Icru 85

ICRU REPORT No.
85
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS
Downloaded from http://jicru.oxfordjournals.org/ at Henry Ford Hospital - Sladen Library on January 16, 2012
FOR IONIZING RADIATION (Revised)
THE INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON

RADIATION UNITS AND
MEASUREMENTS
OCTOBER 2011
Journal of the ICRU Volume 11 No 1 2011

Published by Oxford University Press
Editor’s Note
The original version of ICRU Report 85 published in the JICRU, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2011, had a number of unfor-
tunate typographical errors. The ultimate responsibility for the failure to catch these errors on page proofs
rests, of course, with the Editor. The basic nature of this Report and the errors in rather important
summary tables of SI prefixes, quantities, and units, suggested strongly that a completely corrected Report
be made available. Thus, this version (Report 85a) corrects those and other errors, and it is hoped that this
corrected version is typographically error-free. If further errors are indeed detected, please contact the
ICRU so that these can be corrected in a future update.
Stephen M. Seltzer
Scientific Editor, JICRU
Gaithersburg, Maryland
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS
FOR IONIZING RADIATION (Revised)
Report Committee
S. M. Seltzer (Chairman), National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland USA
D. T. Bartlett, Abingdon, United Kingdom
D. T. Burns, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Sèvres, France
G. Dietze, Braunschweig, Germany
H.-G. Menzel, European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), Geneva, Switzerland
H. G. Paretzke, Institute for Radiation Protection, Neuherberg, Germany
A. Wambersie, Catholic University of Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
Consultants to the Report Committee

J. Tada, Riken Yokohama Institute, Yokohama, Japan
The Commission wishes to express its appreciation to the individuals involved in the preparation of this
Report for the time and efforts that they devoted to this task and to express its appreciation to the
organizations with which they are affiliated.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems or transmitted in
any form by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, mechanical photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. A Catalogue record of this book is available at the British
Library.
Journal of the ICRU Vol 11 No 1 (2011) Report 85 doi:10.1093/jicru/nd
Oxford University Press
The International Commission on Radiation Units and

Measurements
Introduction that action based on expediency is inadvisable
from a long-term viewpoint; it endeavors to base
The International Commission on Radiation Units
its decisions on the long-range advantages to be
and Measurements (ICRU), since its inception in
expected.
1925, has had as its principal objective the develop-
The ICRU invites and welcomes constructive
ment of internationally acceptable recommendations
comments and suggestions regarding its rec-
regarding:
ommendations and reports. These may be trans-
(1) quantities and units of radiation and radioactivity, mitted to the Chairman.
(2) procedures suitable for the measurement
and application of these quantities in clinical Current Program
radiology and radiobiology, and The Commission recognizes its obligation to
(3) physical data needed in the application of these provide guidance and recommendations in the areas
procedures, the use of which tends to assure of radiation therapy, radiation protection, and the
uniformity in reporting. compilation of data important to these fields, and to
The Commission also considers and makes similar scientific research and industrial applications of
types of recommendations for the radiation protec- radiation. Increasingly, the Commission is focusing
tion field. In this connection, its work is carried on the problems of protection of the patient and
out in close cooperation with the International evaluation of image quality in diagnostic radiology.
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). These activities do not diminish the ICRU’s commit-
ment to the provision of a rigorously defined set of
quantities and units useful in a very broad range of
Policy scientific endeavors.
The Commission is currently engaged in the
The ICRU endeavors to collect and evaluate formulation of ICRU Reports treating the following
the latest data and information pertinent to the subjects:
problems of radiation measurement and dosimetry
and to recommend the most acceptable values and Alternatives to Absorbed Dose for Quantification
techniques for current use. and Reporting of Low Doses and Other
The Commission’s recommendations are kept Heterogeneous Exposures
under continual review in order to keep abreast of Bioeffect Modeling and Biologically Equivalent
the rapidly expanding uses of radiation. Dose Concepts in Radiation Therapy
The ICRU feels that it is the responsibility of Concepts and Terms for Recording and Reporting
national organizations to introduce their own Gynecologic Brachytherapy
detailed technical procedures for the development Harmonization of Prescribing, Recording, and
and maintenance of standards. However, it urges Reporting Radiotherapy
that all countries adhere as closely as possible to Image Quality and Patient Dose in Computed
the internationally recommended basic concepts of Tomography
radiation quantities and units. Key Data for Measurement Standards in the
The Commission feels that its responsibility lies Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation
in developing a system of quantities and units having Measurement and Reporting of Radon Exposure
the widest possible range of applicability. Situations Operational Radiation Protection Quantities for
can arise from time to time for which an expedient External Radiation
solution of a current problem might seem advisable. Prescribing, Recording, and Reporting Ion-Beam
Generally speaking, however, the Commission feels Therapy
# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS FOR IONIZING RADIATION
Small-Field Photon Dosimetry and Applications in United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Radiotherapy Organization
The Commission continually reviews radiation The Commission has found its relationship with
science with the aim of identifying areas in which all of these organizations fruitful and of substantial
the development of guidance and recommendations benefit to the ICRU program.
can make an important contribution.
Operating Funds
The ICRU’s Relationship with Other
Organizations In recent years, principal financial support has
been provided by the European Commission, the
In addition to its close relationship with the ICRP, National Cancer Institute of the US Department of
the ICRU has developed relationships with national Health and Human Services, and the International
and international agencies and organizations. In Atomic Energy Agency. In addition, during the last
these relationships, the ICRU is looked to for 10 years, financial support has been received from
primary guidance in matters relating to quantities, the following organizations:
units, and measurements for ionizing radiation, and
their applications in the radiological sciences. In American Association of Physicists in Medicine
1960, through a special liaison agreement, the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre
ICRU entered into consultative status with the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Electricité de France
The Commission has a formal relationship with the Helmholtz Zentrum München
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects Hitachi, Ltd.
of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), whereby ICRU International Radiation Protection Association
observers are invited to attend annual UNSCEAR International Society of Radiology
meetings. The Commission and the International Ion Beam Applications, S.A.
Organization for Standardization (ISO) informally Japanese Society of Radiological Technology
exchange notifications of meetings, and the ICRU is MDS Nordion
formally designated for liaison with two of the ISO National Institute of Standards and Technology
technical committees. The ICRU also enjoys a Nederlandse Vereniging voor Radiologie
strong relationship with its sister organization, the Philips Medical Systems, Incorporated
National Council on Radiation Protection and Radiological Society of North America
Measurements (NCRP). In essence, these organiz- Siemens Medical Solutions
ations were founded concurrently by the same indi- US Department of Energy
viduals. Presently, this long-standing relationship is Varian Medical Systems
formally acknowledged by a special liaison agree-
ment. The ICRU also exchanges reports with the In addition to the direct monetary support pro-
following organizations: vided by these organizations, many organizations
provide indirect support for the Commission’s
Bureau International de Métrologie Légale program. This support is provided in many forms,
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures including, among others, subsidies for (1) the time
European Commission of individuals participating in ICRU activities,
Council for International Organizations of Medical (2) travel costs involved in ICRU meetings, and
Sciences (3) meeting facilities and services.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United In recognition of the fact that its work is made
Nations possible by the generous support provided by all
International Council for Science of the organizations supporting its program, the
International Electrotechnical Commission Commission expresses its deep appreciation.
International Labour Office
International Organization for Medical Physics Hans-Georg Menzel
International Radiation Protection Association Chairman, ICRU
International Union of Pure and Applied Physics Geneva, Switzerland
Journal of the ICRU Vol 11 No 1 (2011) Report 85 doi:10.1093/jicru/ndr012
Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Quantities and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 7

2.2 Ionizing Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 7
2.3 Stochastic and Non-Stochastic Quantities . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 8
2.4 Mathematical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 8
3. Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1 Scalar Radiometric Quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3.1.1 Particle Number, Radiant Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.2 Flux, Energy Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.3 Fluence, Energy Fluence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.4 Fluence Rate, Energy-Fluence Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.5 Particle Radiance, Energy Radiance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Vector Radiometric Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.1 Vector Particle Radiance, Vector Energy Radiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2 Vector Fluence Rate, Vector Energy-Fluence Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.3 Vector Fluence, Vector Energy Fluence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4. Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1 Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.2 Mass Attenuation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 Mass Energy-Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Mass Stopping Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.5 Linear Energy Transfer (LET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6 Radiation Chemical Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.7 Ionization Yield in a Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.8 Mean Energy Expended in a Gas per Ion Pair Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5. Dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.1 Conversion of Energy . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 23

5.1.1 Kerma . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 23
5.1.2 Kerma Rate . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 24
5.1.3 Exposure. . . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 24

5.1.4 Exposure Rate . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 25

5.1.5 Cema . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 25
5.1.6 Cema Rate . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 26
5.2 Deposition of Energy . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 26
5.2.1 Energy Deposit . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 26
5.2.2 Energy Imparted . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 26
5.2.3 Lineal Energy . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 27
5.2.4 Specific Energy . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 27
5.2.5 Absorbed Dose . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 27
5.2.6 Absorbed-Dose Rate .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 28
6. Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1 Decay Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2 Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3 Air-Kerma-Rate Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Preface
The International Commission on Radiation Units mission of the ICRU. This is evidenced by the
and Measurements (ICRU) was originally conceived series of Reports on fundamental quantities and
at the First International Congress of Radiology in units: Report 10a, Radiation Quantities and Units
1925 as the International X-Ray Unit Committee, (1962); Report 11, Radiation Quantities and Units
later to become the International Commission on (1968); Report 19, Radiation Quantities and Units
Radiological Units before adopting its current name. (1971); Report 33, Radiation Quantities and Units
Its primary objective was to provide an internation- (1980); and Report 60, Fundamental Quantities
ally agreed upon unit for measurement of radiation and Units for Ionizing Radiation (1998). This list
as applied in medicine. The ICRU established the excludes those Reports that primarily include rec-
first internationally acceptable unit for exposure, ommendations for quantities and units specifically
the röntgen, in 1928. In 1950, the ICRU expanded intended for radiation protection, which are devel-
its role to consider all concepts, quantities, and units oped in liaison and collaboration with the
for ionizing radiation, encompassing not only International Commission on Radiation Protection
medical applications but also those in industry, radi- (ICRP).
ation protection, and nuclear energy. The ICRU has The development of the present Report was
continued to recommend new quantities and units prompted by a few criticisms of Report 60, and
as the need arose, for example, absorbed dose (1950), while basically introducing no new quantities it
the rad (1953), fluence (1962), kerma (1968), and does strive for more-precisely worded definitions
cema (1998). and clarity.
Thus, quantities and units for ionizing radiation
represent the most basic element of the core Stephen M. Seltzer

Abstract
Definitions of fundamental quantities, and their Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
units, for ionizing radiation are given, which rep- (ICRU).
resent the recommendation of the International

1. Introduction
There has been a gradual evolution in the estab- Section 3, entitled Radiometry, presents quan-
lishment and definitions of fundamental quantities tities required for the specification of radiation
for ionizing radiation since the formation of the fields. Two classes of quantities are used, referring
ICRU (see, e.g., the series of separate Reports on either to the number of particles or to the energy
quantities and units: ICRU, 1962; 1968; 1971; transported by them. Accordingly, the definitions of
1980; 1998). The goal is a set of quantities (and radiometric quantities are grouped into pairs. Both
their units) of use in the measurement of and in scalar and vector quantities are defined.
transport calculations for ionizing radiation in Interaction coefficients and related quantities
practical applications. The definitions of these are covered in Section 4. The fundamental inter-
quantities should be precise and logically consist- action coefficient is the cross section. All other
ent, and possess the utmost scientific validity and coefficients defined in this Section can be
mathematical rigor. Although much progress has expressed in terms of cross section or differential
been made toward this goal, the effort has no doubt cross section. The current Report adds the defi-
fallen short of perfection due to compromises nition of the ionization yield, Y, to provide a
among the unavoidable ambiguities inherent in the logical connection between the radiation chemical
real natural world and the need nonetheless for a yield and the mean energy expended in a gas per
basic set of useful quantities. ion pair formed. Explicit language is now included
This Report supersedes ICRU Report 60, in the definition of W, the mean energy expended
Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing in a gas per ion pair formed, to clarify what is
Radiation (1998). Definitions are not radically meant by “ion pair” (ICRU, 1979) in order to avoid
changed: rather, the refinements presented in this possible confusion.
Report mainly correct oversights in the previous Section 5 deals with dosimetric quantities that
Report and in some cases provide additional clarifi- describe the results of processes by which particle
cation. It was felt, however, that a new Report would energy is converted and finally deposited in
establish a complete current reference for funda- matter. Accordingly, the definitions of dosimetric
mental quantities and units for ionizing radiation. quantities are presented in two parts entitled
This Report does not deal with quantities and units Conversion of Energy and Deposition of Energy,
specifically intended for use in radiation protection, respectively. The first part includes refinement of
which were covered in ICRU Report 51 (1993a) and the definition of g as the fraction of the kinetic
which are currently under review by the ICRU. energy of liberated charged particles that is lost
The quantities and units for ionizing radiation in radiative processes in the material, and explicit
dealt with in this Report include those for radiome- specification of dry air in the definition of
try, interaction coefficients, dosimetry, and radioac- exposure. In the second part on deposition of
tivity. The ICRU appreciates the assistance rendered energy, the definitions of kerma and of exposure
by scientific bodies and individuals who commented are refined to explicitly include the kinetic energy
on aspects of ICRU Report 60, and a number of of all charged particles emitted in the decay of
these comments have informed the refinements excited atoms/molecules or nuclei, and consider-
included in the present Report. The remainder of ation of elapsed time is acknowledged in the spe-
this Report is structured in five subsequent major cifications of energy imparted, particularly in
Sections, each of the last four of which is followed by cases involving the production of radionuclides by
tables summarizing for each quantity its symbol, the incident particle(s). Energy deposit, i.e., the
unit, and the relationship used in its definition. energy deposited in a single interaction, is the
Section 2 deals with terms and mathematical basis in terms of which all other quantities pre-
conventions used throughout the Report. sented in the Section can be defined. These are

the traditional stochastic quantities (which are The current document strives for an incremental
now so labeled as they are defined): energy improvement in scientific rigor and yet to remain
imparted, lineal energy, and specific energy, the as consistent as possible with earlier ICRU Reports
latter leading to the non-stochastic quantity in this series and in similar publications used in
absorbed dose. other fields of physics. It is hoped that this Report
Quantities related to radioactivity are defined in represents a modest step toward a universal scien-
Section 6. tific language.
6
2. General Considerations
This Section deals with terms and mathematical There are also a few units outside of the inter-
conventions used throughout the Report. national system that may be used with SI. For
some of these, their values in terms of SI units are
obtained experimentally. Two of these are used in
2.1 Quantities and Units current ICRU documents: electron volt (symbol eV)
and (unified) atomic mass unit (symbol u). Others,
Quantities, when used for the quantitative such as day, hour, and minute, are not coherent
description of physical phenomena or objects, are with the system but, because of long usage, are per-
generally called physical quantities. A unit is a mitted to be used with SI (see Table 2.2).
selected reference sample of a quantity with which Decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units
other quantities of the same kind are compared. can be formed using the SI prefixes (see Table 2.3).
Every quantity is expressed as the product of a
numerical value and a unit. As a quantity remains
unchanged when the unit in which it is expressed
2.2 Ionizing Radiation
changes, its numerical value is modified accordingly.
Quantities can be multiplied or divided by one Ionization produced by particles is the process by
another resulting in other quantities. Thus, all which one or more electrons are liberated in col-
quantities can be derived from a set of base quan- lisions of the particles with atoms or molecules.
tities. The resulting quantities are called derived This can be distinguished from excitation, which is
quantities. a transfer of electrons to higher energy levels in
A system of units is obtained in the same way by atoms or molecules and generally requires less
first defining units for the base quantities, the base energy.
units, and then forming derived units. A system is When charged particles have slowed down suffi-
said to be coherent if no numerical factors other ciently, ionization becomes less likely or impossible,
than the number 1 occur in the expressions of and the particles increasingly dissipate their
derived units. remaining energy in other processes such as exci-
The ICRU recommends the use of the tation or elastic scattering. Thus, near the end of
International System of Units (SI) (BIPM, 2006). In their range, charged particles that were ionizing
this system, the base units are meter, kilogram, can be considered to be non-ionizing.
second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela, for the The term ionizing radiation refers to charged
base quantities length, mass, time, electric current, particles (e.g., electrons or protons) and uncharged
thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, particles (e.g., photons or neutrons) that can
and luminous intensity, respectively. produce ionizations in a medium or can initiate
Some derived SI units are given special names, nuclear or elementary-particle transformations
such as coulomb for ampere second. Other derived that then result in ionization or the production of
units are given special names only when they are ionizing radiation. In the condensed phase, the
used with certain derived quantities. Special difference between ionization and excitation can
names pertaining to ionizing radiation currently in become blurred. A pragmatic approach for dealing
use in this restricted category are becquerel (equal with this ambiguity is to adopt a threshold for the
to reciprocal second for activity of a radionuclide), energy that can be transferred to the medium. This
gray (equal to joule per kilogram for absorbed dose, implies cutoff energies below which charged par-
kerma, cema, and specific energy), and sievert ticles may be assumed not to be ionizing (unless
(equal to joule per kilogram for dose equivalent, they can initiate nuclear or elementary-particle
ambient dose equivalent, directional dose equival- transformations). Below such energies, their
ent, and personal dose equivalent). Some examples ranges are minute. Hence, the choice of the cutoff
of SI units are given in Table 2.1. energies does not materially affect the spatial

Table 2.1. SI units used in this Report
Category of units Quantity Name Symbol
SI base units length meter m

mass kilogram kg
time second s
amount of substance mole mol
SI derived units electric charge coulomb C

with special names energy joule J
(general use) solid angle steradian sr
power watt W
SI derived units activity becquerel Bq
with special names absorbed dose, kerma, gray Gy
(restricted use) cema, specific energy
Table 2.2. Some units used with the SI
Category of units Quantity Name Symbol
Units widely used time minute min

hour h
day d
Units whose values in SI are energy electron volta eV

obtained experimentally mass (unified) atomic mass unita u
a
1 eV ¼ 1.602176487(40) 10219 J, and 1 u ¼ 1.660538782(83) 10227 kg. The digits in parentheses are the one-standard-deviation
uncertainty in the last digits of the given value (Mohr et al., 2008).
Table 2.3. SI prefixesa
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
1024 yotta Y 1021 deci d

1021 zetta Z 1022 centi c
1018 exa E 1023 milli m
1015 peta P 1026 micro m
1012 tera T 1029 nano n
109 giga G 10212 pico p
106 mega M 10215 femto f
103 kilo k 10218 atto a
102 hecto h 10221 zepto z
101 deca da 10224 yocto y
a
The prefix symbol attached to the unit symbol constitutes a new symbol, e.g., 1 fm2 ¼ (10215 m)2 ¼ 10230 m2.
distribution of energy deposition except at the from imperfect measurement systems, or from the
smallest distances that can be of concern in micro- fact that many physical phenomena are subject to
dosimetry. The choice of the threshold value inherent fluctuations. Quantum-mechanical issues
depends on the application; for example, a value of aside, one often needs to distinguish between a
10 eV might be appropriate for radiobiology. non-stochastic quantity with its unique value and a
stochastic quantity, the values of which follow a
probability distribution. In many instances, this
distinction is not significant because the probability
2.3 Stochastic and Non-Stochastic
distribution is very narrow. For example, the
Quantities
measurement of an electric current commonly
Differences between results from repeated obser- involves so many electrons that fluctuations con-
vations are common in physics. These can arise tribute negligibly to inaccuracy in the
8
General Considerations
measurement. However, as the limit of zero electric depends often will not be stated explicitly. In some
current is approached, fluctuations can become instances, the distribution of a quantity with
manifest. This case of course requires a more respect to another quantity can be defined. The dis-
careful measurement procedure, but perhaps more tribution function of a discrete quantity, such as
importantly illustrates that the significance of sto- the particle number N (see Section 3.1.1), will be
chastic variations of a quantity can depend on the treated as if it were continuous, as N is usually a
magnitude of the quantity. Similar considerations very large number. Distributions with respect to
apply to ionizing radiation; fluctuations can play a energy are frequently required, as are other differ-
significant role, and in some cases need to be con- ential forms of defined quantities. This Report
sidered explicitly. On a practical level, this Report follows the previous practice of often introducing
adopts the convention that a quantity whose under- integral forms of quantities prior to their represen-
lying distribution at microscopic levels is normally tation in differential forms. For example, fluence is
of little interest and that is customarily expressed defined at the start of Section 3.1.3, followed by
in terms of a mean value will not be defined expli- that of the distribution of fluence with respect to
citly as stochastic. particle energy, given by (see Eq. 3.1.8a)
Certain stochastic processes follow a Poisson dis-
tribution, a distribution uniquely determined by its
FE ¼ dF=dE; ð2:4:1Þ
mean value. A typical example of such a process is
radioactive decay.1 However, more complex distri-
butions are involved in energy deposition. In this where dF is the fluence of particles of energy
Report, because of their relevance, four stochastic between E and E þ dE. Such distributions with
quantities are defined explicitly, namely energy respect to energy are denoted in this Report by
deposit, 1i (see Section 5.2.1), energy imparted, 1 adding the subscript E to the symbol of the distrib-
(see Section 5.2.2), lineal energy, y (see Section uted quantity. This results in a change of physical
5.2.3), and specific energy, z (see Section 5.2.4). For dimensions; thus, the unit of F is m22, whereas the
example, the specific energy, z, is defined as the unit of FE is m22 J21 (see Tables 3.1 and 3.2).
quotient of the energy imparted, 1, and the mass, Quantities related to interactions, such as the
m. Repeated measurements would provide an esti- mass attenuation coefficient, m/r, (see Section 4.2)
mate of the probability distribution of z and of its or the mass stopping power, S/r (see Section 4.4),
first moment or mean, z, the latter approaching the are functions of the particle type and energy, and
absorbed dose, D (see Section 5.2.5), as the mass one might, if necessary, use a more explicit notation
becomes small. Knowledge of the distribution of z such as m(E)/r or S(E)/r. For a radiation field with
is not required for the determination of the an energy distribution, mean values such as m =r
absorbed dose, D. However, knowledge of the distri- r, weighted according to the distribution of
and S=
bution of z corresponding to a known D can be the relevant quantity, are often useful. For
important because in the irradiated mass element, example,
m, the effects of radiation can be more closely
related to z than to D, and the values of z can differ Ð
greatly from D for small values of m (e.g., biological m
½mðEÞ=rFE dE
¼ Ð
cells). r FE dE
ð
1
¼ ½mðEÞ=rFE dE ð2:4:2Þ
F
2.4 Mathematical Conventions
To permit characterization of a radiation field is the fluence-weighted mean value of m/r.
and its interactions with matter, many of the quan- Stochastic quantities are associated with prob-
tities defined in this Report are considered as func- ability distributions. Two types of such distri-
tions of other quantities. For simplicity in butions are considered in this Report, namely the
presentation, the arguments on which a quantity distribution function (symbol F) and the probability
1
density (symbol f ). For example, F(y) is the prob-
Radioactive decay is inherently governed by the binomial
ability that the lineal energy is equal to or less
distribution. However, for sufficiently large values of the
number of radioactive atoms that one usually deals with, the than y. The probability density f(y) is the derivative
Poisson distribution is an excellent approximation of the of F(y), with f(y) being the probability that the
binomial distribution. lineal energy is between y and y þ dy.
9
3. Radiometry
Radiation measurements and investigations of quantities relate to a particular value of each vari-
radiation effects require various degrees of specifi- able of differentiation. This procedure provides the
cation of the radiation field at the point of interest. simplest definitions of quantities such as fluence
Radiation fields consisting of various types of par- and energy fluence (see Section 3.1.3), often used
ticles, such as photons, electrons, neutrons, or in the common situation in which radiation inter-
protons, are characterized by radiometric quan- actions are independent of the direction and time
tities that apply in free space and in matter. distribution of the incoming particles.
Two classes of quantities are used in the charac- The scalar radiometric quantities defined in this
terization of a radiation field, referring either to Report are used also for fields of optical and ultra-
the number of particles or to the energy trans- violet radiations, sometimes under different names.
ported by them. Accordingly, most of the definitions In this Report, the equivalence between the
of radiometric quantities given in this Report can various terminologies is often noted in connection
be grouped into pairs. with the relevant definitions.
Both scalar and vector quantities are used in
radiometry, and here they are treated separately. 3.1.1 Particle Number, Radiant Energy
Formal definitions of quantities deemed to be of
particular relevance are presented in boxes. The particle number, N, is the number of par-
Equivalent definitions that are used in particular ticles that are emitted, transferred, or received.
applications are given in the text. Distributions of
some radiometric quantities with respect to energy Unit: 1
are given when they will be required later in the The radiant energy, R, is the energy (excluding
Report. This extended set of quantities relevant to rest energy) of the particles that are emitted,
radiometry is summarized in Tables 3. 1 and 3. 2. transferred or received.
Unit: J
3.1 Scalar Radiometric Quantities
Consideration of radiometric quantities begins For particles of energy E (excluding rest energy),
with the definition of the most general quantities the radiant energy, R, is equal to the product NE.
associated with the radiation field, namely the par- The distributions, NE and RE, of the particle
ticle number, N, and the radiant energy, R (see number and the radiant energy with respect to
Section 3.1.1). The full description of the radiation energy are given by
field, however, requires information on the type
and the energy of the particles as well as on their NE ¼ dN=dE; ð3:1:1aÞ
distributions in space, direction, and time. This
most differential form is the basic field quantity and
from a radiation-transport perspective, and defi-
RE ¼ dR=dE; ð3:1:1bÞ
nitions of quantities in terms of integrals of such a
quantity might seem to better represent mathemat-
where dN is the number of particles with energy
ical rigor. However, the physical processes relevant between E and E þ dE, and dR is their radiant
here do not preclude differentiation. Thus, in the energy. The two distributions are related by
present Report, the specification of the radiation
field is achieved with increasing detail by defining RE ¼ ENE : ð3:1:2Þ
scalar radiometric quantities through successive
differentiations of N and R with respect to time, 2
Mathematically, the differentials are understood to be of
area, volume, direction, or energy.2 Thus, these expected or mean values of the quantities.

The particle number density 3, n, is given by For visible light and related electromagnetic radi-
ations, the energy flux is defined as power emitted,
n ¼ dN=dV; ð3:1:3aÞ transmitted, or received in the form of radiation and
termed radiant flux or radiant power (CIE, 1987).
where dN is the number of particles in the volume dV.
The term flux has been employed in other texts
Similarly, the radiant energy density, u, is given by for the quantity termed fluence rate in the present
u ¼ dR=dV: ð3:1:3bÞ Report (see Section 3.1.4). This usage is discour-
aged because of the possible confusion with the
The distributions, nE and uE, of the particle number above definition of flux.
density and the radiant energy density with respect
to energy are given by 3.1.3 Fluence, Energy Fluence
nE ¼ dn=dE; ð3:1:4aÞ
The fluence, F, is the quotient of dN by da,
and where dN is the number of particles incident on
a sphere of cross-sectional area da, thus
uE ¼ du=dE: ð3:1:4bÞ
dN
F¼ :
The two distributions are related by da
uE ¼ EnE : ð3:1:5Þ Unit: m22

The energy fluence, C, the quotient of dR by da,
where dR is the radiant energy incident on a
3.1.2 Flux, Energy Flux sphere of cross-sectional area da, thus
dR
_ is the quotient of dN by dt, where C¼ :
The flux, N, da
dN is the increment of the particle number in
the time interval dt, thus Unit: J m22
_ ¼ dN :
N
dt The use of a sphere of cross-sectional area da
expresses in the simplest manner the fact that one
Unit: s2l considers an area da perpendicular to the direction
_ is the quotient of dR by dt,
The energy flux, R, of each particle. The quantities fluence and energy
where dR is the increment of radiant energy in fluence are applicable in the common situation in
the time interval dt, thus which radiation interactions are independent of the
direction of the incoming particles. In certain situ-
_ ¼ dR : ations, quantities (defined below) involving the
R differential solid angle, dV, in a specified direction
dt
are required.
Unit: W In dosimetric calculations, fluence is frequently
expressed in terms of the lengths of the particle trajec-
tories. It can be shown (Papiez and Battista, 1994;
These quantities frequently refer to a limited and references therein) that the fluence, F, is given by
spatial region, e.g., the flux of particles emerging
from a collimator. For source emission, the flux of par- dl
F¼ ; ð3:1:6Þ
ticles emitted in all directions is generally considered. dV
3
This quantity was previously termed volumic particle number where dl is the sum of the lengths of particle trajec-
(ICRU, 1998). Recognizing that the terms volumic and massic tories in the volume dV.
are not commonly used in English, this Report reverts to the For a radiation field that does not vary over the
convention (IUPAC, 1997) that density indicates per volume and
specific indicates per mass (additionally, surface . . . density
time interval, t, and is composed of particles with
indicates per area, linear . . . density indicates per length, and velocity v, the fluence, F, is given by
rate indicates per time). However, the adjectives massic ¼ per
mass, volumic ¼ per volume, areic ¼ per area, and lineic ¼ per F ¼ nvt; ð3:1:7Þ
length (ISO, 1993) are acceptable and recognized for their
convenience. where n is the particle number density.
12
Radiometry
The distributions, FE and CE, of the fluence and 3.1.5 Particle Radiance, Energy Radiance
energy fluence with respect to energy are given by
dF The particle radiance, Ḟ V , is the quotient of dḞ

FE ¼ ; ð3:1:8aÞ by dV, where dḞ is the fluence rate of particles
dE
propagating within a solid angle dV around a
and specified direction, thus
dC dḞ
CE ¼ ; ð3:1:8bÞ Ḟ V ¼ :
dE dV
where dF is the fluence of particles of energy Unit: m22 s21 sr21
between E and E þ dE, and dC is their energy
The energy radiance, Ċ V , is the quotient of dĊ
fluence. The relationship between the two distri-
by dV, where dĊ is the energy fluence rate of
butions is given by
particles propagating within a solid angle dV
C E ¼ E FE : ð3:1:9Þ around a specified direction, thus
The energy fluence is related to the quantity dĊ

Ċ V ¼ :
radiant exposure defined, for fields of visible light, dV
as the quotient of the radiant energy incident on a
surface element by the area of that element (CIE, Unit: W m22 sr21
1987). When a parallel beam is incident at an angle
u with the normal direction to a given surface The specification of a direction requires two
element, the radiant exposure is equal to C cos u. variables. In a spherical coordinate system with
polar angle u and azimuthal angle w, dV is equal to
sin u du dw.
3.1.4 Fluence Rate, Energy-Fluence Rate For visible light and related electromagnetic
radiations, the particle radiance and energy radi-
The fluence rate, Ḟ , is the quotient of dF by dt, ance are termed photon radiance and radiance,
where dF is the increment of the fluence in the respectively (CIE, 1987).
time interval dt, thus The distributions of particle radiance and energy
radiance with respect to energy are given by
dF
Ḟ ¼ :
dt dḞ V
Ḟ V; E ¼ ; ð3:1:11aÞ
dE
Unit: m22 s2l
The energy-fluence rate, Ċ , is the quotient of dC and
by dt, where dC is the increment of the energy
dĊ V
fluence in the time interval dt, thus Ċ V; E ¼ ; ð3:1:11bÞ
dE
dC
Ċ ¼ : where dḞ V is the particle radiance for particles of
dt
energy between E and E þ dE, and dĊ V is their
Unit: W m22 energy radiance. The two distributions are related
by
In radiation-transport literature, these quantities Ċ V; E ¼ EḞ V; E : ð3:1:12Þ

have also been termed particle flux density and
energy flux density, respectively. Because the word The quantity Ḟ V;E is sometimes termed angular
density has several connotations, the term fluence flux or phase flux in radiation-transport theory.
rate is preferred. Apart from aspects that are of minor importance
For a radiation field composed of particles of vel- in the present context (e.g., polarization), the field
ocity v, the fluence rate, Ḟ , is given by of any radiation of a given particle type is comple-
tely specified by the distribution, ḞV; E , of the par-
Ḟ ¼ nv; ð3:1:10Þ ticle radiance with respect to particle energy, as
this defines number, energy, local density, and
where n is the particle number density. arrival rate of particles propagating in a given
13
direction. This quantity, as well as the distribution The distributions ḞV; E and ĊV; E of the vector
of the energy radiance with respect to energy, can particle radiance and the vector energy radiance,
be considered as basic in radiometry. with respect to energy, are given by
ḞV; E ¼ VḞV; E ; ð3:2:1aÞ

3.2 Vector Radiometric Quantities
and
As radiometric quantities are primarily con-
cerned with the flow of radiation, it is appropriate Ċ V; E ¼ VĊ V; E ; ð3:2:1bÞ
to consider some of them as vector quantities.
Vector quantities are not needed in those cases for where ḞV; E and Ċ V; E are the distributions of the
which the corresponding scalar quantities are particle radiance and the energy radiance, respect-
appropriate, e.g., in deriving dosimetric quantities ively, with respect to energy.
that are independent of the particle direction. In In radiation-transport theory, Ḟ V; E is sometimes
other instances, vector quantities are useful, and called angular current density, phase-space current
they are important in theoretical considerations density, or directional flux.
related to radiation fields and dosimetric quan-
tities. There is, in general, no simple relationship 3.2.2 Vector Fluence Rate, Vector
between the magnitudes of a scalar quantity and Energy-Fluence Rate
the corresponding vector quantity. However, in the
case of a unidirectional field, they are of equal mag-
The vector fluence rate, Ḟ , is the integral of ḞV
nitude. The use of boldface symbols distinguishes
with respect to solid angle, where ḞV is the
the vector quantities introduced in this Section
vector particle radiance in the direction specified
from the corresponding scalar quantities.
by the unit vector V, thus
The vector quantities, defined in this Section, are
ð
obtained by successive integrations of the quan-
tities vector particle radiance and vector energy Ḟ ¼ Ḟ V dV:
radiance (see Section 3.2.1). Vector quantities are
used extensively in radiation-transport theory, but Unit: m22 s21
often with a different terminology. The equival-
The vector energy-fluence rate, Ċ , is the integral
ences are indicated for the convenience of the
of Ċ V with respect to solid angle, where Ċ V is
reader.
the vector energy radiance in the direction speci-
fied by the unit vector V, thus
3.2.1 Vector Particle Radiance, Vector
Energy Radiance ð
Ċ ¼ Ċ V dV:
The vector particle radiance, ḞV , is the product
of V by ḞV , where V is the unit vector in the Unit: W m22
direction specified for the particle radiance ḞV ,
thus
The vectorial integration determines both direc-
ḞV ¼ VḞV : tion and magnitude of the vector fluence rate and
of the vector energy-fluence rate. The scalar quan-
Unit: m22 s2l sr21 tities fluence rate and energy-fluence rate can be
obtained in a similar way according to
The vector energy radiance, Ċ V , is the product
ð
of V by Ċ V , where V is the unit vector in the
direction specified for the energy radiance ĊV , Ḟ ¼ Ḟ V dV; ð3:2:2aÞ
thus
and
ð
Ċ V ¼ VĊ V :
Ċ ¼ Ċ V dV: ð3:2:2bÞ
22 2l
Unit: W m sr
It is important that these quantities not be con-
fused with the vector counterparts. In particular, it
The magnitudes jḞV j and jĊ V j are equal to Ḟ V needs to be recognized that the magnitude of vector
and ĊV , respectively. fluence rate and of vector energy-fluence rate
14
Radiometry
change from zero in an isotropic field to Ḟ and Ċ and

in a unidirectional field. ð
The vector fluence rate is sometimes referred to dC
CE ¼ ¼ Ċ E dt; ð3:2:3bÞ
as current density in radiation-transport theory. dE
3.2.3 Vector Fluence, Vector Energy Fluence

where dF is the vector fluence of particles of
energy between E and E þ dE, and dC is their
The vector fluence, F, is the integral of Ḟ with vector energy fluence.
respect to time, t, where Ḟ is the vector fluence The vector energy fluence, C, can be obtained
rate, thus from the distribution Ḟ V;E according to
ð
F ¼ Ḟ dt: ððð
C¼ VEḞ V; E dt dV dE: ð3:2:4Þ
Unit: m22
The vector energy fluence, C, is the integral of
It should be noted that the (vectorial) integration
Ċ with respect to time, t, where Ċ is the vector
of Ḟ V; E over time, energy, and solid angle results
energy-fluence rate, thus
ð in a point function in space, but this is not the
case when the integration is over area. It is
C ¼ Ċ dt:
meaningful to integrate, for instance, the scalar
Unit: J m22 product C . da over a given area a to obtain the
net flow of radiant energy through this area.
Integration with respect to a particular surface
The distributions FE and CE of the vector fluence must take account of the (three-dimensional)
and vector energy fluence, with respect to energy shape of the surface and its orientation, because
are given by the number of particles in a given direction,
ð intercepted by a surface, depends on the angle of
dF
FE ¼ ¼ Ḟ E dt; ð3:2:3aÞ incidence.
dE
Table 3.1. Scalar radiometric quantities
Namea Symbol Unit Definition Appearance in the Report
particle number N 1 – Section 3.1.1

radiant energy R J – Section 3.1.1
energy distribution of particle number NE J21 dN/dE Eq. 3.1.1a
energy distribution of radiant energy RE 1 dR/dE Eq. 3.1.1b
particle number density n m23 dN/dV Eq. 3.1.3a
radiant energy density u J m23 dR/dV Eq. 3.1.3b
energy distribution of particle number density nE m23 J21 dn/dE Eq. 3.1.4a
energy distribution of radiant energy density uE m23 du/dE Eq. 3.1.4b
flux _
N s21 dn/dt Section 3.1.2
energy flux _
R W dR/dt Section 3.1.2
energy distribution of flux _E
N s21 J21 dN/dE –
energy distribution of energy flux _E
R s21 dR/dE –
fluence F m22 dN/da Section 3.1.3
energy fluence C J m22 dR/da Section 3.1.3
energy distribution of fluence FE m22 J21 dF/dE Eq. 3.1.8a
energy distribution of energy fluence CE m22 dC/dE Eq. 3.1.8b
fluence rate Ḟ m22 s21 dF/dt Section 3.1.4
energy-fluence rate Ċ W m22 dC/dt Section 3.1.4
energy distribution of fluence rate Ḟ E m22 s21 J21 dḞ =dE –
energy distribution of energy-fluence rate Ċ E m22 s21 dĊ =dE –
particle radiance Ḟ V m22 s21 sr21 dḞ =dV Section 3.1.5
energy radiance C_V W m22 sr21 dĊ =dV Section 3.1.5
energy distribution of particle radiance Ḟ V; E m22 s21 sr21 J21 dḞ V =dE Eq. 3.1.11a
energy distribution of energy radiance Ċ V; E m22 s21 sr21 dĊ V =dE Eq. 3.1.11b
a
The expression “distribution of a quantity with respect to energy” has been replaced in this table by the shorthand expression “energy
distribution of the quantity.”
15
Table 3.2. Vector radiometric quantities
Namea Symbol Unit Definition Appearance in the Report
vector particle radiance Ḟ V m22 s21 sr21 VḞV Section 3.2.1

vector energy radiance Ċ V W m22 sr21 V Ċ V Section 3.2.1
energy distribution of vector particle radiance Ḟ V; E m22 s21 sr21 J21 VF _ V; E Eq. 3.2.1a
energy distribution of vector energy radiance Ċ V; E m22 s21 sr21 V Ċ
Ð V; E Eq. 3.2.1b
vector fluence rate Ḟ m22 s21 Ð ḞV dV Section 3.2.2
vector energy-fluence rate Ċ W m22 Ð ĊV dV Section 3.2.2
energy distribution of vector fluence rate Ḟ E m22 s21 J21 Ð ḞV; E dV –
energy distribution of vector energy-fluence rate ĊE m22 s21 Ð ĊV; E dV –
vector fluence F m22 Ð Ḟ dt Section 3.2.3
vector energy fluence C J m22 Ð Ċ dt Section 3.2.3
energy distribution of vector fluence FE m22 J21 Ð ḞE dt Eq. 3.2.3a
energy distribution of vector energy fluence CE m22 ĊE dt Eq. 3.2.3b
a
The expression “distribution of a quantity with respect to energy” has been replaced in this table by the shorthand expression “energy
distribution of the quantity.”
16
4. Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities
Interaction processes occur between radiation If incident particles of a given type and energy
and matter. In an interaction, the energy or the can undergo different and independent types of
direction (or both) of the incident particle is altered interaction in a target entity, the resulting cross
or the particle is absorbed. The interaction might section, sometimes called the total cross section, s,
be followed by the emission of one or several sec- is expressed by the sum of the component cross sec-
ondary particles. The likelihood of such inter- tions, sj, hence
actions is characterized by interaction coefficients.
X 1X
They refer to a specific interaction process, type s¼ sJ ¼ NJ ; ð4:1:1Þ
and energy of radiation, and target or material. J
F J
The fundamental interaction coefficient is the
cross section (see Section 4.1). All other interaction where NJ is the mean number of interactions of
coefficients defined in this Report can be expressed type J per target entity subjected to the particle
in terms of cross sections or differential cross fluence F, and sJ is the component cross section
sections. relating to an interaction of type J.
Interaction coefficients and related quantities
discussed in this Section are listed in Table 4.1.
4.2 Mass Attenuation Coefficient

4.1 Cross Section
The mass attenuation coefficient, m/r, of a
material, for uncharged particles of a given type
The cross section, s, of a target entity, for a
and energy, is the quotient of dN/N by rdl,
particular interaction produced by incident
where dN/N is the mean fraction of the particles
charged or uncharged particles of a given type
that experience interactions in traversing a dis-
and energy, is the quotient of N by F, where N is
tance dl in the material of density r, thus
the mean number of such interactions per target
entity subjected to the particle fluence F, thus m 1 dN
¼ :
N r r dl N
s¼ :
F Unit: m2 kg21
Unit: m2
The quantity m is the linear attenuation coeffi-
A special unit often used for the cross section is cient. The probability that at normal incidence an
the barn, b, defined by uncharged particle undergoes an interaction in a
material layer of thickness dl is mdl.
1 b ¼ 1028 m2 ¼ 100 f m2 : The reciprocal of m is called the mean free path of
an uncharged particle.
A full description of an interaction process requires, The linear attenuation coefficient, m, depends on
among other things, the knowledge of the distri- the density, r, of the material. This dependence is
butions of cross sections in terms of energy and largely removed by using the mass attenuation
direction of all emergent particles resulting from coefficient, m/r.
the interaction. Such distributions, sometimes The mass attenuation coefficient can be
called differential cross sections, are obtained by expressed in terms of the total cross section, s. The
differentiations of s with respect to energy of emer- mass attenuation coefficient is the product of s and
gent particles and solid angle. NA/M, where NA is the Avogadro constant, and M is

the molar mass of the target material, thus binding energies are usually assumed negligible
and thus included in calculations of the mass
m NA NA X energy-transfer coefficient for photons. In materials
¼ s¼ sJ ; ð4:2:1Þ
r M M J consisting of elements of modest atomic number,
such an inconsistency with the definition can
where sJ is the component cross section relating to become important for photons with energies below
an interaction of type J. 1 keV. In addition, the decay of excited nuclear
Relationship 4.2.1 can be written as states produced by interactions can contribute
m nt charged particles; this process is usually not
¼ s; ð4:2:2Þ included in evaluation of the mass energy-transfer
r r
coefficient for photons, but rather is treated as a
where nt is the number density of target entities, separate source term in dosimetry calculations.
i.e., the number of target entities in a volume If incident uncharged particles of a given type
element divided by its volume. and energy can produce several types of indepen-
The mass attenuation coefficient of a compound dent interactions in a target entity, the mass
material is usually treated as if the latter consisted energy-transfer coefficient can be expressed in
of independent atoms. Thus, terms of the component cross sections, sJ, by the
relationship
m 1X 1X X
¼
r r L
ðnt ÞL sL ¼
r L
ðnt ÞL sL;J ; ð4:2:3Þ mtr NA X
J ¼ fJ sJ ; ð4:3:1Þ
r M J
where (nt)L is the number density of target entities
of type L, sL the total cross section for an entity L, where fJ is the quotient of the mean energy trans-
and sL,J the cross section of an interaction of type ferred to kinetic energy of charged particles in an
J for a single target entity of type L. Relationship interaction of type J by the kinetic energy of the
4.2.3, which ignores the effects on the cross sec- incident uncharged particle, NA is the Avogadro
tions of the molecular, chemical, or crystalline constant, and M is the molar mass of the target
environment of an atom, is justified in most cases, material.
but can occasionally lead to errors, for example, in The mass energy-transfer coefficient is related to
the interaction of low-energy photons with mol- the mass attenuation coefficient, m /r, by the
ecules (Hubbell, 1969) and in the interaction of equation
slow neutrons with molecules, particularly those
mtr m
containing hydrogen (see, e.g., Caswell et al., 1982; ¼ f; ð4:3:2Þ
Houk and Wilson, 1967; Rauch, 1994).
r r
where
P
4.3 Mass Energy-Transfer Coefficient J fJ sJ
f ¼ P :
J sJ
The mass energy-transfer coefficient, mtr /r, of a The mass energy-transfer coefficient of a compound
material, for uncharged particles of a given type material is usually treated as if the latter consisted
and energy, is the quotient of dRtr/R by rdl, of independent atoms. Thus,
where dRtr is the mean energy that is trans-
ferred to kinetic energy of charged particles by mtr 1 X X
interactions of the uncharged particles of inci- ¼ ðnt ÞL fL;J sL; J ; ð4:3:3Þ
r r L J
dent radiant energy R in traversing a distance
dl in the material of density r, thus
where (nt)L and sL, J have the same meaning as in
mtr 1 dRtr Eq. 4.2.3, and fL, J is the quotient of the mean
¼ : energy transferred to kinetic energy of charged par-
r r dl R
ticles in an interaction of type J with a target entity
Unit: m2 kg21 of type L by the kinetic energy of the incident
uncharged particle. Relationship 4.3.3 implies the
same approximations as relationship 4.2.3.
The binding energies of the liberated charged A fraction g of the kinetic energy transferred to
particles are not to be included in dRtr. However, charged particles is subsequently lost on average in
18
Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities
radiative processes (bremsstrahlung, in-flight

1 dE 1
annihilation, and fluorescence radiations) as the ¼ Srad is the mass radiative stopping
charged particles slow to rest in the material, and
r dl rad r power due to emission of brems-
this fraction g is specific to the material. The strahlung in the electric fields of
product of mtr/r for a material and (1 2 g) is called atomic nuclei or atomic elec-
the mass energy-absorption coefficient, men/r, of the trons, and
1 dE 1
material for uncharged particles, ¼ Snuc is the mass nuclear stopping
r dl nuc r
power 5 due to elastic Coulomb
men mtr
¼ ð1 gÞ: ð4:3:4Þ interactions in which recoil
r r
energy is imparted to atoms.
The mass energy-absorption coefficient of a com- In addition, one can consider energy losses due to
pound material depends on the stopping power (see nonelastic nuclear interactions, but such processes
Section 4.4) of the material. Thus, its evaluation are not usually described by a stopping power.
cannot, in principle, be reduced to a simple sum- The separate mass stopping-power components
mation of the mass energy-absorption coefficient of can be expressed in terms of cross sections. For
the atomic constituents (Seltzer, 1993). Such a example, the mass electronic stopping power for an
summation can provide an adequate approximation atom can be expressed as
when the value of g is sufficiently small. ð
1 NA ds
Sel ¼ Z 1 d1; ð4:4:2Þ
r M d1
4.4 Mass Stopping Power where NA is the Avogadro constant, M the molar
mass of the atom, Z its atomic number, ds/d1 the
differential cross section ( per atomic electron) for
The mass stopping power, S/r, of a material, for
interactions, and 1 is the energy loss.
charged particles of a given type and energy, is
Forming the quotient Sel/r greatly reduces, but
the quotient of dE by rdl, where dE is the mean
does not eliminate, the dependence on the density
energy lost by the charged particles in traversing
of the material (see ICRU, 1984; 1993b, where the
a distance dl in the material of density r, thus
density effect and the stopping powers for com-
S 1 dE pounds are discussed).
¼ :
r r dl
Unit: J m2 kg2l 4.5 Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
The linear energy transfer or restricted linear

The quantity E may be expressed in eV, and electronic stopping power, LD, of a material, for
hence S/r may be expressed in eV m2 kg2l or some charged particles of a given type and energy, is
convenient multiples or submultiples, such as MeV the quotient of dED by dl, where dED is the
cm2 g2l. mean energy lost by the charged particles due to
The quantity S ¼ d E/dl denotes the linear stop- electronic interactions in traversing a distance
ping power. dl, minus the mean sum of the kinetic energies
The mass stopping power can be expressed as a in excess of D of all the electrons released by the
sum of independent components by charged particles, thus
dED
S 1 dE 1 dE 1 dE LD ¼ :
¼ þ þ ; ð4:4:1Þ dl
r r dl el r dl rad r dl nuc
Unit: J m21
where

1 dE 1
¼ Sel is the mass electronic (or collision 4) The quantity ED may be expressed in eV, and
r dl el r stopping power due to interactions hence LD may be expressed in eV m2l or some con-
with atomic electrons resulting in venient multiples or submultiples, such as keV
ionization or excitation, mm2l.
4 5
The older term was “collision stopping power.” Because all The established term “mass nuclear stopping power” can be
interactions can be considered “collisions,” the more specific misleading because this quantity does not pertain to nuclear
term “electronic” is strongly preferred. interactions.
19
The linear energy transfer, LD, can also be is (100 eV)2l. A G value of 1 (100 eV)21 corresponds
expressed by to a radiation chemical yield of approximately
0.1036 mmol J21.
d E ke;D
LD ¼ Sel ; ð4:5:1Þ
dl
4.7 Ionization Yield in a Gas
where Sel is the linear electronic stopping power,
and dEke, D is the mean sum of the kinetic energies, The ionization yield in a gas, Y, is the quotient
greater than D, of all the electrons released by the of N by E, where N is the mean total liberated
charged particle in traversing a distance dl. charge of either sign, divided by the elementary
The definition expresses the following energy charge, when the initial kinetic energy E of a
balance: energy lost by the primary charged par- charged particle of a given type is completely
ticle in interactions with electrons, along a distance dissipated in the gas, thus
dl, minus energy carried away by energetic second-
ary electrons having initial kinetic energies greater N
Y¼ :
than D, equals energy considered as “locally trans- E
ferred,” although the definition specifies an energy
cutoff, D, and not a distance cutoff. Unit: J21
Note that LD includes the binding energy of elec-
trons for all interactions. As a consequence, L0
The quantity Y may also be expressed in eV21.
refers to the energy lost that does not reappear as
The ionization yield in a gas is a particular case
kinetic energy of released electrons. Thus, the
of the radiation chemical yield. It follows from the
threshold of the kinetic energy of the released elec-
definition of Y that the charge produced by brems-
trons is D as opposed to D minus the binding energy.
strahlung or other secondary radiation emitted by
In order to simplify notation, D may be expressed
the initial and secondary charged particles is
in eV. Then L100 is understood to be the linear
included in N. The charge of the initial charged
energy transfer for an energy cutoff of 100 eV. If no
particle is not included in N, as this charge is not
energy cutoff is imposed, the unrestricted linear
liberated in the energy-dissipation process.
energy transfer, L1, is equal to Sel, and may be
denoted simply as L.
4.8 Mean Energy Expended in a Gas per Ion
Pair Formed
4.6 Radiation Chemical Yield
The mean energy expended in a gas per ion pair

The radiation chemical yield, G(x), of an entity,
formed, W, is the quotient of E by N, where N is
x, is the quotient of n(x) by 1, where n(x) is the
the mean total liberated charge of either sign,
mean amount of substance of that entity pro-
divided by the elementary charge, when the
duced, destroyed, or changed in a system by the
initial kinetic energy E of a charged particle
mean energy imparted, 1, to the matter of that
introduced into the gas is completely dissipated
system, thus
in the gas, thus
nðxÞ
GðxÞ ¼ : E
1 W¼ :
N
Unit: mol J21
Unit: J
The mole is the amount of substance of a system

that contains as many elementary entities as there The quantity W may also be expressed in eV.
are atoms in 0.012 kg of 12C. The elementary enti- It follows from the definition of W that the ions
ties must be specified and can be atoms, molecules, produced by bremsstrahlung or other secondary
ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups radiation emitted by the initial and secondary
of such particles (BIPM, 2006). charged particles are included in N. The charge of
A related quantity, called G value, has been the initial charged particle is not included in N.
defined as the mean number of entities produced, In certain cases, it could be necessary to focus
destroyed, or changed by an energy imparted of attention on the variation in the mean energy
100 eV. The unit in which the G value is expressed expended per ion pair along the path of the
20
Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities
particle; then the concept of a differential W is elementary charge when dE is completely dissi-
required, as defined in ICRU Report 31 (ICRU, pated in the gas.
1979). The differential value, w, of the mean The relationship between W and w is given by
energy expended in a gas per ion pair formed is the
quotient of dE by dN; thus E
WðEÞ ¼ Ð E ; ð4:8:2Þ
I ½dE0 =wðE0 Þ
dE
w¼ ; ð4:8:1Þ
dN where I is the lowest ionization potential of the gas,
and E’ is the instantaneous kinetic energy of the
where dE is the mean energy lost by a charged par- charged particle as it slows down.
ticle of kinetic energy E in traversing a layer of gas In solid-state theory, a concept similar to W is the
of infinitesmal thickness, and dN is the mean total average energy required for the formation of a
liberated charge of either sign divided by the hole–electron pair.
Table 4.1. Interaction coefficients and related quantities
Name Symbol Unit Definition Appearance in

the Report
cross section s m2 N/F Section 4.1

mass attenuation coefficient m /r m2 kg21 dN/(N r dl) Section 4.2
linear attenuation coefficient m m21 dN/(N dl) Section 4.2
mean free path m 21 m N dl/dN Section 4.2
mass energy-transfer coefficient mtr /r m2 kg21 dRtr/(R r dl) Section 4.3
mass energy-absorption coefficient men /r m2 kg21 (mtr/r)(1 2 g) Section 4.3
mass stopping power S/r J m2 kg21 dE/(r dl) Section 4.4
linear stopping power S J m21 dE/dl Section 4.4
linear energy transfer LD J m21 dED /dl Section 4.5
radiation chemical yield G(x) mole J21 n(x)/1̄ Section 4.6
ionization yield in a gas Y J21 N/E Section 4.7
mean energy expended in a gas per ion pair formed W J E/N Section 4.7
differential mean energy expended in a gas w J dE/dN Eq. 4.8.1
per ion pair formed
21
5. Dosimetry
The effects of radiation on matter depend on the while kerma involves the energy of outgoing
radiation field, as specified by the radiometric charged particles as a result of interactions by
quantities defined in Sections 3.1 and 3.2, and on incoming uncharged particles. Both quantities, in
the interactions between radiation and matter, as conditions of charged-particle equilibrium, serve as
characterized by the interaction quantities defined approximations to absorbed dose, kerma for
in Sections 4.1 to 4.5. Dosimetric quantities, which uncharged and cema for charged ionizing particles.
are selected to provide a physical measure to corre-
late with actual or potential effects, are products of 5.1.1 Kerma6
radiometric quantities and interaction coefficients.
In calculations, the values of these quantities and The kerma, K, for ionizing uncharged particles,
coefficients must be known, while measurements is the quotient of dEtr by dm, where dEtr is the
might not require this information. mean sum of the initial kinetic energies of all
Radiation interacts with matter in a series of pro- the charged particles liberated in a mass dm of
cesses in which particle energy is converted and a material by the uncharged particles incident
finally deposited in matter. The dosimetric quantities on dm, thus
that describe these processes are presented below in
two Sections dealing with the conversion and with dEtr
the deposition of energy. The evaluation of the quan- K¼ :
dm
tities defined in this Section requires, in general, con-
sideration of elapsed time. Most applications and Unit: J kg21
measurements of ionizing radiation involve time
The special name for the unit of kerma is gray
scales of the order of seconds or minutes, so at a prac-
(Gy).
tical level the decay of an excited atomic state
usually can be assumed to have occurred. This might
not be the case for nuclear de-excitations or spon- The quantity dEtr includes the kinetic energy of
taneous nuclear decays, with the obvious example of the charged particles emitted in the decay of
a radionuclide produced in an interaction or pre- excited atoms/molecules7 or in nuclear
existing in a volume of interest. de-excitation or disintegration.
For a fluence, F, of uncharged particles of energy
E, the kerma, K, in a specified material is given by
5.1 Conversion of Energy
K ¼ FEmtr =r ¼Cmtr =r; ð5:1:1Þ
The term conversion of energy refers to the trans-
fer of energy from ionizing particles to secondary where mtr/r is the mass energy-transfer coefficient
ionizing particles. The quantity kerma pertains to of the material for these particles.
the kinetic energy of the charged particles liberated The kerma per fluence, K/F, is termed the kerma
by uncharged particles; the energy expended to coefficient for uncharged particles of energy E in a
overcome the binding energies, usually a relatively specified material. The term kerma coefficient is
small component, is, by definition, not included. In used in preference to the older term kerma factor,
addition to kerma, the quantity cema is defined that as the word coefficient implies a physical dimension
pertains to the energy lost by charged particles (e.g., whereas the word factor does not.
electrons, protons, alpha particles) in interactions In dosimetric calculations, the kerma, K, is usually
with atomic electrons; by definition, the binding expressed in terms of the distribution, FE, of the
energies are included. Cema differs from kerma in
that cema involves the energy lost in electronic 6
Kinetic energy released per mass.
7
interactions by the incoming charged particles, For example, Auger, Coster-Kronig, shake-off electrons.

uncharged-particle fluence with respect to energy distribution of the kerma with respect to the elec-
(see Eq. 3.l.8a). The kerma, K, is then given by tron energy.
ð ð The expression of collision kerma in terms of the
m m product of the kerma and a radiative-loss correction
K ¼ FE E tr dE ¼ CE tr dE; ð5:1:2Þ
r r factor evaluated for the same material as the
kerma suggests that one can refer to a value of col-
where mtr/r is the mass energy-transfer coefficient of lision kerma or collision kerma rate for a specified
the material for uncharged particles of energy E. material at a point in free space, or inside a differ-
The expression of kerma in terms of fluence ent material.
makes it clear that one can refer to a value of
kerma or kerma rate for a specified material at a 5.1.2 Kerma Rate
point in free space, or inside a different material.
Thus, one can speak, for example, of the air kerma
The kerma rate, K,_ is the quotient of dK by dt,
at a point inside a water phantom.
Although kerma is a quantity that concerns the where dK is the increment of kerma in the time
initial transfer of energy to matter, it is sometimes interval dt, thus
used as an approximation to absorbed dose. The dK
numerical value of the kerma approaches that of K_ ¼ :
dt
the absorbed dose to the degree that charged-
particle equilibrium exists, that radiative losses are Unit: J kg21 s21
negligible, and that the kinetic energy of the If the special name gray is used, the unit of
uncharged particles is large compared with the kerma rate is gray per second (Gy s21).
binding energy of the liberated charged particles.
Charged-particle equilibrium exists at a point if
the distribution of the charged-particle radiance
5.1.3 Exposure
with respect to energy (see Eq. 3.1.11a) is constant
within distances equal to the maximum charged-
particle range. The exposure, X, is the quotient of dq by dm,
A quantity related to the kerma, termed the col- where dq is the absolute value of the mean total
lision kerma, has long been in use as an approxi- charge of the ions of one sign produced when all
mation to absorbed dose (Attix, 1979a; 1979b) the electrons and positrons liberated or created
when radiative losses are not negligible. The col- by photons incident on a mass dm of dry air are
lision kerma, Kcol, excludes the radiative losses by completely stopped in dry air, thus
the liberated charged particles, and – for a fluence, dq
F, of uncharged particles of energy E in a specified X¼ :
dm
material – is given by
Unit: C kg21
m m
Kcol ¼ FE en ¼ FE tr ð1 gÞ ¼ Kð1 gÞ; ð5:1:3Þ
r r
The ionization produced by electrons emitted in
where men/r is the mass energy-absorption coeffi- atomic/molecular relaxation processes is included
cient of the material for uncharged particles of in dq. The ionization due to photons emitted by
energy E, and g is the fraction of the kinetic energy radiative processes (i.e., bremsstrahlung and fluor-
of liberated charged particles that would be lost in escence photons) is not to be included in dq. Except
radiative processes in that material (see Section for this difference, significant at high energies, the
4.3). exposure, as defined above, is the ionization ana-
In dosimetric calculations, the collision kerma, logue of the dry-air kerma. Exposure can be
Kcol, can be expressed in terms of the distribution, expressed in terms of the distribution, FE, of the
FE, of the uncharged-particle fluence with respect fluence with respect to the photon energy, E, and
to energy as the mass energy-transfer coefficient, mtr/r, for dry
ð ð air and for that energy as follows:
m m ð
Kcol ¼ FE E en dE ¼ FE E tr ð1 gÞ dE e m
r r X FE E tr ð1 gÞdE
Þ;
¼ K ð1 g ð5:1:4Þ W r
ð
e men
FE E dE; ð5:1:5Þ
is the mean value of g averaged over the
where g W r
24
Dosimetry
where e is the elementary charge, W is the mean The energy lost by charged particles in electronic
energy expended in dry air per ion pair formed, and interactions includes the energy expended to over-
g is the fraction of the kinetic energy of the electrons come the binding energy and the initial kinetic
liberated by photons that is lost in radiative pro- energy of the liberated electrons, referred to as sec-
cesses in air. The approximation symbol in Eq. 5.1.5 ondary electrons. Thus, energy subsequently lost
reflects the fact that the exposure includes the by all secondary electrons is excluded from dEel.
charge of electrons or ions liberated by the incident The cema, C, can be expressed in terms of the dis-
photons whereas W pertains only to the charge pro- tribution, FE, of the charged-particle fluence, with
duced during the slowing down of these electrons.8 respect to energy (see Eq. 3.1.8a). According to the
For photon energies of the order of 1 MeV or definition of cema, the distribution FE does not
below, for which the value of g is small, Eq. 5.1.5 include the contribution of secondary electrons to the
can be further approximated by X (e/W)Kair fluence, but the contributions of all other charged
) ¼ (e/W)Kcol,air, where Kair is the dry-air
(l 2 g particles, such as secondary protons, alpha particles,
kerma for primary photons and g is the mean value tritons, and ions produced in nuclear interactions, are
of g averaged over the distribution of the air kerma included in the cema. The cema, C, is thus given by
with respect to the electron energy.
ð ð
As in the case of collision kerma, it can be con- Sel L1
venient to refer to a value of exposure or of exposure C ¼ FE dE ¼ FE dE; ð5:1:6Þ
r r
rate in free space or at a point inside a material
different from air; one can speak, for example, of the
where Sel/r is the mass electronic stopping power of a
exposure at a point inside a water phantom.
specified material for charged particles of energy E,
5.1.4 Exposure Rate and L1 is the corresponding unrestricted linear
energy transfer. In general, the cema is evaluated as
_ is the quotient of dX by dt, the sum of contributions by all species of charged par-
The exposure rate, X,
ticles, except liberated secondary electrons.
where dX is the increment of exposure in the
For charged particles of high energies, it might
time interval dt, thus
be undesirable to disregard energy transport by
dX secondary electrons of all energies. A modified
X_ ¼ : concept, restricted cema, CD, (Kellerer et al., 1992)
dt
is then defined as
Unit: C kg21 s21
ð
LD
CD ¼ FE0 dE: ð5:1:7Þ
5.1.5 Cema 9 r
The cema, C, for ionizing charged particles, is This differs from the integral in Eq. 5.1.6 in that
0
the quotient of dEel by dm, where dEel is the L1 is replaced by LD and that the distribution F E
mean energy lost in electronic interactions in a now includes secondary electrons liberated in dm
mass dm of a material by the charged particles, with kinetic energies greater than D. For D ¼ 1,
except secondary electrons, incident on dm, thus restricted cema is identical to cema.
The expression of cema and restricted cema in
dEel terms of fluence makes it clear that one can refer
C¼ : to their values for a specified material at a point in
dm
free space, or inside a different material. Thus, one
Unit: J kg21 can speak, for example, of tissue cema in air
The special name of the unit of cema is gray (Kellerer et al., 1992).
(Gy). The quantities cema and restricted cema can be
used as approximations to absorbed dose from
charged particles. Equality of absorbed dose and
8
This difference, although relatively small, tends to become cema is approached to the degree that secondary-
more significant as the photon energy decreases. Additionally, W charged-particle equilibrium exists and that radia-
is not constant as perhaps implied in Eq. 5.1.5, but known to tive losses and those due to elastic nuclear inter-
increase at low energies (ICRU, 1979). At energies for which the
actions are negligible. Secondary-charged-particle
variation of W with energy becomes important, one should
consider the effect of this increase on the relationship between equilibrium is achieved at a point if the fluence of
exposure and air kerma. secondary charged particles is constant within dis-
9
Converted energy per mass. tances equal to their maximum range. For restricted
25
cema, only partial secondary-charged-particle equi- photons, that can leave the interaction are
librium, up to kinetic energy D, is required. included in the energy deposit. The dimensions
over which that energy is re-absorbed can be
5.1.6 Cema Rate thought to define a spatial region associated with
a single interaction.
The cema rate, C,_ is the quotient of dC by dt,
where dC is increment of cema in the time inter- 5.2.2 Energy Imparted
val dt, thus
dC The energy imparted, 1 , to the matter in a given

C_ ¼ : volume is the sum of all energy deposits in the
dt
volume, thus
Unit: J kg21 s21 X
1¼ 1i ;
If the special name gray is used, the unit of
i
cema rate is gray per second (Gy s21).
where the summation is performed over all
energy deposits, 1i, in that volume.
5.2 Deposition of Energy Unit: J
In this Section, certain stochastic quantities are

introduced. Energy deposit is the basis in terms of The quantity 1 may also be expressed in eV. Note
which all other quantities presented here can be that 1 is a stochastic quantity.
defined. The energy deposits over which the summation
is performed can belong to one or more energy-
5.2.1 Energy Deposit deposition events; for example, they might belong
to one or several independent particle trajectories.
The term energy-deposition event denotes the
The energy deposit, 1i, is the energy deposited in
imparting of energy to matter by correlated par-
a single interaction, i, thus
ticles. Examples include a proton and its second-
1i ¼ 1in 1out þ Q; ary electrons, an electron-positron pair, or the
primary and secondary particles in nuclear
where 1in is the energy of the incident ionizing reactions.
particle (excluding rest energy), 1out is the sum of If the energy imparted to the matter in a given
the energies of all charged and uncharged ioniz- volume is due to a single energy-deposition event,
ing particles leaving the interaction (excluding it is equal to the sum of the energy deposits in the
rest energy), and Q is the change in the rest ener- volume associated with the energy-deposition
gies of the nucleus and of all elementary par- event. If the energy imparted to the matter in a
ticles involved in the interaction (Q . 0: decrease given volume is due to several energy-deposition
of rest energy; Q , 0: increase of rest energy). events, it is equal to the sum of the individual
energies imparted to the matter in the volume due
Unit: J
to each energy-deposition event.
The mean energy imparted, 1, to the matter in a
The quantity 1i may also be expressed in eV. given volume equals the mean radiant energy, Rin,
Note that 1i is a stochastic quantity. of all charged and uncharged ionizing particles
Interactions with atomic electrons resulting in that enter the volume minus the mean radiant
atomic excitation (and subsequent de-excitation) energy, Rout, of all charged and uncharged ionizing
do not involve a change in rest energies of the particles
P that leave the volume, plus the mean
nucleus or of elementary particles and thus have sum, Q, of all changes of the rest energy of
Q ¼ 0. The restriction of 1in and 1out to energies of nuclei and elementary particles that occur in the
ionizing particles can in principle lead to a slight volume (Q . 0: decrease of rest energy; Q , 0:
energy imbalance by ignoring the net energy increase of rest energy); thus
transport by non-ionizing particles; thus, energy of X
non-ionizing particles, e.g., very-low-energy 1 ¼ Rin Rout þ Q: ð5:2:1Þ
26
Dosimetry
5.2.3 Lineal Energy The quantity z is a stochastic quantity. The

specific energy can be due to one or more energy-
The lineal energy, y, is the quotient of 1s by l, deposition events. The distribution function, F(z),
where 1s is the energy imparted to the matter in is the probability that the specific energy is equal
a given volume by a single energy-deposition to or less than z. The probability density, f(z), is the
event, and l is the mean chord length of that derivative of F(z); thus
volume, thus dFðzÞ
f ðzÞ ¼ : ð5:2:3Þ
1s dz
y¼ :
l F(z) and f(z) depend on absorbed dose in the mass,
m. The probability density f(z) includes a discrete
Unit: J m21 component (in terms of a Dirac delta function) at
z ¼ 0 for the probability of no energy deposition.
The distribution function of the specific energy
The quantity y is a stochastic quantity. The
deposited in a single energy-deposition event, Fs(z),
numerator 1s may be expressed in eV; hence y may
is the conditional probability that a specific energy
be expressed in multiples and submultiples of eV
less than or equal to z is deposited if one energy-
and m, e.g., in keV mm2l.
deposition event has occurred. The probability
The mean chord length of a volume is the mean
density, fs (z), is the derivative of Fs(z); thus
length of randomly oriented chords (uniform isotropic
randomness) through that volume. For a convex body, dFs ðzÞ
it can be shown that the mean chord length, l, equals fs ðzÞ ¼
dz
: ð5:2:4Þ
4V/A, where V is the volume and A is the surface
area (Cauchy, 1850; Kellerer, 1980); thus, for a sphere For convex volumes, y and the increment, z, of
the mean chord length is 2/3 of the sphere diameter. specific energy due to a single energy-deposition
It is useful to consider the probability distribution event are related by
of y. The value of the distribution function, F(y), is the
rA
probability that the lineal energy due to a single y¼ z; ð5:2:5Þ
energy-deposition event is equal to or less than y. The 4
probability density, f(y), is the derivative of F(y); thus where A is the surface area of the volume, and r is
dFðyÞ the density of matter in the volume.
f ðyÞ ¼ : ð5:2:2Þ
dy
5.2.5 Absorbed Dose
F(y) and f(y) are independent of absorbed dose and
absorbed-dose rate, but are dependent on the size The absorbed dose, D, is the quotient of d1 by
and shape of the volume. dm, where d1 is the mean energy imparted by
ionizing radiation to matter of mass dm, thus
5.2.4 Specific Energy
d1
D¼ :
dm
The specific energy (imparted), z, is the quotient
of 1 by m, where 1 is the energy imparted by Unit: J kg21
ionizing radiation to matter in a volume of mass
m, thus The special name for the unit of absorbed dose
is gray (Gy).
1
z¼ :
m
21
In the limit of a small domain10, the mean
Unit: J kg specific energy z is equal to the absorbed dose D.
The special name for the unit of speific energy is
10
gray (Gy). The absorbed dose, D, is considered a point quantity, but it
should be recognized that the physical process does not allow dm
to approach zero in the mathematical sense.
27
5.2.6 Absorbed-Dose Rate
The absorbed-does rate, D,_ is the quotient of dD

by dt, where dD is the increment of absorbed
does in the time interval dt, thus
_ ¼ dD :
D
dt
Unit: J kg21 s21

If the special name gray is used, the unit of
absorbed-does rate is gray per second (Gy s21).
Table 5.1. Dosimetric quantities: conversion of energy
Name Symbol Unit Definition Appearance in the Report
kerma K J kg21 Gy dEtr/dm Section 5.1.1

collision kerma Kcol J kg21 Gy K(1 2 g) Section 5.1.1
kerma coefficient – J m2 kg21 Gy m2 K/F Section 5.1.1
kerma rate K̇ J kg21 s21 Gy s21 dK/dt Section 5.1.2
exposure X C kg21 dq/dm Section 5.1.3
exposure rate Ẋ C kg21 s21 dX/dt Section 5.1.4
cema C J kg21 Gy dEel/dm Section 5.1.5
restricted cema CD J kg21 Gy – Section 5.1.5
cema rate Ċ J kg21 s21 Gy s21 dC/dt Section 5.1.6
Table 5.2. Dosimetric quantities: deposition of energy
energy deposit 1i J 1in 2 1out þ Q Section 5.2.1

energy imparted 1 J X Section 5.2.2
1i
i
lineal energy y Jm 21
1s =l Section 5.2.3
21
specific energy z J kg Gy 1/m Section 5.2.4
absorbed dose D J kg21 Gy d
1=dm Section 5.2.5
absorbed-dose rate Ḋ J kg21 s21 Gy s21 dD/dt Section 5.2.6
28
6. Radioactivity
The term radioactivity refers to the phenomena 6.2 Activity

associated with spontaneous transformations that
involve changes in the nuclei of atoms or of the The activity, A, of an amount of a radionuclide
energy states of the nuclei of atoms. The energy in a particular energy state at a given time is
released in such transformations is emitted as the quotient of 2dN by dt, where dN is the
nuclear particles (e.g., alpha particles, electrons, mean change in the number of nuclei in that
and positrons) and/or photons. energy state due to spontaneous nuclear trans-
Such transformations represent a stochastic formations in the time interval dt, thus
process. The whole atom is involved in this process
because nuclear transformations can also affect the dN
atomic shell structure and cause emission or A¼ :
dt
capture of electrons, the emission of photons, or
both. Unit: s2l
A nuclide is a species of atoms having a specified The special name for the unit of activity is bec-
number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. querel (Bq).
Unstable nuclides, which transform to stable or
unstable progeny, are called radionuclides. The
transformation results in another nuclide or in a The “particular energy state” is the ground
transition to a lower energy state of the same state of the radionuclide unless otherwise specified.
nuclide. The activity, A, of an amount of a radionuclide in
a particular energy state is equal to the product of
the decay constant, l, for that state, and the
6.1 Decay Constant number N of nuclei in that state, thus,
The decay constant, l, of a radionuclide in a A ¼ lN: ð6:2:1Þ

particular energy state is the quotient of
2dN/N by dt, where dN/N is the mean
6.3 Air-kerma-Rate Constant
fractional change in the number of nuclei
in that energy state due to spontaneous
nuclear transformations in the time interval The air-kerma-rate constant, Gd, of a radio-
dt, thus nuclide emitting photons is the quotient of l2 K_ d
by A, where K_ d is the air-kerma rate due to
d N=N photons of energy greater than d, at a distance l
l¼ : in vacuo from a point source of this nuclide
dt
having an activity A, thus
Unit: s2l l2 K_ d
Gd ¼ :
A
The quantity (ln 2)/l, commonly called the Unit: m2 J kg2l

half life, Tl/2, of a radionuclide, is the mean time If the special names gray (Gy) and becquerel
taken for the radionuclides in the particular (Bq) are used, the unit of air-kerma-rate con-
energy state to decrease to one half of their initial stant is m2 Gy Bq21 s2l.
number.

The photons referred to in the definition include cases, these processes require significant
gamma rays, characteristic x rays, and internal corrections.
bremsstrahlung. Any medium intervening between the source and
The air-kerma-rate constant, a characteristic the point of measurement will give rise to absorption
of a radionuclide, is defined in terms of an and scattering for which corrections are needed.
ideal point source, and the term is not strictly The selection of the value of d depends upon the
applicable to a source of finite extent. In a application. To simplify notation and ensure uniform-
source of finite size, attenuation and scattering ity, it is recommended that d be expressed in keV. For
occur, and annihilation radiation and external example, G5 is understood to be the air-kerma-rate
bremsstrahlung can be produced. In many constant for a photon-energy cutoff of 5 keV.
Table 6.1. Quantities related to radioactivity
decay constant l s21 2(dN/N)/dt Section 6.1

half life T1/2 s (ln 2)/l Section 6.1
activity A s21 Bq 2dN/dt Section 6.2
air-kerma-rate constant Gd m2 J kg21 m2 Gy Bq21 s21 l2 K_ d =A Section 6.3
30
References
Attix, F. H. (1979a). “The partition of kerma to account ICRU (1984). International Commission on Radiation
for bremsstrahlung,” Health Phys. 36, 347 –354. Units and Measurements. Stopping Powers for
Attix, F. H. (1979b). “Addendum to ‘The partition of kerma Electrons and Positrons, ICRU Report 37
to account for bremsstrahlung’,” Health Phys. 36, 536. (International Commission on Radiation Units and
BIPM (2006). Bureau International des Poids et Measurements, Bethesda, MD).
Mesures, Le Systéme International d’Unités (SI), The ICRU (1993a). International Commission on Radiation
Initernational System of Units (SI), 8th ed. (Bureau Units and Measurements. Quantities and Units in
International des Poids et Mesures, Sèvres). Radiation Protection Dosimetry, ICRU Report 51
Caswell, R. S., Coyne, J. J., and Randolph, M. L. (1982). (International Commission on Radiation Units and
“Kerma factors of elements and compounds for Measurements, Bethesda, MD).
neutron energies below 30 MeV,” Int. J. Appl. Radiat. ICRU (1993b). International Commission on Radiation
Isot. 33, 1227– 1262. Units and Measurements. Stopping Powers and
Cauchy, A. (1850). “Mémoire sur la rectification des Ranges for Protons and Alpha Particles, ICRU Report
courbes et la quadrature des surfaces courbes,” Mém. 49 (International Commission on Radiation Units and
Acad. Sci. XXII, 3. Measurements, Bethesda, MD).
CIE (1987). Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage, ICRU (1998). International Commission on Radiation
Vocabulaire Electrotechnique International, CIE Units and Measurements. Fundamental Quantities
Publication 50 (845) (Bureau Central de la and Units for Ionizing Radiation, ICRU Report 60
Commission Electrotechnique Internationale, Genève). (International Commission on Radiation Units and
Houk, T. L., and Wilson, R. (1967). “Measurements of the Measurements, Bethesda, MD).
neutron –proton and neutron– carbon total cross sec- IS0 (1993). International Organization for Standardization.
tions at electron-volt energies,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 39, IS0 Standards Handbook, Quantities and Units, 3rd ed.
546– 547. (International Organization for Standardization, Geneva).
Hubbell, J. H. (1969). Photon Cross Sections, Attenuation IUPAC (1997). International Union of Pure and Applied
Coefficients, and Energy Absorption Coefficients from Chemistry. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd
10 keV to 100 GeV, NSRDS-NBS 29 (National Bureau ed., McNaught, A. D., and Wilkinson, A., Eds.
of Standards, Washington, DC). (Blackwell Science, Oxford).
ICRU (1962). International Commission on Radiation Kellerer, A. M. (1980). “Concepts of geometrical prob-
Units and Measurements. Radiation Quantities and ability relevant to microdosimetry and dosimetry,”
Units, ICRU Report 10a (Published as National p. 1049 in Proc. 7th Symp. Microdosimetry, Booz, J.,
Bureau of Standards Handbook 84, U.S. Government Ebert, H. G., and Hartfiel, H. D., Eds. (Harwood
Printing Office, Washington, DC). Academic Publishers, Chur, Switzerland).
ICRU (1968). International Commission on Radiation Kellerer, A. M., Hahn, K., and Rossi, H. H. (1992).
Units and Measurements. Radiation Quantities and “Intermediate dosimetric quantities,” Rad. Res. 130,
Units, ICRU Report 11 (International Commission on 15–25.
Radiation Units and Measurements, Washington, DC). Mohr, P. J., Taylor, B. N., and Newell, D. B. (2008).
ICRU (1971). International Commission on Radiation “CODATA recommended values of the fundamental
Units and Measurements. Radiation Quantities and physical constants: 2006,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 80,
Units, ICRU Report 19 (International Commission on 633– 730.
Radiation Units and Measurements, Washington, DC). Papiez, L., and Battista, J. J. (1994). “Radiance and par-
ICRU (1979). International Commission on Radiation ticle fluence,” Phys. Med. Biol. 39, 1053 –1062.
Units and Measurements. Average Energy Required to Rauch, H. (1994). “Hydrogen detection by neutron optical
Produce an Ion Pair, ICRU Report 31 (International methods,” in Neutron Scattering from Hydrogen in
Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements, Materials, Proc. 2nd Summer School on Neutron
Bethesda, MD). Scattering, 14– 20 August 1994, Zuoz, Switzerland,
ICRU (1980). International Commission on Radiation Furrer, A., Ed. (World Scientific, Singapore).
Units and Measurements. Radiation Quantities and Seltzer, S. M. (1993). “Calculation of photon mass energy-
Units, ICRU Report 33 (International Commission on transfer and mass energy-absorption coefficients,”
Radiation Units and Measurements, Bethesda, MD). Rad. Res. 136, 147 –170.

Index
absorbed dose 27 linear energy transfer 19

absorbed-dose rate 28 linear stopping power 19
activity 29 mass attenuation coefficient 17
air-kerma-rate constant 29 mass electronic (or collision) stopping power 19
cema 25 mass energy-absorption coefficient 19
cema rate 26 mass energy-transfer coefficient 18
collision kerma 24 mass nuclear stopping power 19
cross section 17 mass radiative stopping power 19
decay constant 29 mass stopping power 19
energy deposit 26 mean energy expended in a gas per ion 20
energy fluence 12 pair formed
energy flux 12 mean free path 17
energy imparted 26 particle number 11
energy radiance 13 particle number density 12
energy-fluence rate 13 particle radiance 13
exposure 24 radiant energy 11
exposure rate 25 radiant energy density 12
fluence 12 radiation chemical yield 20
fluence rate 13 restricted cema 25
flux 12 specific energy 27
half life 29 vector energy fluence 15
ionization yield in a gas 20 vector energy radiance 14
kerma 23 vector energy-fluence rate 14
kerma coefficient 23 vector fluence 15
kerma rate 24 vector fluence rate 14
lineal energy 27 vector particle radiance 14
linear attenuation coefficient 17

Icru 85

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Icru 85

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ICRU REPORT No.

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

THE INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON

Journal of the ICRU Volume 11 No 1 2011

Consultants to the Report Committee

The International Commission on Radiation Units and

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation

2.1 Quantities and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 7

3.1 Scalar Radiometric Quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4. Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.1 Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1 Conversion of Energy . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 23

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

5.1.4 Exposure Rate . . . . . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. . 25

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

Table 2.1. SI units used in this Report

Category of units Quantity Name Symbol

SI base units length meter m

SI derived units electric charge coulomb C

Table 2.2. Some units used with the SI

Category of units Quantity Name Symbol

Units widely used time minute min

Units whose values in SI are energy electron volta eV

Table 2.3. SI prefixesa

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1024 yotta Y 1021 deci d

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

uE ¼ EnE : ð3:1:5Þ Unit: m22

dF The particle radiance, Ḟ V , is the quotient of dḞ

The energy fluence is related to the quantity dĊ

In radiation-transport literature, these quantities Ċ V; E ¼ EḞ V; E : ð3:1:12Þ

ḞV; E ¼ VḞV; E ; ð3:2:1aÞ

change from zero in an isotropic field to Ḟ and Ċ and

3.2.3 Vector Fluence, Vector Energy Fluence

Table 3.1. Scalar radiometric quantities

Namea Symbol Unit Definition Appearance in the Report

particle number N 1 – Section 3.1.1

Table 3.2. Vector radiometric quantities

Namea Symbol Unit Definition Appearance in the Report

vector particle radiance Ḟ V m22 s21 sr21 VḞV Section 3.2.1

4. Interaction Coefficients and Related Quantities

4.2 Mass Attenuation Coefficient

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

radiative processes (bremsstrahlung, in-flight

Unit: J m2 kg2l 4.5 Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

The linear energy transfer or restricted linear

The mean energy expended in a gas per ion pair

The mole is the amount of substance of a system

Table 4.1. Interaction coefficients and related quantities

Name Symbol Unit Definition Appearance in

cross section s m2 N/F Section 4.1

# International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2011

dC The energy imparted, 1 , to the matter in a given

5.2 Deposition of Energy Unit: J

In this Section, certain stochastic quantities are

5.2.3 Lineal Energy The quantity z is a stochastic quantity. The

5.2.6 Absorbed-Dose Rate

The absorbed-does rate, D,_ is the quotient of dD

Unit: J kg21 s21