcessofj uri
sdict
ionaswel laswhen
thereisanabsenceofj uri
sdicti
on.
Wr i
tofquowar r
ant o:TheWr i
tofQuoWar rant oi sissuedbyt hecour tsagai nstapr i
v ateper sonwhenheassumesanof f i
ceonwhi chhehasnor ight.QuoWar rantol i
terall
ymeans‘ bywhat
authorit
y’andi ti
sanef fectivemeasur etopr ev entpeopl ef rom t akingov erpublicoffices. TheWr itofquowar rantoi susedt opr eventillegalassumpt ionofanypubl icof f
iceorusur pati
onofany
publicoffi
cebyany body .Forexampl e,aper sonof62y ear shasbeenappoi ntedtof i
llapubl i
cof fi
cewher east her etir
ementagei s60y ear s.Now,t heappr opr iateHi ghCour thasar i
ghtt o
i
ssueaWr i
tofquo- war rantoagai nsttheper sonanddecl aretheof fi
cev acant.I
ll
ustration:Awhoi sapr i
vatecitizenandhasnoqual i
ficationsf ort hepostofsub- inspect orassumessuchof f
ice.
HereaWr itofQuoWar rantocanbei ssuedagai nstAt ocal lintoquest i
onhi saut hor it
yonwhi chhehast akent hecont roloft heof fi
ceofsub- inspect or
.Significance: I
ssui ngawr itofquo
warrantoisdi scr
et i
onar yinnat ure,andt hecour tdoesnothav et oi ssueonei nev erycase. Iftheper sonhasbeeni nof ficef oral ongt i
meandt herehasbeennocompl aintagai nsthimi nt he
past,andt hewr i
tofquowar r
antoi scausi ngannoy ance, theHi ghCour torSupr emeCour tmayr efuset oissuet hewr i
tofquowar rant o.Apr i
v ateper sonmayf i
leanappl i
cationf orawr i
tofquo
warrantotochal l
enget hel egali
tyofapubl i
cof fi
ceappoi ntment ,eveni ft hepersonhasnoper sonali nterestint heappoi nt mentori snotdi rect l
yaf fectedbyi t.I
ft heappl icanthasaccesst oan
alt
ernativ
eandef fectiver emedy ,thecour tmaynoti ssueawr itofquowar r
ant oandassi gnhert oseekt hatr emedy .
Asar esult,itispossi blet oconcl udet hatawr itofquowar rant
ocanbe
deniedifthepet i
tioner/appl i
canthasaccesst oanal ternat i
ver emedy .Howev er
, i
fthepet it
ioner'sobj ectionfallsout si
deoft hest atutor yremedy ,theal ternati
ver emedycannotbeusedt oreject
awr itofquowar ranto.
Thepowert oissuet hi sWr iti
sdi scretionar yont hecour tsandt her efor
enobodycandemandt hatt hecour tisboundt oi ssuet hiswr i
t.Thesupr emecour tinthecaseof
UNIVERSI TYOFMYSOREv s.GOVI NDRAO[ 6]l aiddownt her equi r
ement soft hepet iti
onofquo- war rantowhi char easf ollows: Adi sput edpostmustbet hepubl i
cpost .Thepostshoul dbehel d
bytheper sonwi thoutanyl egalauthor i
ty.Theof ficemustbeasubst antiveoneandnotmer el
yt hef unctionorempl oy mentofaser vantatt hewi llanddur ingthepl easur eofanot her.wri
tofQuo
War r
antoi samodeofj udi ci
alcont rolinthesenset hatt hepr oceedi ngsr evi
ewt heact ionsoft headmi nistr
ativeaut hor i
tywhi chappoi ntedt heper son.Thewr itisi ssuedt ot heper sonoust ing
himf rom holdingapubl icpostt owhi chhehasnor i
ght .Itisusedt ot rytheci vi
lri
ghtt oapubl i
cpost .Accor dingly,theuseoft hewr i
tismadei ncasesofusur pationofapubl icoffi
ceand
remov alofsuchusur per .Conv ersely,itprotect sci ti
zenf r
om bei ngdepr ivedofpubl i
cof fi
cet owhi chhemayhav ear i
ght .Apet it
ionf ort hewr itofQuoWar rant ocanbef i
ledbyanyper son
thoughhei snotanaggr ievedper son.
Condi tionsf ori ssui ngQuoWar rant o:TheWr itcanbei ssuedonl ywhent hesecondi t
ionsar ef ulfil
led: Theof fi
cewhi chhasbeenwr ongf ull
yassumedbyt hepr ivateper soni sapubl icof fice.The
offi
cewascr eat edbyt heConst i
t utionorbyanyot herst atute.Thenat ureoft hedut i
eswhi char isesf rom thisof fi
cei spubl ic.Thet erm oft heof f i
cemustbeofaper manentnat ur eandi tshoul d
notbet ermi nabl eatanyper sonoraut hority’spl easur e. Theper sonagai nstwhom t heWr i
ti ssoughtt obei ssuedi si nact ualpossessi onoft heof ficeandi susi ngsuchof fice.Thi sWr itcanal so
bei ssuedi nt hosecaseswher eaper sonwasent i
tledt ohol dt heof ficeear li
erbutaf terget tingdi squal ifi
edhei sst illinpossessi onoft heof fice. Thusi ncaseswher et heof fi
cei sofpr i
vate
natur e, thisWr itcannotbei ssuedbyt heCour t.Thi sv iewwashel dbyt hecour tint hecaseofNi ranjanKumarGoenkav .TheUni versityofBi har,Muzzf arpur ,i
nwhi chthecour tobser vedt hatt he
Wr i
tofQuoWar rant ocannotbei ssuedagai nstaper sonwhoi snothol dingapubl i
cof f i
ce. I
nt hecaseofJamal purAr yaSamajSabhav .Dr.DRama, anappl i
cat ionfort heWr itofQuoWar ranto
wasmadebyt hepet i
tionerint hePat naHi ghCour tagai nstt heWor kingCommi tteeofBi harRajAr yaSamajPr atinidhiSabhawhi chwasapr i
vat ebody .Thecour tr efusedt oi ssuet heWr i
t
becausei twasnotapubl i
cof fi
ce. InDr .
S.Mahadev anv s.Dr .S.Bal asundar am andot hers, repor tedi n( 1986)1MadLJ31, atpar agraph21, thisCour t,hel dt hus:-"
Fort hei ssuanceofawr itofquo
war rant o, t
hecour taskst hequest ion—Wher ei sy ourwar rantofappoi ntment ?Itenj oi nsanenqui ryi ntothelegal i
tyoft hecl aim whi cht hepar tyasser tst oanof fi
ceandi ft heappoi ntmentand
holdingont ot heof ficear eil
legal andv i
olat i
v eofanybi ndingr uleofl aw, thent hecour tshal lousthi mf r
om hi senjoy ingt hereof .ThisCour t,withint hescopeoft heenqui ryf ort hei ssuanceofa
writofquowar rant o, i
snotconcer nedwi thanyot herf act orexceptt hewel l
laiddownf act ors:whi chr equir
eadv ert
encet oandadj udication.Theexi stenceoft hef oll
owi ngf act orshav ecomet o
ber ecogni sedascondi ti
onspr ecedentf ort hei ssuanceofawr itofquowar ranto:( 1)t heof f
icemustbepubl ic; (
2)t heof f
icemustbesubst antivei nchar act er,thatis, anof f
icei ndependentof
i
nt itl
e;( 3)theof ficemusthav ebeencr eat edbyst at uteorbyt heConst ituti
oni tself;(4)t hehol deroft heof f
icemusthav easser tedhi scl aimt ot heof fice;and( 5)thei mpugnedappoi ntment
mustbei ncl eari nfringementofapr ov i
sionhav i
ngt hef orceofl awori ncont r
avent ionofanybi ndi ngr uleofl aw.Thi sCour tshal lnotf rownuponanappoi nt
mentt ot heof fi
ceont hegr oundof
i
rregul ar it
y,ar bitrar i
nessorcapr iceormal af i
desandt hesef eatur es,ev eni ftheyar epr esent , couldnotcl ot het hi
scour twi ththepowerf ort hei ssuanceofawr i
tofquowar rant o.Thescopeof
theenqui ryisr iv etedt oonlyt heaf oresaidf act ors.Pr er ogat i
v ewr it
s, l
iket heonef orquowar rant o, couldbeandshoul dbei ssuedonl ywithint hel imi ts,whi chci r
cumscr i
bet heirissuance.I ti
s
notpossi blet owi dent heirl
imi t
s.Awr i
tofquowar rant oi sofat echni cal nature.I tisaquest iont oanal l
egedusur perofanof fi
cet oshowt helegalaut hor i
tyf orhisappoi ntmentandhol dingon
toit.I fheshowshi sl egalaut hority, hecannotbeoust edf rom t heof fice.Thei nv ali
dityoft heappoi nt mentmayar iseei therf orwantofqual i
fi
cat ionspr escr i
bedbyl aworwantofaut hor it
yon
thepar toft heper sonwhomadet heappoi ntment ,orwant sofsat i
sf actionoft hest atutor ypr ov i
si onsorcondi tionsorpr ocedur egov er
ni ngt heappoi nt mentandwhi char emandat or y.This
Cour t, underAr t.226oft heConst itution,cani ssueawr i
tofquowar rant oonl yifthesal ientcondi t
ionsdel i
neat edabov est andsat i
sfiedandnotot her wise. "
Whocanappl
yAwr
itofQua-
War
rant
ocanbecl
aimedbyaper
soni
fhesat
isf
ythecour
tthat
—1.t
heof
fi
cei
nquest
ioni
spubl
i
cof
fi
ce2.i
tishel
dbyaper
sonwi
thoutl
egalaut
hor
it
ythewr
itof
QuaWar
rant
oisnoti
ssuedi
nrespectofanof
fi
ceofapr
ivat
echar
act
er.t
husi
nJamal
purAr
yaSamajSabhav
/sDr
.D.Ram[
7]i
nthi
scasei
twashel
dthatt
hehi
ghcour
tref
usedt
oissueawr
it
QuaWar
rant
oagai
nstt
hemember
soft
hewor
kingcommi
tt
eeont
heBi
harAr
yaSamajSabha,apr
ivat
eassoci
ati
on.Themeani
ngoft
het
erm QuoWar
rant
ois‘
bywhataut
hor
it
y’.Thewr
itof
quowar
rant
omaybei
ssuedagai
nstaper
sonhol
dingapubl
i
cof
fi
ceorgov
ernment
alpr
ivi
l
ege.Thei
ssueofsummoni
sfol
l
owedbyl
egalpr
oceedi
ngs,
dur
ingwhi
chani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sri
ghtt
ohol
d
anof
fi
ceorgov
ernment
alpr
ivi
l
egei
schal
l
enged.Thewr
itr
equi
rest
heconcer
nedper
sont
oexpl
aint
otheCour
tbywhataut
hor
it
yhehol
dst
heof
fi
ce.Al
thoughawr
itofmandamuscanal
sobe
i
ssuedont
hegr
oundsofmal
afi
desandar
bit
rar
iness,butwhent
heof
fi
cei
sfi
l
ledup,awr
itofquo-
war
rant
oispr
efer
abl
e.Mandamusi
sdesi
rabl
etobei
ssuedwhent
heof
fi
cei
svacant
.Who
canmov
e?Theaf
fect
edof
fi
cer
,oranyper
son,wi
thbonaf
idei
ntent
ioni
npubl
i
cint
erestmaychal
l
enge.Heneednotbeanaspi
rantf
ort
heof
fi
ce.
Cas
es:
1.Adv
ocat
esmayquest
iont
he
appoi
ntmentofanAdv
ocat
eGe
ner
al
,2.BarCounc
ilmembermayques
tiont
heappoi
ntmentofc
hiefj
ust
ice.
3.KodandaRaman'
scase:Hequest
ionedt
hev
ali
di
tyofShahc
ommi
ssi
on.
4.Re
ddyV.
St.
of
A.
P.:
Osma
niaUn
ive
rsi
t
yVi
ce-
Cha
nce
ll
orwast
ermi
nat
edbyamendi
ngt
heUni
ver
sit
yAc
tbyr
educ
ingf
rom 5y
ear
ste
nur
eto3y
ear
sHe
ld,
thea
men
dedl
awwa
snota
ppl
i
cabet
ohi
m,bu
ttot
hen
ewi
ncu
mbe
nt.
Qu
owa
rra
ntowa
sis
sue
d.5.UniofMy
sor
eV.Gov
indaRao:Gwhowasar
eade
rinEn
gli
shp
eti
t
ion
edf
oraQu
owa
rra
ntowr
i
tag
ain
stSr
iAn
nia
hGowd
a.Th
esu
pre
mec
our
the
ldt
hata
spe
rla
wth
eUn
ive
rsi
t
ycou
ld
pr
esc
ri
bet
hequ
ali
f
ica
ti
ons
,andt
hes
ewe
ref
ul
fi
l
l
edbys
riAn
nia
hGowda
.He
nce
,quowa
rr
ant
owa
snoti
ssu
eda
gai
nstt
heUni
ver
si
ty
.4.Def
act
odoct
ri
ne:
Thi
smeansi
tist
hedej
ureof
fi
cerwhoshoul
dex
erci
seshi
s
power
sandi
ssuesor
der
s.But
,whenadef
act
oof
fi
cerex
erci
sehi
spower
s,bef
orehei
soust
edbyt
hecour
tunderaquowar
rant
o,hi
sac
ti
ons
,de
cis
ionsore
xer
ci
seofpowe
rwoul
dbec
ons
ide
reda
sva
li
d
ongr
oundsofpol
i
cya
ndne
ces
sit
y.
.Rangar
ajuV.St
.of
.A.
P.t
hesupr
emecour
tquashedt
hea
ppoi
nt
eme
ntofas
ess
ion
sju
dgeBu
t,h
eha
ddi
spos
edofan
umbe
rofc
ase
sasd
efa
ctos
ess
ion
sju
dge
.He
ld,
his
de
cis
ion
swe
rev
ali
d
Wr itofHabeasCor pus:I tist hemostv al uabl ewr itf orper sonall i
ber ty
.HabeasCor pusmeans," Letushav et hebody ."Aper son,whenar rest ed,canmov et heCour tf ort hei ssueofHabeas
Cor pus.I tisanor derbyaCour tt ot hedet ai ningaut hor it
yt opr oducet hear rest edper sonbef orei tsot hati tmayexami newhet hert heper sonhasbeendet ainedl awf ull
yorot her wi se.I fthe
Cour tisconv incedt hatt heper soni si llegal lydet ained, i
tcani ssueor dersf orhi sr elease.Awr i
tofhabeascor pusder ivedf rom Lat inwor dmeans" youmayhav et hebody "isawr it(cour tor der )
thatr equi resaper sonunderar restt obebr oughtbef oreaj udgeori nt ocour t.Thepr i
ncipl eofhabeascor pusensur est hatapr isonercanber eleasedf r
om unl awf uldet ent i
on—t hati s, det ention
l
acki ngsuf f
icientcauseorev idence.Ther emedycanbesoughtbyt hepr i
sonerorbyanot herper soncomi ngt ot hepr i
soner 'sai d.Thi sr ightor i
ginat edint heEngl i
shl egalsy stem,andi snow
availabl ei nmanynat ions.I thashi stor ical l
ybeenani mpor tantl egali nstrumentsaf eguar dingi ndividualf r
eedom agai nstar bit
raryst at eact ion.I thasbeenext endedt onon- pol i
ceaut hor iti
es, as
i
nt he1898Queen' sBenchcaseofExPar teDor othyHopki ns,whi chhassuccessf ullybeenut ili
zedmor er ecent l
yi nI ndiat ol i
ber ateawomanf rom amadr asa. IftheCour tconcl udest hatt he
detent ionwasunl awf ul
, theni tdirect st heper sont ober eleasedi mmedi at ely.Ci rcumst ancesofunl awfuldet ent i
onar e:Thedet ent i
onwasnotdonei naccor dancewi tht hepr ocedur el aiddown.
Fori nst ance,t heper sonwasnotpr oducedbef oreaMagi stratewi thin24hour sofhi sar r
est .
Theper sonwasar r
est edwhenhedi dnotv iolat eanyl aw.Anar restwasmadeunderal awt hatis
unconst ituti
onal .Thi swr itensur esswi f tjudi cialreviewoft heal legedunl awf uldet ent i
onoft hepr isonerandi mmedi at edet erminat ionofhi sr i
ghtt of r
eedom.Howev er ,Habeascor puscannot
begr ant edwher eaper sonhasbeenar rest edunderanor derf rom acompet entcour tandwhenpr i
maf aci etheor derdoesnotappeart obewhol lyillegalorwi thoutj urisdi ction.Thi swr itcanbe
fi
ledbyt hedet ainedper sonhi msel forhi sr elat i
vesorf ri
endsonhi sbehal f.I tcanbei ssuedagai nstbot hpubl icaut hor i
tiesandi ndi vi
dual s.I nSuni lBat r
av .Del hi Admi ni stration( 1980AI R1579)
case, anappl icat i
onwasmadet ot heSupr emeCour tt hroughal et terwr i
ttenbyaco- conv ictont hemal treatmentoft hepr isoner s.Thi slet terwast akenupbyt heSupr emeCour tandi tissued
thewr itofhabeascor pusst atingt hatt hiswr itcannotonl ybeusedagai nsti llegalar restoft hepr i
sonerbutal sof orhi spr otect i
onagai nstanymal tr
eat mentori nhumanbehav iourbyt he
detaini ngaut hor it
ies.InKanuSany al v.Di str ictMagi strat eDar j
eeling&Or s.( 1974AI R510)case, theSupr emeCour thel dt hatr athert hanf ocusi ngont hedef inedmeani ngofHabeasCor pus, i.e.
producet hebody ,ther e. Theconceptofhabeascor puscanbet racedwaybacki nt het hirt
eent hcent ury.Thewr itofHabeascor puscum causai sanor dercal l
ingupont heper sonwhohas
detainedanot herper son, topr esentt heper soni nthecour tandj ust ifyhi sact ionst hatonwhatgr oundsandunderwhataut horit
yhehasconf inedt hatper son.I ft hecour tdoesn’ tf i
ndanyl egal
j
ust if
icat ionsf orthecause,t heni twi l
lor derf ort hei mmedi ater el easeoft heper sonconf i
nedori mpr i
soned. Thewr itofhabeascor pusi smai nt ainabl edur i
nganemer gencypr ocl amat ion,as
aftert he44t hamendmenti n1978i twasst atedt hatf undament alr ightsenshr i
nedunderar ticle20and21cannotbesuspended.Andf ort heenf or cementoft heser ight s, thewr itpet iti
oncan
bef il
edi ncour t
.Cases: Addi tionaldi strictmagi strateofJabal purv .Shi vKantShukl a1976SC1207, Thiscasei sal soknownast hehabeascor puscaseandi twasbasedupont hegr oundsof
i
ssuanceandt hev iabi l
ityaspectoft hiswr it .Thi swhol ecasespi nsar oundt hesi tuat i
onwhent heemer gencywaspr oclaimedandt hequest ionwasr ai
sedwhet hert hewr i
tofhabeascor pusi s
mai ntai nablei nt hissi tuat ionornot .I twashel dthatasi nt hecaseofLi v er sidgev .Ander sondur ingemer gencyal lt her ightswer ehel dsuspended, thesamewashel di nt hei nstantcasewher e
ast atehast hepowert or estrai nt her ight sespeci allyr ightt olifeenshr i
nedunderar t
icle21oft heI ndianconst itutioni nanemer gencysi t
uat ion.Thi sdeci sionwasconsi der edt obet hedar kest
dayofI ndianhi story.Sheel aBar sev .St at eofMahar asht ra1983SCC96, I
nt hei nst antcase, al etterwaswr itt
ent ot hesupr emecour tr egar dingt hecondi tionoft hewomenpr i
soner swhower e
assaul tedi nt hel ockupandt hewr itpet it i
onwasf iledr egar di ngt hi
ssi t
uat ionbyt hepl ai nti
ffwhowasahumanr ightsact ivi
st s.Ani nvest i
gat iveaut hor itywassentbyt hecour tfor
crosschecki ngt hesi tuationandt heal l
egat ionsmadebyt hepl aint i
ff.Itwasf oundt hatt heal legat i
onswer ecor rect .Itwashel dt hati faper sondet ainedorconf inedcan’ tfileanappl icationf or
thewr itthansomeot herper soncanf il
ei tonhi sbehal fwhi chquashedt hel ocusst andi appr oach.
ORI GI NOFHABEASCORPUSI NI NDI A: InI ndia,t hehi storyoft hisgr eatwr itcanbest udi edf r
om 1774onwar ds.HabeasCor puswasi nt roducedi nCal cuttabyt heEngl ishcol oni zers.The
powert oi ssuet hewr ittot hepet iti
onercamef rom t heEngl isht ot hesel ectSupr emeCour tjudgesandt heywoul dt henpr oceedwi thi t.Thispowerwasnotgr ant edt otheent irecour t.
Ther efore,lat eri twasdeci dedt hatnotj ustt hef ewsel ectj udgesoft heSupr emeCour tbutt hewhol ecour tisempower edt oi ssuet hewr i
tofHabeasCor pus.Af t er1774, thewr i
twassentf r
om
theSupr emeCour ttoev ent heMof ussilt owns.Thi swi deexpansi onoft hecour t’saut hor ityledt oaconf li
ctbet weent heGov ernmentandt hecour t
.Itwasdeci dedt hatt hecour tcoul dexpand
i
tspower st ot heMof ussi l
showev ert her ightwasl i
mi t
edt osubj ect sofBr itishor igin.I n1862,Hi ghCour t
swer eor der edt obeest abl ished.Thr eePr esi dencycour tswer eestabl i
shedatFor t
Wi l
liam inBengal ,BombayandMadr asandi nher i
tedt hepowert oi ssuet hewr i
tofHabeasCor pus.I twasi nit
iallyi ncor poratedi nt heCodeofCr imi nalPr ocedur e, 1872.I ndianConst itutionand
HabeasCor pusTheConst i
tutionofI ndi acl earl
ypr ov idest hatnoper sonshal lbedepr i
vedofhi sl i
f eandper sonall i
ber t
yexceptaccor dingt ot hepr ocedur eest abl i
shedbyLaw2.I tcanbe
i
nv okedt hroughAr t
icle.32i .
e.Const it
ut ionalRemedi esf oranyv i
olat ionofr ightsgr ant edunderPar tII
Ioft heI ndi anConst itut i
on3.TheSupr emeCour thast odeci det herel i
efr egar ding
enfor cementoft hei nfringedFundament alRi ghtonl ywheni tisagai nstt heSt ateandnotagai nstapr ivatebody .Tomov et heSupr emeCour tincaseofVi ol
at i
onofFundament alRi ght sisa
ri
ghti ni
tsel f.Ifanyactt akesawayt hepr ivilegeofappl yingf orHabeasCor pusoranywr itfort hatmat t
er,thent hatactwoul dbev oi d.Howev er,inthecaseofanemer gency ,t
hi srightcanbe
takenawayaswasst atedi nADM.Jabal purv .Shukl a4wher einitwasf orbiddent oissueawr i
tpet it
ioni naNat i
onalEmer gency .EVOLUTI ONOFHABEASCORPUS: Thewr itofHabeasCor pus
hasseenal otoft rendssi ncei tsincept i
oni nI ndi a.Fr om bei ngl argel ynar r
owatt hev er ybegi nning, itsscopeast imeshav epassedhasbr oadenedandmagni f i
edduet ov ari
ouski ndsofwr it
petitionsandasubsequentv arietyofJudgment s.TheSupr emeCour thasi nterpr etedt hiswr i
ttosaf eguar dthel iber t
yofper sonsunderal lt ypesofsi t
uat i
ons.Thet echni calaspectofl awhas
beensubsi dedbyt hespi ri
tofl aw.Today ,i tisnott hemer epr oduct i
onoft hebodyt hati st heconcer nofHabeasCor pus.I ti st heensur anceofl i
feandl i
ber t
yt hati sbecomi ngi tscr ux.The
Supr emeCour tst atedi nt hecaseofShubhr aChakr abor tyst atedt hat“ Rightt oLi fe”doesnotmer elymeant ol i
v ebuti tmeanst ol ivewi t
hsel fr espectandhumandi gni
ty .Thegr adual
broadeni ngoft hescopeofHabeasCor pusshal lbedi scussedbel owbyananal ysisoff act orsofchangei naf ewl andmar kcases. 5KANUSANYALV.DI STRI CTMAGI STRATE6Thepet itioner
wasanact ivememberofanaxal itegr oupwhowasr emandedi nt hecent raljai lofDar jeel i
ngf orhav ingcommi ttedcer tainof fences.Achar gesheetwasf iledagai nsthi m andsomeot her s.The
offencescommi ttedbyhi m wer esuchascoul donl ybet ri
edbyasessi onscour twher et hepr isonerbebr oughtbef or easpeci almagi st rateinVi shakhapat nam.Fort hi
spur poseaspeci al
war rantwasi ssuedbyt hespeci almagi strat eandunt ilthepr oceedi ngswer ecompl et e,t hepet it
ionerwasr emandedt oapr isoni nVi shakhapat nam itsel f.Thepet i
tionert husfiledsui tst at i
ng
thathi sdet ent i
oni nDar jeeli
ngwasi llegalandv iolat iv
eofAr t.227.Hecl ai medt hatt hemagi st r
atei nDar j
eelinghadnor ightt ot ryhi scauseashedi dnothav et headequat ejur i
sdi ction.He
alsocl aimedt hatt hemagi strateinDar jeel ingshoul dhav enotcompl i
edwi tht hespeci alor deraspert heSect ion6ofPr isoner '
s( At tendancei nCour ts)Act ,
1958whi chcl earl
yst at est hatan
offi
cercanabst ainf rom execut i
onofanor deri ftheaccusedi sundert rialort her ehasonl ybeenconduct edapr eli
mi nar yinv estigat ion. I
nt hisdeci sioni twasst atedt hat ,1.Thewr itofHabeas
Cor puscannotbei ssuedwheni tisascer tai nedt hatt hedet entionoft heper sonsodet ainedi snoti llegalandnei theri sitwi thoutj ur isdict ion.Itwoul dbecompl etelyoutofi t
spur posei nt hi
s
caseast hereexi st snor ighttoi mpl oret hewr itwhent hedet ent i
oni snecessar yandpur posef ul.2.Al sot hedat et hati st obet akeni ntoaccounti ncaseofawr i
tpet iti
on, isthedat et hepet it
ion
wasf il
edon.I twasdeci dedbecauset heear li
estdat ehadt obesoughtandt hataut omat i
cal l
ywoul dbet hedat eonwhi cht hewr itpet iti
onwasf il
ed.3.Thecour tcanheart heRul eNi siev enin
theabsenceoft hedet ainedper son.Rul eNi siist o“ showcause”i .e.anor derofacour tisf i
nalunt i
lt hepar t
yt owhom i tappl i
esshowsr easonot herwise. 9OnceaRul eNi sihasbeeni ssued,
thebodyoft hedet ainedhast obepr oducedbef or et hecour t.Byt hewor d“ pr esence”i tisnotmeantphy sicalpr esence.Al thought hel it
er almeani ngoft hewr i
ti s“ t
opr oducet hebody ”i tisin
factnotasnecessar yasi stodoawaywi tht hei llegaldet ent i
on.Pr esencebef or et hecour tissubsi di arytot hepr imar yobj ectiveofHabeasCor pusandt hatist oensur eani l
legal l
ydet ained
man’ sli
ber ty.Iti sr eferredt oast hegr eatwr itsol elybecauseoft her easont hati tli
mi tst hedespot i
cpower soft heSt at eandguar ant eesl iber tytoanat ion’ sci ti
zens.
Whocanappl yfortheWr i
tofhabeascor pus:Thegeneralruleisthatanappl i
cationcanbemadebyaper sonwhoi sill
egal
lydetai
ned.buti ncert
aincasesanappl i
cati
onofhabeascor puscan
bemadebyanyper sononbehal fofthepri
soner,
ie,aFriendoraRel ati
ves.Awr itofhabeascor pus,al
soknownast he"gr
eatwr i
t"
,isasummonswi t
ht heforceofacour torder
;iti
saddr essed
tothecustodian(apr i
sonof f
icialf
orexample)anddemandst hatapr i
sonerbet akenbef or
et hecourt
,andt hatthecustodianpr esentproofofaut hor
it
y ,all
owingthecourttodet ermine
whethert
hecust odi
anhasl awfulauthor
it
ytodetainthepr i
soner.Ift hecustodianisactingbey ondhisauthor
it
y, t
hentheprisonermustber el
eased.Anypr i
soner ,oranot
herpersonact i
ngon
hi
sorherbehal f,maypetit
iont hecourt
,orajudge,forawr itofhabeascor pus.Oner easonf orthewri
tt obesoughtbyaper sonot herthanthepr i
sonerist hatthedetai
neemi ghtbehel d
i
ncommuni cado.Habeascor pushascer t
ainli
mitat
ions.Iti
st echnicallyonl
yapr oceduralremedy ;i
tisaguaranteeagainstanydet enti
onthatisforbiddenbyl aw,butitdoesnotnecessar il
y
prot
ectot
herr i
ghts,suchastheent i
tl
ementtoafairtr
ial
.

Wheni twi l
lli
e-habeascor pus: Thewr itofhabeascor puswi llli
eifthepowerofdet entionv estedi nanaut horitywasexer cisedmal afi
deandi smadei ncollateralorul teriorpur poses.buti f
thedet enti
oni sjustifi
edt hehi ghcour twillnotgr
antt hewr itofhabeascor pus.InSuni lBhat r
aV/ SDel hiAdmi nistration[1]i
thasbeenhel dt hatthewr itofhabeascor puscanbei ssuednotonl y
forreleasingaper sonf rom ill
egaldet entionbutalsof orpr otecti
ngpr i
soner sfrom thei nhumanandbar baroust reatment .thedy nami croleofj udicialr emedi esimpor t
st ot hehabeascor pus
writav ersati
lev i
tali
tyandoper ati
onalutili
tyasbastionofl ibertyevenwi thinjai
ls.InVeenaSet hiV/ SSt ateOfBi har[2]Inthiscasei twashel dthatt hecour twasi nfor medt hroughal etterthat
somepr isoners,whower einsaneatt het i
meoft ri
albutsubsequent lydecl aredsane,wer enotr eleasedduet oi nact i
onofst ateaut hori
ti
esandhadt or emaininj ail
sf rom 20t o30y ear s.the
courtdi r
ectedt heyber eleasedf orthwit
h.I nD.SNakar av /sUni onofIndia[3]inthiscasei twashel dt hatar egisteredsoci eti
es, non-pol
iti
cal,non-pr ofitmaki ngandv olunt aryor ganizationsar e
entit
ledt ofil
eawr itpet i
tionie,habeascor pusunderar ticl
e32oft heconst it
uti
onf orespousi ngt hecausef ort hel argenumberofol dinfi
rm pensi oner swhoar eunabl et oappr oacht hecour t
i
ndiv i
dually.Wecommandy ou, thatthebodyofA. B.i nOurpr i
sonundery ourcust odydet ained, asi ti
ssai d,toget herwi ththedayandcauseofhi st aki nganddet ention, bywhat evernamet he
saidA. B.maybeknownt herein,youhav eatourCour t...tounder goandt or eceivethatwhi chourCour tshal
l t
henandt hereconsi derandor derint hatbehal f.Hereofi nnowayf ai l
,atyourper il
.
Andhav ey out hent heret hiswr it
.Thehabeaswr itwasusedi ntheRajancase,ast udentv i
ctim oft or t
ureinl ocalpol icecust odydur i
ngt henat ionwi deEmer gencyi nI ndiain1976. On12t h
Mar ch2014,Subr ataRoy 'scounselappr oachedtheChi efJust i
cemov ingahabeascor puspet i
tion.Itwasal sof il
edbyPant hersPar t
yt opr ot
estt hei mpr i
sonmentofAnnaHazar e,asoci al
acti
v i
st.
thewr i
tofhabeascor pusisnotissuedint hefoll
owingcases:(i
)Wher ethepersonagainstwhom t hewr itisissuedort hepersonwhoi sdetainedi
snotwithint hej uri
sdi
cti
onoft heCourt.
(i
i)
Tosecur ether el
easeofaper sonwhohasbeeni mprisonedbyaCour toflawonacr i
minalchar ge.(
ii
i)Toi nterfer
ewi t
hapr oceedi
ngf orcontemptbyaCour tofr ecor dorbyParli
ament .
Thus
writofhabeascor pusisabul war
kofper sonalli
berty
.Ihasbeendescribedas“ agreatconsti
tutionalprivi
lege”or“f ir
stsecurit
yofci
vill
ibert
y”.Themostcharact eristi
celementofthewr i
tisit
s
perempt or
inessi.e.aspeedyandef fect
iver emedyforhav i
ngthelegali
tyofdetentionoftheper sonenqui redanddet erminedbytheCour t.
Thef ol
l
owingcondi tionswhent hewritofhabeas
corpusisr efusedareasf oll
ows:Whent hecour tdoesn’thavetheter
rit
orialj
uri
sdicti
onovert hedet ainer.Whent hedet ent
ionofaper sonisconnectedwitht heor derofthecour t
.Whenthe
persondet ai
nedi salr
eadysetf r
ee.Whent heconf i
nementhasbeenl egit
imizedbyt heremov aloft hedef ects.Thewr i
tofhabeascor puswi l
lnotbeavai
labledur inganemer gency.Whenthe
compet entcourtdismissesthepeti
ti
onont hegr oundsofmer i
ts.

GroundsofHabeasCor pus: Thef oll

owi nggr oundsmaybest atedf ort hegr antoft hewr i
t:-
1)Theappl i
cantmustbei ncust ody ;
2)Theappl icationf ort hegr antoft hewr itofhabeascor pus
ordinar i
lyshoul dbebyt hehusbandorwi f
eorf atherorsonoft hedet enu.Ti l
lafewy ear sbackt hewr i
tofhabeascor puscoul dnotbeent ert
ainedi fast rangerf il
esi t.Butnowt heposi t
ionhas
compl etelychangedwi tht hepr onouncement soft heSupr emeCour tinanumberofcases.Ev enapost car dwr ittenbyadet enuf rom jailorbysomeot herper sononhi sbehal finspiredby
socialobj ect i
v escoul dbet akenasawr it-
pet i
ti
on. 3)I nSuni lBat rav .Del hiAdmi nistration,[2]thecour ti
niti
atedt hepr oceedi ngsonal ett
erbyaco-conv ict,al l
egingi nhumant or turetohi sfellow
conv ict.Kr i
shnaI y er,J.,t reat edt hel etterasapet it
ionf orhabeascor pus.Hedwel tuponAmer i
cancaseswher et hewr itofhabeascor pushasbeeni ssuedf ort henegl ectofst atepenal
facil
itiesl i
keov er-
cr owdi ng,i nsani taryf acili
ties,br ut al
i
ties,const antf earofv iolence,l ackofadequat emedi calf aci l
i
t i
es,censor shipofmai l
s,i nhumani solation,segr egat ion,inadequat e
rehabi li
tati
v eoreducat i
onaloppor t
uni t
ies.)Aper sonhasnor i
ghtt opr esentsuccessi veappl icati
onsf orhabeascor pust odi f
ferentJudgesoft hesamecour t
.Asr egar dst heappl icabil
ityof
resjudi catat ot hewr i
tofhabeascor pust heSupr emeCour thasengr af t
edanexcept i
ont ot heef fectthatwher et hepet i
tionhadbeenej ectedbyt heHi ghCour t,
af reshpet i
tioncanbef il
edt o
Supr emeCour tunderAr ticle32. 5)Al lthef ormal iti
est oar restanddet ent i
onhav enotbeencompl iedwi thandt heor derofar resthasbeenmademal af ideorf orcol lateralpur pose.Whena
Magi st r
atedi dnotr epor tt hear resttot heGov ernmentoft hePr ovinceaswasr equi redunderSect ion3( 2)oft hePunj abSaf etyAct ,1947,thedet ent ionwashel di llegal .
6)Theor dermustbe
defect iveinsubst ance, e.g., mi sdescr i
pt i
onofdet enu, fai
luret oment ionpl aceofdet ent i
onet c.Hencecompl etedescr iptionoft hedet enushoul dbegi veni ntheor derofdet ent ion.7)Itmustbe
establ i
shedt hatthedet ai ningaut horitywasnotsat isfiedt hatt hedet enuwascommi tti
ngpr ejudi
cialact s,etc.Itmaybenot edi nt hisconnect i
ont hatt hesuf fi
ciencyoft hemat eri
alonwhi ch
thesat i
sfact i
oni sbasedcannotbesubj ectofscr utinybyt heCour t.Wher ethedet ainingaut hor it
ydi dnotappl yhismi ndi npassi ngt heorderofdet ent i
on, thecour twi l
linterveneandi ssuet he
orderofr eleaseoft hedet enu.Vagueandi ndef ini
t egr oundsofdet ention, wher ethedet aini
ngaut hor i
tyfurnishesv agueandi ndef i
nitegrounds, itent itl
est hepet it
ionert orelease. TheCour thas
consi stentlyshowngr eatanxi etyf orper sonall iber t
yandr ef usedtodi smi ssapet i
tionmer elyont hegr oundt hati tdoesnotdi scloseapr i
maf aci ecasei nvali
dat ingt heor derofdet enti
on.It
hasadopt edt heliber alat ti
tudei nv i
ewoft hepecul iarsoci o- economi ccondi ti
onspr evaili
ngi nt hecount ry.Peopl ei ngener alarepoor ,i
l
li
terateandl ackf inancialr esour ces.I twoul dt herefore
benotdesi rabletoi nsistt hatt hepet iti
onershoul dsetoutcl ear l
yandspeci ficallyt hegr oundonwhi chhechal lengest heor derofdet ention. Thescopeofwr itofhabeascor pushas
consi derabl yincreasedbyv irtueoft hedeci si
onoft heSupr emeCour tinManekaGandhiv .Uni onofI ndia,andal sobyt headopt ionoff orty-
four thamendmentt ot heConst itution.Hencet he
writofhabeascor puswi llbeav ail
ablet othepeopl eagai nstanywr ongf ul detenti
on.
Equitabl eremedi es: Equitabler emedi esf oradmi nistrati
veact i
onconst itutet heconsci enceofadmi nistrati
onofj usti
ce.Lawmayf ai
ljust i
ce,butEqui tydoesnot .MAXI MSOFEQUI TY:•Equi t
y
willnotsuf ferawr ongt obewi t houtar emedy .•Equi t
yfoll
owst hel aw. •Wher et her ei sequi t
y ,thel awshal lpr evail
.•Wher et heequi t
iesar eequalt hef i
rsti nt i
meshal lprevail.
•Hewhoseeks
equity,mustdoequi ty.
Hewhocomesi nt oequi tymustcomewi thcl eanhands. Delaydef eatsequi t
y.Equi tylookst ot hei ntentr athert hant ot hef orm.Equal i
tyi sEqui ty.Equitylooksont hatas
donewhi choughtt obedone. Equi tyimput esani ntent i
ont ofulfi
lanobl igation. Equi t
yact sinper sonam.Apar tfrom theext ra-ordinar y( Const it
ut i
onalRemedi es)guar anteedasdi scussabov e
therear ecer tainor dinaryr emedi es, whichar eav ailabletoper sonunderspeci ficst atut esagai nstt headmi nistrati
on.Theor di narycour tsi nexer ciseoft hepowerpr ovidet heor dinaryr emedi es
undert heor dinar yl awagai nsttheadmi nistrativeaut hori
ti
es.Theser emedi esar eal socal l
edequi tabler emedi es.Thi sincludes: i
)Inj unctionii
)Decl aratoryAct i
oni ii
)Act ionf ordamages.I nsome
caseswher ewr onghasbeendonet oaper sonbyanadmi ni
strati
v eact ,decl ar atoryj udgment sandi njunctionmaybeappr opr i
ater emedi es.Anact ionf ordecl arationl i
eswher eaj urisdiction
hasbeenwr ongl yexer ci
sed.Orwher etheaut horityitselfwasnotpr oper lyconst i
tuted.I njunctionsi ssuedf orrest r
ainingaper sont oactcont raryt olawori nexcessofi t
sst atutorypower s.An
i
njunct ioncanbei ssuedt obot hadmi ni
st rativeandquasi -
judici
albodi es.I njunct i
oni shi ghlyusef ulremedyt opr eventast atutorybodyf rom doi nganul trav ir
esact ,apar tfrom thecaseswher e
i
tisav ail
ableagai nstpr i
vat eindividualse. g.t orest rainthecommi ssionort ort s,orbr eachofcont ractorbr eachofst atutorydut y.Meani ngofEqui ty:
Befor ewedi scussequi tabler emedi es,itis
necessar yf orust oknowsomet hingaboutequi ty.Si ncetheadmi ni strationofj usti
cehasbegunont hebasi sofl awi nt hewor l
d, acl assofsoci etyhasal way sbeenagai nstt her i
gidityofl aw.
Thiscl assofsoci etyisoft heopi nionthathowsoev ermat ureandl egal lyski lledmenmaymaket hel aws,y ettheycannotexper iencet heci rcumst anceswhi cht hej udgesmayhav et of acei n
future.Theci rcumst ancesi nwhi cht hepr ov isionsofl awmaypr ov et obeunj ustf orthepeopl ei fisnecessar yt omaket hepr ov i
sionsofl awf lexible,andi njusticecausedbysuchr igidityofl aw
shoul dbest opped.Equi t
yi sbasedont hisconsi der ati
on.Equityi sav oiceagai nsti njust i
cecausedbyr igi
dityofl ow.Equi ty ,whi chi snotasy nony m ofnat uraljustice,demandst hatj ustice
shoul dbemadei naccor dancewi ththeci rcumst ances.Equi ti
esanew andi ndependentsy st em ofl aw whi chdev elopedi nEngl and.I thasi tsownhi storyandor igin.Itmadeani mpor tant
contributionint heEngl i
shsy stem ofl awasasuppl ement aryofmai nlegalsy st em t i
ll1873, wheni twasmer gedi nthecommonl awAccor dingt oAshbur ner.“Equi t
yi sawor dwhi chhasbeen
borrowedbyl awf rom mor al i
tyandwhi chwasacqui redinlawast rictlytechni cal meani ng. ”
(1)Injunct ion:Ani njunct ioni sapr ev ent iver emedy .I tisaj udi cialpr ocessbywhi chonewhohasi nvadedori sthr eateni ngt oi nv adet her i
ght sofanot heri sr estrainedf rom cont inuingor
commenci ngsuchwr ongf ulAct .I nI ndi a, thel awwi thr egardt oi njunct i
onshasbeenl aiddowni nthespeci ficRel i
efAct ,
1963.I njunct i
onmaybepr ohibi
t or yormandat ory.Pr ohi bitoryI njunct ion:
Prohibi t
or yinjunct ionf orbi dst hedef endantt odoawr ongf ulact ,whi chwoul di nfringet her ightoft hepl aint i
ff.Apr ohi bi
tor yinj unct ionmaybei nt erlocutor yort empor aryi njunct ionorper pet ual
i
njunct ion.Interlocut oryort empor aryi nj unct ion:Tempor aryi njunct ionsar esuchast ocont inueunt ilaspeci fiedt i
meorunt i
lt hef urtheror deroft hecour t.( S.37f ort hespeci ficRel iefAct ).Itis
grantedasani nt erim measur et opr eser vest atusquount i
lthecasei shear danddeci ded.Tempor ar yinj unct ionmaybegr ant edatanyst ageofasui t
.Tempor ar yi njunct i
onsar er egul atedby
theCi vilPr ocedur eCode.Tempor aryi nj unct ioni spr ov i
sionali nnat ur e.Itdoesnotconcl udeordet ermi near ight.Besi des,at empor aryinjunct ioni samer eor der .Thegr ant ingoft empor ary
i
njunct ioni samat terofdi scr etionoft hecour t
.Itcanbeseent hatwi thregar dt ot heawar dofi njunct i
on, thest arti
ngpoi ntf ort hemer gerwast heCommonLawPr ocedur eActof1854whi ch
empower edt heCommonLawCour tst ogr anti njunct ionincer tai ncases; andcommoni njunct ionswer egr ant edt or est r
ainpr oceedi ngsopposedt oequi tyandf inal l
yt heJudi cat ureAct s, 1873-
75whi chabol ishedt heol dsy stem ofcour tsandi nitspl ace, creat edt heSupr emeCour tofJudi cat urewi thpowert oadmi nisterl awandequi t
y .By1191t hepr ov isionsofsect i
on16oft heAct
of1873t heSupr emeCour tofJudi cat urewasv estedwi thal lthej uri
sdi cti
onhi ther toexer ci sedbybot ht hecommonl awandt heChancer yCour ts.Sect ion25( 8)oft heActspeci fi
cal lypr ov i
des
that‘theHi ghCour tmaygr ant …ani njunct ion…byani nterl
ocut or yor derinal lcasesi nwhi chi tappear st ot hecour tt obej ustorconv enientsot odo…ei t
heruncondi tional lyoronsucht er ms
andcondi t
ionsast hecour tthi nksj ust .’I nIsenber gv .EastI ndi aHouseCo.( 1863)3andSmi thv .Smi t h[xiv]i tcanbeseent hatt hecour thasi ssuedamandat or yi njunct ionwher ebyapar tyis
compel ledt or estor et hi
ngst ot hecondi ti
oni nwhi cht heywer eatt het i
met hepl aint i
ff’scompl aintwasmadeorbef or ethedef endantcommi t
tedt heactcompl ai nedof .Thegener alt rendwas
tofav ourt hegr antofpr ohi bitoryr athert hanmandat oryinjunct ion.Foral ongper iod, mosti njunct ionswer epr ohibitorybot hi nf or m andsubst ance. Perpet ualinj unct i
on; Aper pet uali njunct ion
i
sgr ant edatt heconcl usi onoft hepr oceedi ngsandi sdef i
nitiv eoft her i
ght soft hepar ties,buti tneednotbeexpr essedt ohav eper petualef fect ,itmaybeawar dedf oraf ixedper iodorf ora
fl
exedper i
odwi t
hl eav et oappl yf oranext ensi onorf orani ndef i
niteper i
odt ermi nabl ewhencondi tionsi mposedont hedef endanthav ebeencompl iedwi th; oritsoper ationmaybesuspended
foraper i
oddur i
ngwhi cht hedef endanti sgi vent heoppor tuni tyt ocompl ywi tht hecondi ti
onsi mposedonhi m,t hepl aintiffbei nggi venl eav et or epl yatt heendoft hatt ime. Mandat ory
i
njunct ion:Whent opr esentt hebr eachofanobl i
gat i
on, i
tisnecessar yt ocompelt heper for manceofcer tainact swhi cht hecour ti ncapabl eofenf orcing, thecour tmayi nt hedi scr etiongr ant
aninjunct i
ont opr ev entt hebr eachcompl ainedofanal sot ocompelper f
or manceoft her equi siteact s.(S.39oft heSpeci fi
cRel i
efAct .)Themandat oryi njunct ionmaybet akenasacommand
todoapar ti
cul aractt or est or et hingst ot hei rformercondi tionort oundo, t
hatwhi chhasbeendone.I tpr ohi bitsthedef endantf rom cont i
nuingwi thawr ongf ulactandal soi mposesdut yon
himt odoaposi tiveact .Forexampl econst ructionoft hebui ldingoft hedependantobst r uctst hel ightf orwhi cht hepl aint iffisl egal lyent i
tled.Thepl ai ntiffmayobt aini njunct ionnotonl yf or
restr
ai ningt hedef endantf rom t heconst ruct i
onoft hebui ldi ngbutal sot opul ldownsomuchoft hepar toft hebui l
di ng,whi chobst ruct st hel i
ghtoft hepl aintiff.
Injunct ionsr estont he
equitabl epr i
nci plet hathewhoseeksequi tymustdoequi ty.I ft hepl ainti
ffhasact edi nanunf airinequi tabl emannerhecannothav er eli
ef[xxxv i].Thet empor aryi njunct iont or est rainabr each
ofcont ractar er egul atedbyt hepr esentRul e2Or der39ofCPCwhi leper petuali njunct ionsar eregul atedbysect i
ons38t o42oft hespeci ficrel iefact.Themai nconsi der ationaspr ov idedby
secti
on38( 2)i st hataper pet uali nj unct ioncannotbegr antedt opr ev entt hebr eachofcont ractt heper for manceofwhi chwoul dnotbespeci ficallyenf orced. Asdeci dedi nChandSul tanaV.
KurshidBegum i fasui tisbr oughtf orspeci ficper formanceandf orani njunct i
ont or est raint hedef endantf rom commi ttingt hebr eachofcont r
actandt hepl aint i
ffappl iesf orat empor ary
i
njunct iont opr ev entabr eachunt ilt hesui tisdi sposedoft hecour twi llnotgr antt het empor aryi njunct ioni fthepl ai
ntandaf fidav itshowst hatcasei snotonef orper pet uali njunct i
onor
specificper f
or mance.
2)Decl arat ion( Decl ar atoryAct i
on) :Decl arat i
onmaybet akenasaj udicialor derissuedbyt hecour tdeclaringr i
ght soft hepar t
ieswi thoutgi vinganyf ur t
herr elief.Thusadecl arator ydecr ee
declarest her ightsoft hepar ti
es.I nsuchadecr eet her ei snosanct i
on,whi chanor dinaryj udgmentpr escribessamesanct ionsagai nstt hedef endant .Bydecl aringt her i
ghtsoft hepar tiesit
remov est heexi stingdoubt saboutt her ightsandsecur esenj oy mentoft hepr oper ty.I tisanequi t
ableremedy .Itspur posei stoav oidf ut urel itigat i
onbyr emov ingt heexi stingdoubt swi th
regardt ot her i
ght soft hepar ti
es.I tisadi scretionar yr emedyandcannotbecl aimedasamat terofright.
ALTHOUQHt hedecl ar atoryjudgmenthas, inrecenty ear s, beenempl oy edmor er eadi l
y
i
nadmi nist rativel aw,t her emedyhasnoty etat tainedt hepr e-emi nencei nt hisf iel dt hati tsconsi derableadv ant ageswoul dseem t omer it.Thef undament alpoi nti st hatcoer civer el i
efi s
gener all
yunnecessar yagai nstpubl icandgov ern-ment alaut hor i
ties- nor mal ly
, adecl arat i
onoft he, l
awi senoughandnocoer civ ebacki ngi sneededt ocompelof ficialst oobser vet hel awort o
remai norbekeptwi thint heboundsofl egality.Publ icbodi esi nBr i
tai nwoul dnev erbl atant l
ydi sregardanaut hor i
-tativedecl arationoft hel awobt ai
nedagai nstt hem.Mor ever,t hel imi tat ions
beset ti
ngt hepr erogat iveor dersofmandamus,cer tiorar i,andpr ohi biti
on,r emedi eswhi chdogi vecoer ci
v erelief,andt hedoubt sast ot heirpr ecisescope,ar esucht hatt heser emedi es
compar eunf av ourabl ywi tht hesi mpl i
ci tyoft hedecl ar a-tor yj udgmentpr ocedur e.Inanagewhen, i
nmor eandmor ef ieldsofact i
vity
,ani ndi v idual '
sact ioni sl iablet obr i
nghi mi ntoconf l
ictwi th
theAdmi nist ration,t her eisav eryr ealneedf orasi msl eal l-embr aci ngmet hodofr edr ess, unencumber edbyr estri
ct ionssuchashav eat tachedt hemsel v
esov eral ongper iodofdev elopment
totheol derr emedi es.Br ingi ngadecl ar ator yact ioni s,f ur t
her ,thebestwayt oav oidt hel ossofacaseont hegr oundofwr ongchoi ceofr emedi es.I tisnowpr bposedt oout linesomeoft he
disadv ant agesofmandamus,cer ti
or ar i,andpr ohibi tion,t heol derr emedi esav ai
labl ei npubl iclaw,andt ocompar et heser emedi eswi tht heact ionf oradecl arat oryj udgment Adecl ar atory
j
udgmenti sgener all
ydi stingui shedf r om anadv i
sor yopi ni onbecauset helatterdoesnotr esol veanact ualcaseorcont rover sy .Declar ator yj udgment scanpr ov idel egalcer t
aint ytoeachpar t
y
i
namat terwhent hiscoul dr esolv eorassi stinadi sagr eement .Of tenanear l
yr esol utionofl egalr i
ghtswi l
lresolv esomeoral loft heot heri ssuesi namat ter .Adecl ar ator yj udgmenti st y pical l
y
request edwhenapar tyist hr eatenedwi thal awsui tbutt hel awsui thasnoty etbeenf i
led; orwhenapar t
yorpar ti
esbel i
ev et hatt heirr ight sunderl awand/ orcont ractmi ghtconf l
ict;oraspar t
ofacount ercl aimt opr eventf urtherl awsui tsf rom t hesamepl ai ntiff( forexampl e,whenonl yacont r
actcl aimi sf iled,butacopy rightcl aim mi ghtal sobeappl i
cabl e).I nsomei nst ances,a
declarat oryj udgmenti sf i
ledbecauset hest at uteofl i
mi t ationsagai nstapot ent i
aldef endantmaypassbef oret hepl aint i
ffincur sdamage( forexampl e,amal pract i
cest atuteappl icabl et oa
certif
iedpubl icaccount antmaybeshor tert hant het imeper iodt heI RShast oassessat axpay erf oradditi
onalt axduet obadadv icegi venbyt heCPA) .Whenapar tyi sr equest ingadecl ar atory
j
udgment ,thepar tyi sseeki nganof fici aldecl arationr egar dingt hest at usoft hecont r
ov ersyi nissue.Mor eover, t
hepoi nti st hatt her esol utionoft hedecl ar edr ight sofal lpartiesi nv olv edwi ll
hopef ullypr ev entf ur therescal ationoft heconf l
ictorev enf urtherl iti
gation.Anexampl eoft hisinacasei nvolv i
ngcont ract swoul dbeapar tyseeki ngani nt erpr etat ionoft hecont ractt o
determi net hei rr i
ght s.Anot herexampl ewoul dbeani nsur edi ndi vidualseeki ngaspeci fi
cdet erminati
onoft heirr i
ght sandsur roundi ngci rcumst ancesr egar dingi nsur ancecov er ageundera
specificpol icy .Thebenef itofadecl ar ator yjudgmenti st hati tpr ev ent slawsui tst hatar el i
kelyt obeunsuccessf ul,whi chsav est hecour ts, andul t i
mat elyt axpay ers, resour cesandt ime.I nt he
caseofi nsur ancecont ract s,decl ar ator yj udgment shel pdet ermi neapol i
cy '
scov er age.I thel pst odef i
nei fcov erageexi stsf orapar ticul arper il,whet hert hei nsur eri sr equiredt odef endt he
policyhol derf rom at hirdpar tycl aim,andwhet hert hei nsur eri sr esponsi blef oral osswhenot herinsurancecont r
act sal socov eragai nstt hesameper i
l.Forexampl e,apol i
cy holderbel i
ev es
thatthei rdeni edcl aimi sunj ust.Asar esul t,theyi nf ormt hei nsur ert hatt heyar econsi deringal awsuitt orecov erl osses.Thei nsur erseeksadecl ar atoryj udgmentt ocl arifyi t
sr i
ght sand
obligationswi t hhopesofpr event ingt hel awsui t
.I fadecl ar atoryj udgmenti ndicat est hatt hei nsurerisnotobl igat edt ocov erthel oss,t hei nsur erwi lllikelyav oi dl iti
gat i
on.I ft hej udgment
showst hatt hei nsureri sresponsi ble, thent hepol icy hol deri slikelyt osuet hei nsur ert or ecov erlosses.

3)Actionf orDamages: I
fanyinjuryi scausedt oani ndividualbywr ongf ulornegligentact softheGov ernmentser vanttheaggrievedper soncanf i
lesuitf ort
her ecover
yofdamagesf rom the
Gover nmentconcer ned.Adecl aratoryj udgment ,alsocal ledadecl arati
on,i sthel egaldeterminati
onofacour tthatresolv
esl egaluncer taint
yforthel iti
gants.Itisaform ofl
egall
ybinding
preventiveadjudicationbywhi chapar tyinvol
v edinanact ualorpossiblel egalmatt ercanaskacour ttoconclusivelyrul
eonandaf fi
rmt her ight
s,duti
es, orobli
gat i
onsofoneormor eparti
esin
aciv i
ldispute( subjecttoanyappeal ).Thedecl ar
at or
yj udgmenti sgener all
yconsi deredast atut
oryremedyandnotanequi t
ableremedyi nt heUni tedStates,andi sthusnotsubjectto
equitablerequir
ement s,
thought herear eanal ogiest hatcanbef oundi nther emedi esgrantedbycour t
sofequity .Adeclarat
oryjudgmentdoesnotbyi t
sel for
deranyact i
onbyapar t
y,orimply
damagesorani njuncti
on,althoughi tmaybeaccompani edbyoneormor eotherr emedies.
Thedecl arat
oryj udgmenti sdisti
nguishedf rom anotheri mportantnon-monetar
yremedy ,the
i
njunct i
on,intwomai nway s.First,thei nj
unct i
onhas,andt hedecl aratoryjudgmentl acks,anumberofdev icesf ormanagingt hepar t
ies.Second,t hedecl arator
yjudgmentissomet i
mes
avai
lableatanear l
ierpointi
nadi spute, becausei ti
snotsubj ecttotheequi t
ableripenessr equi
rement.
Liabi lityofSt at eorGov ernmenti nCont r act/cont ract uall iabi l
it
y: Ar ticle298pr ovidest hatt heexecut ivepoweroft heUni onandofeachSt ateshal lext endt ot hecar r
yingonofanyt radeor
busi nessandt ot heacqui siti
onhol dinganddi sposalpr oper tyandt hemaki ngofcont ract sf oranypur pose.Ar ticle299( I)lay sdownt hemanneroff ormul ati
onofsuchcont r act.Ar ticle299
prov idest hatal lcont ract sint heexer ciseoft heexecut i
v epoweroft heuni onorofaSt ateshal lbeexpr essedt obemadebyt hePr esidentorbyt heGov ernoroft heSt ate, ast hecasemaybe,
andal lsuchcont ractsandal lassur ancesofpr oper tymadei nt heexer ciseoft hatpowershal lbeexecut edonbehal foft hePr esi dentort heGov ernorbysuchper sonsandi nsuchmanneras
hemaydi rectoraut hor i
ze.Ar t
icle299( 2)makesi tcl eart hatnei thert hePr esi dentnort heGov er norShal lbeper sonal l
yl iabl einr espectofanycont ractorassur ancemadeorexecut edf ort he
pur posesoft hisConst i
tut i
onorf ort hepur posesofanyenact mentr el ati
ngorexecut i
nganysuchcont ractorassur anceonbehal fofanyoft hem beper sonallyli
abl einrespectt her eof.Subj ect
tot hepr ov isionsofAr ticle299( 1), t
heot herpr ov isionsoft hegener all awofcont ractappl yev ent otheGov ernmentcont ract .Acont ractwi tht heGov ernmentoft heUni onorSt at ewi llbev al i
d
andbi ndi ngonl yifthef oll
owi ngcondi ti
onsar ef oll
owed:- 1.Thecont ractwi tht heGov ernmentwi llnotbebi ndingi fiti snotexpr essedt obemadei nt henameoft hePr esi dentort heGov er nor ,
ast hecasemaybe. 2.Thecont r
actmustbeexecut edonbehal foft hePr esi dentort heGov er noroft heSt ateast hecasemaybe.Thewor dexecut edi ndicat est hatacont ractwi tht he
Gov er nmentwi l
lbev ali
donl ywheni tisi nwr iti
ng. 3.Aper sondul yaut hor izedbyt hePr esi dentort heGov ernoroft heSt ate,ast hecasemaybe,mustexecut ethecont r act.Theabov e
prov isi onsofAr ticle299ar emandat or yandt hecont r
actmadei ncont rav ent iont hereofi sv oidandunenf or ceabl e.TheSupr emeCour thasmadei tcl eart hatint hecasegr antofGov er nment
cont r actt heCour tshoul dnoti nter fereunl esssubst ant i
alpubl icinter esti si nv ol vedorgr anti smal afidewhenawr itpet itioni sf iledint heHi ghCour tchal l
engingt heawar dofacont ractbya
publ icaut hor ityort heSt ate, t
heCour tmustbesat isf i
edt hatt hereissomeel ementofpubl i
ci nt er estinv olvedi nent er tainingsuchapet iti
on.Ef fectofav alidcont ractwi thGov er nment :Howev er,
asAr ticle299( 2)pr ovidesnei thert hePr esi dentnort heGov ernorshal lbeper sonal l
yl i
abl einr espectofanycont ractorassur ancemadeorexecut edf ort hepur posesoft hisConst ituti
onorf or
thepur posesofanyenact mentr elatingt ot heGov er nmentofI ndia.Assoonasacont racti sexecut edwi tht heGov ernmenti naccor dancewi thAr ticle299,t hewhol el aw ofcont ractas
cont ai nedi nt heI ndianCont ractActcomesi ntooper ations.Thust heappl icat ionsoft hepr i
vat el awofcont r acti nt hear eaofpubl i
ccont ractsmayr esul tint hecasesofi nj ustice.Acont ractof
serv icewi tht heGov ernment snotcov eredbyAr ti
cle299oft heConst itution.Af teraper soni st akeni naser v i
ceundert heGov er nment ,hisr ight sandobl i
gationsar egov er nedbyt hest at ut ory
rulesf ramedbyt heGov ernmentandnotbyt hecont ractoft hepar t
ies.Ser vicecont ract swi tht heGov ernmentdonotcomewi thi nt hescopeofAr ticle299.Theyar esubj ectt o“ pl easur e”.They
arenotcont ractsi nusualsenseoft het er m ast heycanbedet ermi nedatwi l
ldespi teanexpr esscondi ti
ont ot hecont rar y.(Par shot tam LalDhi ngr av .Uni onofI ndia,AI R1958SC36)I nI ndi a
ther emedyf ort hebr anchofacont ractwi thGov ernmenti ssi mpl yasui tf ordamages.Thewr i
tofmandamuscoul dnotbei ssuedf ortheenf orcementofcont ractualobl igat i
ons.Butt he
Supr emeCour tini tspr onouncementi nGuj aratSt ateFi nanci alCor por ationv .Lot usHot els,( ( 1983)3SCC379)hast akenanew st andandhel dt hatt hewr itofmandamuscanbei ssued
agai nstt heGov ernmentori tsi nst rument alityfortheenf orcementofcont r
act ualobl i
gat ions.TheCour tr uledt hati tist ool atet ocont endt odayt heGov er nmentcancommi tbr anchofasol emn
under taki ngonwhi chot hersi dehasact edandt hencont endt hatt hepar tysuf fer i
ngbyt hebr anchofcont ractmaysuef ordamagesandcannotcompelspeci fi
cper formanceoft hecont ract
throughmandamus. Thedoct ri
neofj udi cialr eviewhasext endedt ot hecont ract sent eredi ntobyt heSt ateofi tsi nst rument ali
tywi thanyper son.Bef oret hecaseofRamanaDay aram Shet tyv .
Inter nat ionalAi r
por tAut hority.(AI R1979SC1628)Theat titudeoft heCour twasi nf av ouroft hev i
ewt hatt heGov er nmenthasf r
eedom t odealwi thany oneitchoosesandi foneper soni s
chosenr athert hananot her ,theaggr i
ev edpar tycannotcl aimt hepr otect ionofar ti
cle14becauset hechoi ceoft heper sont of ulfil
lapar ticularcont ractmustbel eftt ot heGov ernment ,
Howev er, ther ehasbeensi gnificantchangei nt heCour t
’sat titudeaf tert hecaseofRamanaDay ar am Shet t
y .Theat titudef ort heCour tappear stobei nf av ouroft hev i
ewt hatt heGov er nment
doesnotenj oyabsol utedi scret i
ont oent eri ntocont ractwi t
hanyonei tlikes.Theyar eboundt oactr easonabl yf airlyandi nnon- di scrimi natorymanner .
Tortiousl iabi l
ityar i
sesf rom ani nf ringementofanobl igat iont hati sessent i
allyset tl
edbyl aw:t hi sobl igationi st opeopl ei ngener alandi tsi nf ringementi sr emedi abl et hroughunl iqui dated
damages.Themaxi m‘ UbiJusI biRemedi um’i gnitedt hedev elopmentoft heLaw ofTor tsandt het ortssubmi t tedbypeopl eagai nstoneanot herwher easper cei vedi ncust om- basedl aw.
Accor dingt oRomanl aw, ast hest at ewasSov ereign, i
twasnothel dl i
abl eint ortst owar dsi t
ssubj ect s.Itwasconsi deredt obeachar acter isticofSov erei gnt yt hatitcan’ tbesuedi nitscour t
s
withouti tsassent .InEngl and,t heCr ownbel iev edi ntor tiousl i
abi lityi nsuscept ibil
ity.Dur ingt hepost -const i
tutionalper i
od,Wel fareSt atel ogi c’sappr oachpr ompt edt heal l-ov errunni ngst ate
medi ationanddi mi nishi ngr efinementbet weent hepubl icandpr i
v at ecapaci t
yoft hest at e.TheSt atewasaj uristicper sonact ingt hr oughi tsaut hor it
iesandoper ator ssui tabl eunderl aw.The
i
nsuscept ibilit
y,howev er, wasl imi tedt ot raditional Stateel ement ssuchasl egislation, equi tyorgani zat ion, war ,set tlementmaki ng, andexpect at ionofwr ongdoi ng.Thei ssueofSt ateLi abi li
tyin
Tortshasnow t akenonexcept i
onali mpor tance.Thepr i
nci pleofwel farest at eest abl ishesal inkbet weent hei ndi vidual ’
sr ight sandt heSt at e’sobl igat ions.Ast heser esponsi bili
tieshav e
i
ncr eased,t heexpansi onofst at eact i
vitieshascausedt hesubj ect st ohav eamor enot ablei mpact .Statel iabi lityr eferst ot hel iabilit
yoft hest atear isingf rom t heact sofomi ssion/
commi ssioncommi ttedbyi tsser v ant s.I thasbeengov er nedbywr ittenorunwr it
tenl awsandi snotast aticconcept .TheSt ate’sl iabilityf ort het or ti
ousact sofi tsser v ant s,knownast he
tort
iousl i
abi li
tyoft heSt ate,makesi tl i
abl e,v olunt ari
lyori nv olunt ar ily
,f oract sofomi ssi onandcommi ssion,andput si tbef or et heCour tofLawi nacl aimf orunl iqui dateddamagest osuch
acts.Thi sl iabili
tyi sal soabr anchoft heLawofTor ts.LawofTor tsl ikev ar i
ousot herl awshast rav elledt hr ought heBr i
ti
sht ot hiscount ryandi snowv ariedbecausei tisr egul atedbyl ocal
l
awsandconst ituti
onalpr ov i
sions. Themaxi m‘ t
heki ngcan’ tbebl amedunderanyci rcumst ance’wasnev eracknowl edgedi nI ndia.Thegov ernment ’
sabsol ut ei nsuscept i
bi l
itywasnot
under stoodi nt heI ndi anl egalsy st em bef oret heconst itut i
on’ sbegi nningandi nnumer ouscases,t hegov ernmentwassubj ect edt oi tsempl oy ees’conv olut edact ions.Accor dingt oAr ticl
e
294( 4)oft heConst i
tut i
on,t hel iabi li
tyoft heGov ernmentoft heUni onoraGov er nmentoft heSt at ecanar i
se‘ f
r om somecont ractorot her.’Ar ticle12oft heI ndianConst itutiondef i
nest he
term‘ state’.UnderAr t
icle300( 1),t hedegr eeofsuchl iabilityisset tled.I tstatest heUni onofI ndiaorSt at eGov ernment ’
sl iabil
ityt obet hesameast hatofDomi nionofI ndi aandt hePr ov i
sion
befor etheConst itutioncommenced. Thei deaofopenr esponsi bilityi nv olvesanopenconcer nwhi chi si mper ative.I ti saset t
ledl awt hatev er ysi ngl eopt ionalpowermustbesensi blypr actised
i
ngr eateropeni nt r
igue.I nAr vi
ndDat tatrey av .Mahar asht raSt at e,t heSupr emeCour tr ef usedt het ransf erofapol i
ceof fi
cerbecauset het ransf eroft heof ficerwasnot hingbutmal af i
de
exerciseoft hepowert odemor alisehonestof fi
cer swhowoul def ficient l
ydi schar get hedut i
esofapubl icof fice.I twasobser vedt hatt heGov er nmentdemor al i
sest heof fi
cer swhodi schar ge
thedut ieshonest lyanddi li
gent l
yandbr i
ngt obookt heper sonsi ndul gi
ngi nbl ackmar ket ingandcont rabandi ng. Thev icar i
ousl iabi l
ityoft heSt at e( fortor t
s)shal lbebor nebyi t sser v ant si nthe
exerciseoft hedut i
esoft heSt at e.I ft heact sper formedwer enecessar yt opr otectlifeorpr oper ty ,theSt atewoul dnotbehel dl iabl e.Act ssuchasj udicialorquasi -judicialdeci sionsmadei n
goodf aithal soi nv i
tenol iabi l
it
ywhat soev er.Ther ear especi fi
cst at utor ypr ov i
sionst hatar ebi ndi ngont headmi ni strativeaut hor i
ties.Howev er,suchpr ot ectionwoul dnotscal eupmal icious
acts.Thebur denofpr ov ingamal iciousactwoul dl ieont heper sonwhoi sassaul tingt headmi ni strativ eact ion.Thepr i
nci pl
esoft ortl awwoul dappl yi ndet er mi ningwhati sat ortandt he
publicser v antwoul dal sohav eaccesst oal loft hedef ensesav ailabl et ot her espondenti nat or tlawsui t.RespondentSuper ior( Lett hemast eranswer )wasbr oughtt ot hepr emi seoft he
subor dinates’l imi t
edeconomi ccapaci ty,andt hei rr
esponsi blebehav iourofsuper i
orssuchasmast er sorempl oy erswascont rolled.Thi sdoct rinei sbasedonpubl icpol i
cysi ncei tai mst o
assignt her isksusual lyassoci atedwi thi tt ot hebusi ness.Whenappl yi
ngt hisdoct r
ine, anempl oy erandt hemast erar el i
ablef ort henegl igentcommi ssi onsoromi ssionsofanempl oy eeand
theser v antwhi choccurdur i
ngempl oy ment .Nev ert
hel ess,ar elat ionshi pbet weent hesuper i
orandt hesubor dinat eshoul dbeest abl i
shedf ort hel i
abi l
ityt of allupont hesuper iors.Act ions
performedbyt hesubor dinat esdur ingt hei rjobsoragencyunderanempl oyeroramast er ’sexpl i
ci tori mpl i
edaut hor i
ty, r
espect ively.Ther ear et wor equi rement soft hedoct ri
ne: At r uemast er-
servantandempl oy er-empl oy eer elat ionshi p.Thet ortiousactofaser v antandanempl oy eemustbeonewi thint hescopeofhi sempl oy ment .The‘ scopeofempl oy ment ’ref erst ot heact
performedundert heexpr essori mpl i
edaut hor ityoft hesuper iors.Int hecaseofAut omobi lesTr anspor tv s.Dewal alandor s, theRaj ast hanHi ghCour thel dt hatt her ei salway st hepr esumpt i
on
thatav ehiclei sdr ivenont heor deroft hedr i
v er,orbyhi sappr ov edagentorser vant ,
andi tisupt ot heappel l
antt opr ov et hatsuchpr esumpt ioni sunj ustifiedandnotconf irmed.I nt hecaseof
Smt .Sav i
taGar gv s.TheDi rector ,Nat ionalHear tInst i
tute, theSupr emeCour thel dt hat ,int heempl oy mentcont ract , thehospi talist hepr i
nci palr esponsi blef ort heact ionsoft heagent , i.
e.one
ofhi sdoct or s,ifthecour tandt hecompl ai nantar eunabl et oj ustifyt hatt her ewasnonegl igenceorr eckl essnessont heirpar tandt hatt heywer eact i
ngwi thduecar eandcaut i
on.
Priv i
legesandI mmuni tiesoft heAdmi ni strat i
oni nSui ts:Thev ar iouspr ivilegesav ai l
abl et ot heGov er nmentunderv ar iousst atut esar easf ollows:- I
.I mmuni tiesf rom t heoper at ionoft he
stat ut e.:I
nEngl andt her ul ei st hati tsownl awsdonotbi ndt heCr ownunl essbyexpr esspr ov i
si onorbynecessar yi mpl icat iont heyar emadebi ndingoni t.Thusi nEngl andt hest atut esar enot
bindi ngont hecr ownunl essbyexpr esspr ovisionorbynecessar yi mpl icat i
on, theyar emadebi ndi ngt her eon.I tsbasi si st hemaxi m“ theKi ngcandonowr ong.Thi sr ulewasf ollowedev eni n
Indiat ill1967. InI ndi at hepr esentposi t i
oni st hatt hest at utebi ndst heSt ateorGov er nmentunl essexpr essl yorbynecessar yi mpl i
cat i
oni thasexempt edorexcl udedf rom i tsoper at ion.I n
caset heSt at ehasbeenexempt edf rom t heoper at ionoft hest at uteexpr essl y,ther ei snodi ffi
cul tyi nascer tai ningwhet hert hest at ut ei sbi ndi ngont heSt at eornotbuti tbecomesadi fficult
i
ssuei ncasewher et heSt atei sexempt edf rom t heoper at ionoft hest at ut ebynecessar yi mpl icat ion.Howev er ,wher et hest atut epr ov idesf orcr imi nalpr osecut ioni nv olv i
ngi mpr isonment ,t he
stat ut ei sdeemedt obeexcl udedf rom t heoper at ionoft hest at ut enecessar yi mpl icat ion. II.Pr i
v i
legesandI mmuni tiesundert heCi vilPr ocedur eCode,1908. :Sect ion80( 1)pr ov idest hatno
suitshal lbei nst itutedagai nstt heGov er nmentoragai nstapubl icof fi
ceri nr espectofanyactpur por ti
ngt obedonebysuchpubl i
cof fi
ceri nhi sof ficialcapaci ty ,unt ilt heexpi rationoft wo
mont hsnextaf ternot icei nwr iti
nghasbeendel iver edi nt hemannerpr ov idedi nt hesect ion.Thesect ioni smandat or yandadmi tsofnoexcept i
on.Thus,t her equi rementofnot icei s
mandat or y.Howev er ,iti st obenot edt hati fapubl icof ficeract swi thoutj ur i
sdi ction,t her equi rementofnot icei snotmandat or y.I tsobj ectappear st opr ov i
det heGov ernmentort hepubl i
c
officeranoppor tuni tyt oconsi dert hel egalposi tiont her eonandset tlet hecl aim wi thoutl i
tigat ion.TheGov er nmentmaywai v et her equi rementofnot i
ce; t
hewai vermaybeexpr essori mpl ied.
Ther equi r ementofnot icecausesmuchi nconv eni encet ot hel itigant sespeci allywhent heyseeki mmedi at er eliefagai nstt heGov er nment .Tomi ni mi zet hehar dshi pst ot hel itigant sanew
Clause( 20wasi nser tedi nS. 80oft heC. P.Cbyt heCi v i
lPr ocedur eCodeAmendmentAct ,1970.Thecl ausepr ov i
dest hatt heCour tmaygr antl eav et oaper sont of i
leasui tagai nstt he
Gov er nmentorapubl icof f
icerwi thoutser v i
ngt het wo- mont h’snot i
cei ncasewher er el i
efcl aimedi si mmedi at eandur gent .Bef oregr ant i
ngt hisexempt iont heCour tisr equi redt osat isfyi tself
aboutt hei mmedi at eandur gentneed.I ti st obenot edt hatS. 80oft heC. P.Cdoesnotappl yt oasui tagai nstast atut oryCor por at i
on.Consequent lyi ncaset hesui tisf i
ledagai nstt hest at utor y
Cor por ation.Consequent ly,suchnot i
cei snotr equi redt obegi veni ncasest hesui ti sf i
ledagai nstst at utor yCor por at ion.S. 80doesnotappl ywi thr espectt oacl aim agai nstt heGov er nment
bef or et hecl aim Tr ibunal undert heMot orVehi cleAct .S. 80oft heC. P. C.doesnotappl yt oawr itpet itionagai nstt heGov er nmentorapubl icof ficer ,ther equi rementofnot iceaspr ov idedunder
S.80oft heC. P. Ci snotr equi redt obecompl iedwi th.S. 82oft heC. P. C.al sopr ov i
despr i
v il
eget ot heGov er nment .Accor dingt ot hissect i
onwher einasui tbyoragai nstt heGov ernmentort he
publ icof ficer , at i
meshal l bespeci fi
edi nt hedecr eedwi thi nwhi chshal lbesat isfiedandi ft hedecr eei snotsat isfiedwr ithingt het imesospeci f
iedandwi thint hr eemont hsf rom t hedat eoft he
decr ee.Wher enot i
mei ssospeci fi
ed, theCour tshal lrepor tthecasef ort heor der soft heGov er nment .Thusadecr eeagai nstt heGov er nmentorapubl i
cof fi
ceri snotexecut abl ei mmedi at el y.
TheCour ti sr equi redt ospeci fyt het imewi thinwhi cht hedecr eehast obesat i
sf i
edandwher enosucht imehasbeenspeci fied,t hr eemont hsf rom t hedat eoft hedecr eewi llbet akent obe
thet imewi thinwhi chi st obesat i
sf ied.I ft hedecr eei snotsat i
sf i
edwi thinsucht imel imi ttheCour tshal lr epor tthecasef ort heor der soft heGov er nment .
III.Pr ivilegesundert heEv idenceAct
(Priv il
egest owi thhol ddocument s):InEngl andt heCr ownenj oy st hepr ivileget owi t
hhol df rom pr oduci ngadocumentbef or et heCour tincaset hedi scl osur et her eofi sl ikel yt oj eopar dizet he
publ ici nt er est .InDunconv .CammelLai rdCo.Lt d.( 1942AC624)TheCour thel dt hatt heCr owni st hesol ej udget odeci dewhet heradocumenti sapr ivilegedoneandt hecour tcannotr ev iew
thedeci si onoft heCr own.Howev er, thisdeci si onhasbeenov errul edi nt hecaseofConwayv .Ri mmer .( 1968AC910)I nt hiscaset heCour thashel dt hati ti snotanabsol utepr ivil
egeoft he
Crownt odeci dewhet heradocumenti sapr ivil
egedone.Thecour tcanseei tanddeci dewhet heri ti sapr ivilegedoneornot .
InI ndi aS.123pr ovidest hatnooneshal lbeper mi ttedt ogi veany
evidenceder ivedf rom unpubl i
shedof fi
ci alr ecor dsr elat ingt oanyaf fairofSt at eexceptwi tht heper mi ssi onoft heof ficeratt heHeadt hinksf it
.Onl yt hoser ecor dsr elat ingt ot heaf fai rsoft he
Stat ear epr iv i
leged, thedi sclosur eofwhi chwoul dcausei nj uryt ot hepubl ici nter est.Tocl aimt hi si mmuni tyt hedocumentmustr elat et oaf f airsofst at eanddi scl osur et her eofmustbeagai nst
i
nt er estoft heSt ateorpubl icser v i
ceandi nt erest .Thesect ioni sbasedont hepr i
nci plet hatt hedi scl osur eoft hedocumenti nquest i
onwoul dcausei njuryt ot hepubl i
ci nt er estandt hati ncase
ofconf lictbet weent hepubl i
ci nter estandt hepr i
v at ei nter est ,thepr ivat ei nter estmusty i
eldt ot hepubl ici nt er est.TheCour thaspowert odeci deast owhet hersuchcommuni cat ionhasbeen
madet ot heof f i
ceri nof ficialconf idence.Fort heappl icat ionofS. 124t hecommuni cat i
oni sr equi r
edt ohav emadet oapubl icof ficeri nof f i
ci alconf idenceandt hepubl icof ficermustconsi der
thatt hedi scl osur eoft hecommuni cat ionwi l
lcausei nj uryt ot hepubl i
ci nt erest .Accor dingt oS. 162awi tnesssummonedt opr ov ideadocumentshal l,i
fi tisi nhi spossessi onorpower ,br ingi t
tot heCour t,notwi thout st andi nganyobj ect i
v ewhi cht her emaybet oi tspr oduct i
onort oi tsadmi ssi bili
ty.TheCour tshal ldeci deont hev al idityofanysuchobj ect ion.Thecour t, i
fi tseesf i
t,
mayi nspectt hedocument ,unl essi tr ef er st ot hemat tersofSt ateort akeot herev i
dencet oenabl ei ttodet er mi neoni tsadmi ssi bility.I fforsuchpur posei tisnecessar yt ocauseanydocument
tobet ransl at edt heCour tmay ,ifi tt hinksf it,di rectt het r ansl atort okeept hecont ent ssecr et,unl esst hedi rect ion,heshal lbehel dt ohav ecommi t
tedanof fenceunderS. 166oft heI ndi an
Penal Code.S.162appl ynotonl yt ot heof ficialdocument sbutal sot ot hepr ivat edocument s.I ti sf ort heCour ttodeci deast owhet heradocumenti sori snotar ecor dr el atingt ot heaf fairsof
theSt ate.Fort hispur poset heCour tcant akeev idenceandmayi nspectt hedocumenti tsel f.I nSt at eofPunj abv .SodhiSukdevSi ngh( AI R1961SC493)t hecour thadt heoppor tuni tyof
discussi ngt heext entofgov er nmentpr ivileget owi thhol ddocument swher et wi ncl aimsofgov er nment alconf ident i
al i
tyandi ndi vi
dualj ust icecompet eforr ecogni tion.Thecour twasv er yal ive
tot heconst raintsoft hi spr i
v i
legeonpr ivat edef ense, ther ef or eGaj endr agadkar ,J.del iver ingt hemaj orityj udgmentaut i
onedt hatcar ehast obet akent oseet hati nt erest sot hert hant hatoft he
publ icdonotmasquer adei nt hegar bofpubl ici nter estandt akeundueadv ant ageoft hepr ov i
si onofSect ion123.I nor dert oguar dagai nstt hepossi blemi suseoft hepr iv i
lege, thecour tal so
dev el opedcer tainnor ms.Fi rst,t hecl aim ofpr iv i
legeshoul dbei nt hef or m ofanaf fidav it,whi chmustbesi gnedbyt heMi nist erconcer ned,ort heSecr et aryoft heDepar t
ment .Second,t he
affidav itmusti ndi cat ewi thinper mi ssi blel imi tst her easonswhyt hedi scl osur ewoul dr esul tinpubl i
ci nj uryandt hatt hedocumenti nquest ionhasbeencar eful lyr eadandconsi der edandt he
aut hor i
ty is fully conv inced that its di scl osur e woul d injur e publ i
c int er es
t.Thi rd,t hei ft heaf f i
dav itisf oundunsat isfact or y,t hecour tmaysummont heaut hor i
tyf orcr oss- exami nat i
on. Wor kingt hef or mul ationsst illf urther ,thecour ti nAmarChandv .Uni onofI ndi a
(AIR1964SC1658)di sal lowedt hepr iv i
legewher et her ewasev idencet oshowt hatt heaut hor itydi dnotappl yi tsmi ndt ot hequest i
onofi njur yt ot hepubl ici nt erestwhi chwoul dbecausedby
thedi scl osur eoft hedocument .InI ndi raNehr uGandhv .RajNar ain. (1975SuppSCC1:AI R1975SC2299) t heCour tcompel ledt hepr oduct i
onofBl ueBooksoft hepol icanddi sal lowedt he
claimsofpr ivil
ege.I nSt at eofOr issav .Jagannat hJena, ((1972)2SCC165)t heSupr emeCour tagai ndisal lowedt hepr i
v ilegeont hegr oundt hatt hepubl ici nt er estaspecthadnotbeencl ear l
y
broughtouti nt heaf fidav it
.Int hiscase, thepl aint i
f fwant edt oseeendor sementonaf ilebyt heDeput yChi efMi nist erandt heI .G.ofPol ice.Thel awonGov ernmentpr ivilegest ookanewt ur n
i
nS. P.Gupt av .Uni onofI ndia(AI R1982SC149)Thequest i
oni nt hepr esentcasewaswhet hert hecor respondencebet weent heLawMi nist erandt heseChi efJust icesoughtt obepr oducedi n
theSupr emeCour t,so, ast oenabl et hecour tt oj udget hequest ionofv al i
di t
yoft henon- cont inuanceofanAddi tional Judgei nt heDel hiHi ghCour t.Thegov ernmentopposedt hepr oduct i
onof
theser epor t
sont hegr oundt hatt heirdi sclosur ewoul di njur epubl ici nt erestunderSect ion123oft heI ndi anEv idenceact .Butt heSupr emeCour tr ul edot her wi se.Thecasei sadef inite
evidenceofcour t’sat temptt opr omot et hei dealofopenGov ernmenti nI ndi a.Just iceBhagwat itooksomesuchv iewi nt heabov ecasewhenheexpr essedhi sf ai t
hi nt hei dealofanopen
Gov er nment .Mer elysecr ecyoft heGov er nmenti snotav ital publ ici nt erestsoast opr ev ailov ert hemosti mper at i
v edemandsofj ust ice.I ngi v i
nganewor ient at iont ot hest at utor ypr ov i
si oni n
quest ion, Bhagwat i, J.emphasi zed, “ Wher easoci et yhaschosent oacceptdemocr acyasi tscr eedalf aith, iti sel ement ar yt hatt heci tizensoughtt oknowwhatt hei rGov ernmenti sdoi ng. ”He
obser v ed:“ Theci ti
zen’ sr ightt oknowt hef act s, thet ruef act s, aboutt headmi nistrationoft hecount ryi st husoneoft hepi llar sofademocr at icst at e.Andt hisi swhyt hedemandf oropenness
i
nt heGov er nmenti si ncr easi ngl ygr owi ngi ndi ffer entpar tsoft hewor ldHef ur therpoi nt edoutt hati ft hepr ocessandf unct i
oni ngof Gov er nmentar ekeptshr oudedi nsecr ecyandhi ddenf rom
publ icscr ut i
ny , i
twoul dt endt opr omot eandencour ageoppr essi on, cor rupt i
onandmi suseorabuseofaut hor i
ty .