Practical Research 1 DLA

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PracticalResearch1
RenedictB.DeLeon
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DLA Page No.
1 Sources of Knowledge; Inquiry and Research 1
2 Variables and Types of Research 5
3 Qualitative Research 10
4 Identifying and Stating the Problem 14
5 Review of Related Literature 17
6 The Process of Review of Related Literature 22
7 APA Citation Methods 26
8 Parenthetical Citations and Reference List 30
9 Qualitative Research Designs 36
10 Sampling Procedures 40
11 Data Gathering Methods in Qualitative Researches 45
12 Qualitative Data Analysis
Research Writing: Format and Guidelines 57
Bibliography 62
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DLA 1
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
INQUIRY AND RESEARCH
This DLA serves as your stepping stone for the coming lessons that we are going to discuss on
this course. In here, you will learn the different ways on how a person acquires knowledge and
the difference between inquiry and research.
At the end of this DLA, you are expected to:

• acquaint yourself to the world of research;
• enumerate the different sources of knowledge and;
• highlight the meaning of inquiry in relation to research.
Introduction to Research
Whenever a student hears the word ‘research,’ they always think that it is difficult and really
stressful. It may really seem like that, but if we are going to take a look at it in a different
perspective, it is not just about causing stress just for you to pass the semester, as a student, it
helps you become more philomath – a lover of learning.
In this course, your teacher will help you love research as you discuss the lessons that you need
to learn in order for you to write a research paper of your own.
Sources of Knowledge
The term epistemology as defined by Martinich (n.d.) is a philosophical study of the nature,
origin, and the limits of the human knowledge. On a lighter note, it is also known as the “Theory
of Knowledge” which pertains on how people can know something that may lead into a
statement of facts or just a proposition.
There are five ways on how people can know something.
Personal Experience
This is simply defined as relying on your knowledge of prior experiences. As mentioned in
Research Made Easy by Dela Cruz and Tan (2020), German philosopher Immanuel Kant
created two terminologies that were used to describe how individuals’ mind worked to process
knowledge: a priori and posteriori.
A priori pertains to how an individual asserts knowledge based on previous experiences. This is
also known as constructivism.
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On the other hand, posteriori is a knowledge learned from empirical evidences which is
associated with the term empiricism or positivism.
Positivism vs Constructivism
POSITIVISM CONSTRUCTIVISM
Definition of Knowledge Gained through observable Reality is socially constructed.

& measurable facts
Objectivity and Subjectivity Objective Subjective as individuals

create their perception.
Natural and Social Sciences Suitable for natural Suitable for social sciences.
sciences.
Both of them, a priori and posteriori depend on the experiences of an individual in which John
Locke proposed the idea of tabula rasa (blank slate) which tells us that a person can be
compared to a clean white paper when they are born and that paper is being filled knowledge
as they grow through their experiences or observations.
The problem with personal experience is that:

• how one is affected by an event depends on who one is and;
• one frequently needs to know something that cannot be learned through experience.
Tradition
This focuses on the practices and beliefs of the people or doing things as they have always
been done.
One example is that every new year, Filipinos wear anything that includes round patterns or
what they called as polka dots because they believe that polka dots attract fortune.
Like personal experiences the tradition has also its setbacks:

• traditions are often based on an idealized past and;
• traditions can be distant from current realities and the complexities associated with them.
Experts or Authorities
Sometimes you go to them when you need answers. Take for example, you ask your teachers
when you cannot understand something on the lesson, you ask them because you believe that
they are experts in those fields. Simply, we rely on the expertise or authority of others. But the
problem with experts:
• they can be wrong and;
• they can disagree among themselves, as in a ‘second opinion.’
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Logical
Reasoning
Reason is the primary source of knowledge according to the philosophical idea of Rationalism.
This pertains on how people form a conclusion or judgment based on the given evidences.
Take for example, ‘All public-school teachers are government workers. John is a public-school
teacher.’ You can conclude from this statement that John is a government worker since he is a
public-school teacher.
Although reasoning may be valid, there are also limitations:

• It tends to constrict the nature of learning and;
• not all laws and logic are always infallible.
Scientific Method
This is the most reliable method of gaining knowledge as it follows a procedure in order to get
your needed answers. The goal of scientific method is to explain, predict, and/or control
phenomena.
When it involves a process, a development or testing of a theory, and acquisition of knowledge,

what you are doing is a scientific method.
The scientific method happens in five steps:

definition of the hypotheses Data
Stating
problem
Recognition and Collection of Analysis of Data Conclusions
Formulation of
Scientific method may be more efficient and reliable than any other source of knowledge, there
are still possible discrepancies:
• It may raise ethical issues;
• There might be internal conflicts that can affect the method and;
• It may ignore individual differences.
The Nature of Inquiry and Research
A knowledge-seeker like you may have some questions in your mind on what you are doing. “Is
my way of looking for answers an inquiry or considered to be as research?”
In order for us to answer that question, let us first differentiate inquiry and
research. (See on the next page…)
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solving technique, makes you ask
open-ended questions.
What is Research?
RESEARCH
INQUIRY
•More
•A complex act
learning of investigation than inquiry.
process that motivates you to obtain
knowledge or information about
people, things, places or events.
•Follows a scientific procedure in
discovering truths or meanings about
things in this world. (Goodwin, 2014)
•Synonymous with investigation
•A problem
As written above, it is more complex than an inquiry. Research is a systematic and intensive
process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis, carried out for the discovery and
development of an organized body of knowledge.
A good research can be characterized by the following, remember COSTAR:
Clear Expressing discoveries using simple, direct, concise, & correct language. Objective It
deals with facts, not with opinions arising from assumptions, generalizations. Systematic It
takes place in an orderly manner.
Timely It has fresh topic, new and interesting to the present society. Accurate It gives correct
data which footnotes & bibliographical entries should honestly and appropriately documented
or acknowledged.
Relevant It is instrumental in improving society or in solving problems affecting the lives of
community people.
Purposes of Research
• To learn how to work independently.
• To learn how to work scientifically and systematically.
• To have an in-depth knowledge of something.
• To improve your reading and writing skills.
• To elevate your mental abilities by letting you think in higher-order thinking strategies. • To be
familiar with the basic tools of research and the various techniques of gathering data and of
presenting research findings.
• To free yourself, to a certain extent from the domination or strong influence of a single
textbook or the professor’s lone viewpoint/spoon feeding.
• To improve ways on how we do things.
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DLA 2
VARIABLES
TYPES OF RESEARCH
This DLA will help you understand the aspects that you need to focus when doing research, the
variables. In addition, as part of the starting phase, the types of research will also be discussed
here.

• identify the different types of variables and research;
• differentiate qualitative variables and quantitative variables and;
• point-out the differences between qualitative and quantitative research.
Variables
The term ‘variables’ in research has something to do with your focus on your research. If you ask
yourself of what your study is all about, well the variables are the answers to that question.
From the root word, vary which means to ‘differ’ or to ‘change.’ Variables are qualities,
properties, or characteristics of people, things, events or situations under the study that vary from
one person to another.
Variables can be age, gender, height, weight, ethnicity or any characteristic or affiliation of the
subjects or participants in your study.
They can affect the research outcome and by the term ‘variable,’ it has more than one value.
Basic Types of Variables
We have two basic types of variables they are: Qualitative and Quantitative
Variables. QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
• Also known as Categorical Variables. • (See on the next page…)
“Unmeasurable” Variables. • The characteristics, attributes, or traits
that can be measured.
• “measurable” variables.
e.g.
gender, eye color, political e.g.
age, height, weight
affiliation Other Types of Variables
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Explanatory Variables
These variables indicate the direction of influences to what the researcher would like to
discover. There are two types: independent and dependent variables.
Independent is considered to be the cause while dependent is the effect. To remember them
easily, remember ICED:
ICED
Independent → Cause; Effect → Dependent
In quantitative research, explanatory variable is the independent variable while the dependent
variable is referred as the response variable.
Guidelines for IV and DV

1. The dependent variable is always the property you are trying to explain; it is always the
object of the research.
2. The independent variable usually occurs earlier in time than the dependent variables. 3.
The independent variable is often seen as influencing, directly or indirectly, the dependent
variable.
Once again, IV affects DV. Let us have some examples:
Suppose that your study is all about, “The Impact of Verbal Abuse on Teenager’s Social
Development.”
The independent variable here is the Verbal Abuse since this is what influencing the object of
your research which is the Teenager’s Social Development, your dependent variable.
Extraneous Variables
These are error-producing variables other than the independent variables that may have an
impact to the response of your dependent variable.
From the word itself, ‘extra,’ they might occur on your study unexpectedly, an uncontrolled
variable that greatly influences the result of the study.
This is also known as intervening, modifying, and confounding variables.
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Continuous vs
Discrete
Variables
Abstract or
Continuous
These are quantitative measures and statistically-tested, precision-based measurements. Take for
example, girth, height weight, blood pressure 120/80.
Discrete or Scale
Variables that have a minimum-sized unit of measurement, which cannot be sub-divided or

fractionated such as the number of children per family and number of students per class.
Dichotomous Variables
These are factors with only two values, used in comparative studies like smokers and non
smokers.
Types of Research
Research can be classified into types, a research paper that you will be writing may be based
on application of the research method, based on purpose, and based on the data needed. We
are going to talk about all of them.
Based on Application of Research Method
Your research may be applied to either theoretical or practical issues and so we have two types,
Pure/Basic Research and Applied Research. The question is, which is which? Which is theoretical
and which is for practical issues? Let’s have them next.
PURE/BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

• It deals with concepts, principles, or • Applied to societal problems/issues, and
abstract things. finding ways to make positive changes in
• Attempts to expand the limits of society.
knowledge. • Focused on answering real-world,
• Not directly involved in the solution to a practical questions to provide relatively
pragmatic problem. immediate solutions.
• It aims to contribute to the general body
of knowledge in a particular area of
interest.
e.g. e.g.
Theory of Stages of Grieving Schools promoting the use of social media as
a medium for learning
Germ Theory of Disease
Providing calorie counts in Restaurant Menu
Assimilation Theory of Customer Satisfaction
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Based on Purpose of
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This has something to do with the reason why you conducted the research. Obviously, it answers
the question, what is your goal in your study? For this one we have five types: Descriptive,
Correlational, Explanatory, Exploratory, and Action Research.
Based on Purpose of Research
Descriptive Research • Aims at describing or giving a verbal portrayal or picture of a
person, thing, event, group, situation, etc.
• Liable to repeated research because topics relates only to a
certain period/limited years.
e.g.
• Consumers’ perception of the best phone to purchase
• Common test taking errors of high school students
Correlational Research • Shows relationships or connectedness of two factors,

circumstances, or agents
• Concerned on existence of relationship not the causes & ways
of development
e.g.
• Age &Pregnancy outcomes
• English Skills and Mathematical skills
Explanatory Research • Elaborates or explains not just the reasons behind relationships
but also ways by which relationship exists.
e.g.
• Reasons behind increasing incidence of teenage pregnancy
• Factors influencing consumer SIM card preference
Exploratory Research • Determines the nature of the problem thus helps to have a
better understanding of the problem.
• It does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to
existing problems.
• It can either provide a new topic or angle rather than an
answer.
e.g.
• Millenniel Marketing Strategies
• Challenges of a nurse caring for a pediatric cancer patient.
Action Research • Studies on ongoing practice of a school, organization,

community, or institution to obtain results that will bring
improvements in the system.
e.g.
• A principal studying teacher burnout and dissatisfaction in a
local school context.
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Based on Types of Data Needed
We only have two for this one, quantitative and qualitative, by the words ‘data needed,’ this
pertains to what kind of data you will need in your research and also how they will be
presented.
Quantitative Research
This simply has something to do with numbers, from the word, ‘quantity.’ Its concern is with the
objective meaning thus it involves measurement of data.
Like what has been mentioned, it presents research results referring to number or frequency of
something in numerical forms.
Since we are dealing with numbers, the analysis will take place with the help of statistical
methods.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative on the other hand focuses on subjective meaning, hence it does not involve
numbers or measurements. Rather, what we deal in here are in the forms of words or verbal
language.
With that being said, the data in here came from people’s thoughts, beliefs, feelings, views, and
lifestyle.
Qualitative Quantitative
Type of Probing Simple

Question Small Large
Sample High Low(ish)
Size Verbal Language Numeric
Questioner’s Subjective, Thematic Objective, Statistical
Skill Data Codal Low High
Expression Attitude, Feelings Choices, Frequency
Type of Analysis
Abilitiy to
Replicate
Areas
Probed
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DLA 3
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
This DLA will give you more understanding of what qualitative research is, its nature, types, and
strengths and weaknesses.
• obtain a deep understanding of the methods of qualitative research;
• identify its types and know when to use them and;
• familiarize with the strengths and weaknesses of conducting a qualitative research.
What is Qualitative Research?
According to Denzin and Lincoln (1994), as mentioned by McLeod (2019), Qualitative Research
is multimethod in terms of focus, doing this kind of research involves an interpretive and
naturalistic approach to the subject of your study.
Qualitative Research puts a high value on people’s thinking or point of view conditioned by
personal traits. Since it is more on subjective meaning, it usually takes place in Soft Sciences like
social science.
First thing to remember is that, it does not deal with measurements but rather with words, so
instead of asking how many times someone purchased an item, you ask ‘why…?’ Typically, the
samples are small, and not ‘random’ unlike in quantitative research because in here, it is very
important that the people that you are going to ask questions have something to do with what
you are studying.
Most Frequent Uses
Qualitative research is used for the following reasons:
1. Understanding basic issues such as why do people buy or use a certain product? 2.
Pretesting ideas or questions like do people want a product that cleans their refrigerator? 3.
Message testing like asking people how would they like a certain ad.
4. Recommended to capture the basic feel of a problem prior to conducting a more analytical
study.
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Types of Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research can be classified into different types as well depending on what you
want to study, how you are going to conduct it, and your focus.
Types Definition Examples
Case Study • It involves a long-time study of a • DYCI as the 2012

person, group, organization, or Most Transformative
situation. School
• An exploration of a case (or • A case study of a
multiple cases) over time mother who has
through detailed, in-depth lost her child to
data collection involving suicide
multiple sources of • Aling Delia’s Ihaw
information rich in context. Ihaw as the Sole
• Involves situating the case WITHIN Enterprise that
ITS SETTING e.g., field of social care, Survived Recession
nursing, psychology, education,
rehab centers.
• Data collection strategies include:
o direct observation, interviews,
documents,
o archival records, participant
observation,
o physical artifacts and
audiovisual materials.
Ethnographic • Study of a particular cultural group • The Birthing

Research to get a clear understanding of its Practices of
organizational set-up, internal Badjaos
operation or lifestyle. • One way of
• Descends from the science of uncovering the
anthropology. unmet needs of
• Involves prolonged observation of customers is to
the group through participant ‘follow them home’
observation. and observe then
as they interact
with the product.
Phenomenologic • This simply studies how people find • Lived experiences

al Research their experiences meaningful. of diabetic
• Describes the meaning of the lived amputees
experience from the perspective • Experiences of
of the participant. Small-Scale Business
• Seeks to achieve a deep Owners
understanding of the
phenomenon by rigorous,
systematic
examination of it.
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Content and • Requires examination/analysis of the

Discourse Analysis substance or content of the mode of
communication like letters, books,
journals, photos, video recordings,
SMS, online messages, emails
Content Analysis • Examine how news, drama, A Content Analysis

advertising, and entertainment of Online Readers’
content of mass media reflect Comments on
social and cultural issues, values Immigration
and
phenomena.
• Well-suited to being combined with
other research techniques such
as survey, participant
observation and audience
ethnography.
Disadvantages
• It does not explain WHY of ‘content’
• It’s descriptive and not explanatory
• Restricted to available material only
• May become obsessed with numbers
without revealing insights.
Discourse Analysis • Study of the ways in which language Critical Discourse

is used in text and contexts, in a Analysis of Obama’s
specific situational context, and Political
within a framework of social and Discourse
cultural conventions.
• defined as the analysis of language
“beyond the sentence.”
• Looks not only at the basic level of
what is said, but takes into
consideration the surrounding
social and historical contexts.
• Will enable to reveal the hidden
motivation behind a text or behind
of research to interpret that text.
• Aims at allowing us to view the
problem from a higher stance and
to gain a comprehensive view of
the problem.
Disadvantages
• Nothing more than a deconstructive
reading and interpretation of problem
or text.
• Does not provide absolute answers to
specific problem.
• Specific to each tradition, thus meaning
is never fixed and so everything is always
open to interpretation and negotiation.
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Historical Analysis • Examination of primary documents The Mindanao Conflict
to make you understand the in the Philippines:
connection of past events to Roots,
the present time Costs, and Potential
• Provides at least tentative answers Peace Divindend
to questions such as how change
occurs in society, how human A Historical and
intentions matter, and how ends Current Perspective
are influenced by the means of of Philippine
carrying them out. Economic Problems
Grounded Theory • Refers to analysis of data leading to Development of the

Research the development of a theory. Theory of the Stages of
• Goal is to develop a theory about Grieving
the processes (social behavior or
scene) under investigation in a A Journey Towards a
natural setting. Renewed Life of Post
• Useful in areas where little is known Drug Rehabilitation
or when a new perspective is Patients
needed
• Don’t do a literature review in the
beginning.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research
You have to remember, there are reasons why you can conduct a qualitative research and there are also
reasons why it should not be done, simply because it may not be the type of research that is good for your
topic. Below are the strengths and weaknesses of a qualitative research.
Strengths Weaknesses
• Adopts a naturalistic approach. • Can’t extrapolate to the whole

• Good for examining feelings and population
motivations. • Involves a lot of researcher’s subjective
• Allows depth of issues by promoting full approach in data analysis
understanding of human behavior. • Hard to know the reliability and validity of
• Instrumental for positive societal changes • data
Engenders respect for people’s • Volume of data – “data overload”
individuality • Complexity of analysis
• Offers multiple ways of acquiring and • Time-consuming nature of the clerical
examining knowledge efforts require
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DLA 4
IDENTIFYING AND STATING THE PROBLEM From the

previous DLA, you learned about the types of Qualitative Research. In this one, we’ll begin on
the research process through identifying and stating the problem.

• define what research problem and research questions are;
• apply the guidelines in choosing a research topic and;
• formulate your own research problem for your research writing.
At this point in time, I bet you have already an idea about how to conduct a study through the
scientific method which we were able to talk about from the previous lessons. As what you
know already, the scientific method begins with identifying and stating the problem. But how
are you going to do that?
Look at your surroundings. Observe what is happening around. What are the problems around
you or in the society that needs to be given focus or answers? By doing so, you will have an
idea of what to study. That is how the research process begins.
Identifying and Stating the Problem
When you identify your problem make sure that your objectives are clearly defined as it will
affect the process of your study. It is because your research problem is your key in deciding
which design, measurement, sampling, and analysis are you going to use when you conduct
your research.
Remember: The ultimate goal of research is not only to propose ways of studying things,
people, places, and events but also to discover & introduce new practices, strategies, or
techniques to solve a problem.
Background of the Problem
As a researcher, part of your study is to have a background of the problem. That means, you
should spend time in getting the background knowledge about the problem so that you would
be able to see its relation to what the world knows about the topic. That would help you
identify the aspects that you should focus on.
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Guidelines in
Choosing a
Research
Topic
• You should
have an
interest in the
subject
matter.
• Consider the availability of the information.
• Timeliness and relevance of the topic.
• Consider the limitations on the subject as well.
• Your personal resources such as financial standing, health condition, mental capacity,
needed facilities, time allotment).
The Research Questions
Remember this, research problem is different from research questions. The research problem is
the general objective while the research questions are specific questions that will help you
achieve your general objective.
The research questions break the big and overreaching general problem into specific questions
or sub-problems. In that so, these sub-problems are your instruments in investigating the specific
aspects of the research problem.
The general problem must be reflective of the title. It should not be stated in such a way that it is
not answerable by yes or no, not indicative of when and where. Rather, it should reflect
between and among variables.
Each sub-problem or research question should cover mutually exclusive dimensions (no
overlapping).
The statement of the problem should consist of:

a. Main or major problem (Research Problem) – direct attention to the main issues.
b. Specific or sub-problem (Research Questions) – support the major problem.
A research problem may be stated either interrogative or declarative form.
Example
Lived Experiences of Diabetic Amputees
The main objective of this study is to have an in-depth understanding of the lived
experiences of diabetic amputees. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following: a) What
are the struggles that a diabetic amputee goes through?
b) How do the diabetic amputees cope with these struggles?
c) How may the experiences of the diabetic amputees be represented through themes?
Criteria of a Good Research Topic
SMART
Specific Measurable Attainable Realistic Timebound
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Remember the acronym SMART when you are choosing a research topic. It should be specific,
or the problem is specifically stated. It should be measurable or easy to measure using
instruments. It should be attainable using different tools to get the exact results. It should be
realistic, feasible and results are not manipulated. Lastly, you should have a time frame
defined.
Sample of Problem Formulation
“Social Media as a Major Teaching and Learning Tool”

Formulate Problem
• 80 percent of Philippine population use Facebook
• Rank 8 in the world
• What can be done?
• Can social media be used as a teaching and learning tool to help students learn better?
(Decision problem)
• Can social media improve the academic performance of students (research problems)
Criteria of a Good Research Problem
Your chosen research topic or problem should be reflective of the following

criteria: Relevant – It should have a connection to what the world is currently
experiencing. Innovative – It should be novel and useful for the society or
community.
Inventive – It should be a work out of your originality and unique way of finding
truth. Cost-Effective – Benefits should be more than the cost of the project.
Research Topics to be avoided

• Controversial topics – facts cannot support topics like these
• Highly technical subjects
• Hard-to-investigate subjects – no available or up-to-date reading materials •
Too broad subjects
• Too narrow subjects
• Vague subjects - e.g., titles beginning with indefinite adjectives (Some Remarkable Traits of a
Filipino)
Sources of Research Topics

• Theory
• Mass Media communication - press (TV, newspapers, ads, radios)
• Replication
• Library Immersion/ Literature –
• books, internet, peer-reviewed journals, gov’t publications
• professional periodicals
• General periodicals – Readers’ Digest, Time Magazine
• Previous reading assignments
• Personal & work experience
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DLA 5
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

After identifying your problem, you should now learn how to connect your problem to the
world. In this DLA, we are going to discuss the review of related literature, a way to know more
about the variables in your study.

• demonstrate an understanding on what review of related literature is;
• identify the sources of related literature and its purposes and;
• differentiate traditional and systematic review of related literature.
This phase of the research writing that we are about to discuss is described by many students
as stressful and it requires so much effort to accomplish. That is true, but in this lesson, you will be
guided on how you are going to conduct a review of related literature properly.
Review of Related Literature
According to Baraceros (2019), the review of related literature (RRL) is an analysis of man’s
written or spoken language of the world. Your work in this phase as the researcher is to
examine manuscripts so you can determine its connection to what you are studying, or it will
give you an understanding on what the world knows already about your study. Hence, it leads
you to your focus.
So, what are the manuscripts that you have to examine? A literature review involves the
process of collecting, selecting, and reading books, journal articles, reports, abstracts, and
other reference materials including electronic sources.
Information that may be collected:

✓ Data that confirm the existence and seriousness of the problem.
✓ General and specific findings of studies related to the problem.
✓ Literature can include books, journal articles, internet, newspapers, magazines, theses,
and dissertations, conference proceedings, reports, and documentaries.
Purposes of RRL
Remember that you are not doing RRL just because it is part of the research requirement but
because of the following reasons:
• To obtain background knowledge of your research.
• To relate your study to the current condition or situation of the world.
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• To show the capacity of your research work to introduce new knowledge. • To expand,
prove, or disprove the findings of previous research studies. • To increase your understanding
of the underlying theories, principles, or concepts of your research.
• To explain technical terms involved in your study.
• To highlight the significance of your work with the kind of evidence it gathered to support
the conclusion of your research.
• To avoid repeating previous research studies.
• To recommend the necessity of further research on a certain topic.
REMEMBER!
A literature review is NOT A SHOPPING LIST of everything that exits, but a CRITICAL
ANALYSIS that shows an evaluation of the existing literature and a relationship between
the different works.
Styles/Approaches of RRL
A literature review can happen in two ways: You can either use Traditional or Systematic
Review of Related Literature.
Let’s discuss first the Traditional Review.
In this style of RRL, the researcher summarizes the present forms of knowledge on a specific
subject. It aims to give an expanded or new understanding of an existing work by writing ‘a
review.’ It is more flexible as it is written in narrative form but the problem is, it is prone to the
researcher’s subjectivity.
Example of Traditional
Review from the DYCI
College of Health
Sciences
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Example of Traditional
Review from the DYCI
College of Health
Sciences
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Systematic Review
This is considered as a methodical style in conducting RRL as mentioned by Ridley (2012) it is
because the researcher has to follow a process in order to do a Systematic Review.
Have a clear understanding of the research questions.
Plan your manner of obtaining the data.
Do the literature search.
Using certain standards, determine which are valuable

and not.
Determine the methodological soundness of the

research studies.
Summarize what you have gathered and present a

synthesis report using graphs or tables.
The systematic review is a rigorous way of obtaining data from written works. It ensures
objectivity as doing this style is biased-free because the related literature that you are going to
review are limited to peer-reviewed j
Example Methodology
of Systematic Review
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DLA 6
THE PROCESS OF REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
In continuation of the previous DLA, this one will tackle about the process of doing RRL.

• apply the process of RRL to your research writing;
• differentiate primary and secondary sources and;
• write the synthesis of your RRL properly.
Last time, you have learned about the definition of RRL, its purposes and the styles you can use
when doing a review. In this lesson, you will be guided on how you are going to write your
review of related literature.
SEARCH, READ, and WRITE. Three steps only but each one requires a lot of work before your
can move on to the next.
Searching for Literature
Follow the steps in searching the literature for you to be guided.

1. Determine concepts/issue/topic/problem.
2. Conduct computer/hand search.
3. Weed out irrelevant sources before printing.
4. Identify and organize sources from printout for retrieval.
5. Retrieve relevant sources.
6. Conduct preliminary reading and weed out irrelevant sources.
7. Critically read each source.
Primary and Secondary Sources
When searching for literature, you would encounter literature that are considered as primary
and secondary sources. It is important that you know the difference between the two:
Primary Source Secondary Source
It is written by a person/s who developed It is written by a person/s other than

the theory or conducted the research: the individual who developed the
“first hand information.” theory or conducted the research:
interpret or critique primary sources.
There are two general reasons for using secondary sources:

1. A primary source is literally unavailable.
2. A secondary source can provide different ways of looking at an issue or problem.
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Example of Citing Secondary Source

According to Culver (as cited in Jones, 2009), learning APA "can be tough, but like any skill,
it just takes practice" (p. 23). In addition, the mastery of APA increases an author's chance
of scoring well on an assignment (Culver, as cited in Jones, 2009).
The problem with secondary sources is that all of the theory’s concepts or aspects of the study
and definition may not be fully presented since it is an interpretation of the secondary author. If
all concepts or aspects are included, the definitions may be collapsed or paraphrased to such a
degree that it no longer represents the theorist’s actual work.
Pointers in Searching Literature
Remember the following when looking for related literature:

1. Choose previous research findings CLOSELY RELATED to your research, it is not called
related literature for no reason.
2. Give MORE WEIGHT to those done by EXPERTS in the field of knowledge.
3. Consider MORE PRIMARY data than secondary data.
4. Prefer PEER-REVIEWED materials.
Reading the Source Material
This would be the second step on the RRL process. After looking for related literature, as a
researcher, it is your job to examine them carefully by reading. To do that, you should confront
the reading materials with your HOTS that is, you should know how to criticize, evaluate, apply,
and create things about what you have read.
Writing the Review
The third step in the RRL process and the most crucial part as this is the product of what you have
done from the last two steps.
When writing the review, form an overall understanding of the materials by PARAPHRASING or
SUMMARIZING. Since you are writing a review, you are free to fuse your opinions with the author’s
ideas. (Corti, 2014).
You can also use the following techniques when writing the review:
Better sentence openings
• One early work by Gorgonio (2017) proves that…
• Another study on the topic by Galvez (2017) maintains that…
• The latest study by Dela Cruz (2018) reveals that…
• A research study by De Jesus (2009) explains that…
Making links between studies

Agreements
• Similarly, author B points to…
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• Likewise, author C makes the case that…
• Author D also makes this point…
• Again, it is possible to see how author E agrees with author D…
Disagreements
• However, author B points to…
• On the other hand, author C makes the case that…
• Conversely, Author D argues…
• Nevertheless, what author E suggests…
Reporting (ACTIVE) Verbs
argue emphasize prove

assert establish purport
assume examine recommend
challenge maintain refute
claim note reject
contend object remark
contradict observe suggest
describe persuade support
dispute propose
Organizing your Literature Review
You can organize your literature review in five ways, it depends on what your professor requires or
if no requirement mentioned, it is up to you as the researchers.
1. Topical/Thematic Order - organize by main topics or issues; emphasize the relationship of
the issues to the main “problem.”
2. Chronological Order—organize the literature by the dates the research was published. 3.
Methodological - Focuses on the methods of the researcher, e.g., qualitative versus
quantitative approaches.
4. DEDUCTIVE (General-to-Specific Order)— (Also called the FUNNEL APPROACH) Examine
broad-based research first and then focus on specific studies that relate to the topic. 5.
INDUCTIVE (Specific-to-General Order)—Try to make discuss specific research studies so
conclusions can be drawn.
Writing your SYNTHESIS
Once you are done writing your literature review, the next thing you will do is to write your
synthesis.
Remember that all sources cited in the literature review should be listed in the references. The
structure of your synthesis should be the same as you are writing an essay. It should have an
introduction, body, and conclusion but note as well that a synthesis is not a summary of your RRL.
It is more on highlighting the important points and connecting them in relation to what you are
studying.
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•
Introduction – gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the central
theme or organizational pattern.
• Body – contains your discussion of sources.
• Conclusions/Recommendations -discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature so
far.
Guidelines in doing RRL
When you are already writing your RRL, remember to review this part of the lesson to keep you
guided with your work:
1. It should be organized thematically to conform to the specific problems; 2. It should
synthesize evidence from all studies reviewed to get an overall understanding of the state of
the knowledge in the problem area;
3. As much as possible, the reviewed should be limited within the last five years. 4. This further
includes both local and foreign literature and studies related to the present study that may
either be published or unpublished.
Common Error in Literature Review

• Hurrying through review to get started could mean that you will miss something that will
improve your research.
• Relying too heavily upon secondary sources.
• Concentrating on findings rather than methods.
• Overlooking sources other than academic journals. Don’t forget newspaper articles,
magazines, blogs, etc.
• Searching too broad or too narrow of a topic.
• Inaccuracy in the compiling of bibliographic information.
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DLA 7
APA CITATION METHODS
This DLA will introduce you to the manner of acknowledging the author/s of the works cited on
your research paper through the APA citation methods.

• recognize the proper formatting in citation using APA format;
• apply the different ways of expressing appreciation and;
• highlight the importance of giving credit in a research paper.
Definitely, while doing your RRL, you might be wondering how are you going to give credit to
the author of the works that you have reviewed on your paper. The same with inserting
relevant information on your introduction and background of the study. In this lesson, that is
what we are going to talk about, in research, it is very important that you give credit to the
author/s of the works cited on your paper because if not, that means, you are owning their
work and that would be considered plagiarism.
You have to remember, cardinal principle in research is acknowledging or recognizing the

owners of any form of knowledge. It signals HONESTY and COURTESY.
Purposes of Citation
Aside from keeping your originality in writing your paper, here are the following reasons why
citation is an important component of research:
• To give importance and respect to other people.
• To give authority, validity, & credibility to other people’s claims.
• To prove your extensive reading of authentic & relevant materials.
• To help readers find or contact the sources of your work.
• To permit readers check the accuracy of your work.
Three Ways to Express Appreciation
Acknowledgement References or Bibliography Citation or In-Text Citation
• Beginning portion of • A complete list of all • References within the

the work that identifies reading materials. main body of the text
individuals who have specifically in RRL.
contributed something
for the paper
production.
(See the examples on the next page…)
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Example of
Acknowledgement
Example of References
Examples of In-Text Citation
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Remember to give credit to any information that you have gathered coming from other sources
and that includes facts, statistics, opinions, theories, photographs, and charts. Give credit to
everything that is not originally from you when you mention them in any way such as quotations,
summaries, and paraphrases.
But there is an exception, if the information is known by everyone or considered as a common

knowledge, it does not need credit. Take for example, an information that is known by everyone
already, Joe Biden is the president of the US and the declaration of independence was signed
June 12, 1898.
APA Citation Methods
APA stands for American Psychological Association, it is mostly used in academic writing, giving
the writer or the researcher the best practices in formatting a page or citing sources. It is mostly
concerned with your credibility as a writer because it lets you cite the authoritative sources
correctly that is why it needs to be taken seriously. (Spicer, 2019).
Citing authoritative sources can happen in two ways: Parenthetical Citation and in Reference
page.
Formatting for the Title page and subsequent pages

The title page should begin with a small Roman numeral (i,ii,iii…) page number at the top right of
the paper, this is for preliminary pages. On subsequent pages, beginning with Chapter 1, the
page number should start with Hindu Arabic numbers (1,2,3…)
Page Number Headings/Seriation
Running Head
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Quoting Directly vs Paraphrasing/Summarizing
Short Quotations
If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of
publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the
quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of
publication in parentheses.
Examples
• According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it
was their first time" (p. 199).
• Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications
does this have for teachers?
If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year
of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.
Example
She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did
not offer an explanation as to why.
Long Quotation
Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten
lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from
the left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire
quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within
the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The
parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.
Example
Jones's (1998) study found the following:
Students often had difficulty using APA style,
especially when it was their first-time citing sources.
This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many
students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask
their teacher for help. (p. 199)
Summary or Paraphrase
If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the
author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you
to also provide the page number (although it is not required.)
Example
According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time
learners. APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p.
199).
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DLA 8
PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS AND REFERENCE LIST
This DLA continues the discussion about APA Citation Methods focusing on the guides in using
In Text Citation and Reference list.

• familiarize yourself to the different formatting of in-text citations and references and; •
apply the proper formatting for APA citation methods.
The following sections in this lesson will guide you on citing the relevant sources on your work
depending on the bibliographical information available on your source. Kindly familiarize yourself
as it will be very helpful in your research writing, examples are also provided.
Parenthetical Citation or In-Text Citation
One Author
• Reference in text (when the text as a whole need to be cited)
o Last name (year of publication)
o Rowling (2005) argues for the development of new curricula.
• Reference in text (when only part of the text, such as an idea or a quote from a specific page,
needs to be cited)
o Last name (year of publication, page number)
o Rowling (2005, p.189)
• No reference in text
o (Last name of author, copyright year).
▪ The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling, 2005).
Two Authors - When a work has two authors, always cite both authors.
• Reference in text
o Last names of authors separated by “and” (year of publication)
▪ Rowling and Cramer (2005) argue for the development of new curricula.
o (Last names of authors separated by an ampersand, copyright year).
▪ The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling & Cramer, 2005).
More than two authors - When a work has three or more authors, always cite all the authors the
first time the text is used. Thereafter, use the first author’s last name followed by et al. Omit year
upon third time citing source.
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• Reference in
text
•
Last names of authors separated with and before final name, (year of publication) o
Rowling, Dowling, Benis, George, and Cramer (2005) argue for the development of
new curricula.
o Rowling et al. (2005) argue…
o Rowling et al. argue…
• (Last names of authors separated with an ampersand before final name, copyright year)
o The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling, Dowling, Benis,
George, & Cramer, 2005).
o The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling et al., 2005).
o The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling et al.).
Multiple Authors
Basic Author Names in Sentence
2 Authors (Verhaak & de Haan, 2007) Verhaak and de Haan (2007)
3-5 Authors first citation first citation

(Zandt, Prior, & Kyrios, 2006) Zandt, Prior, and Kyrios (2006)
subsequent citations subsequent citations

(Zandt, et al., 2006) Zandt, et al. (2006)
6+ Authors (Storch, et al., 2006) Storch, et al. (2006)
Works Without an Author
• When a work is signed “Anonymous,” cite the word “Anonymous.”

o (Anonymous, year)
▪ Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during the summer months
(Anonymous, 2007, pp. 89-96).
• Italicize the title of a book or periodical.

o (Title of Book, or Title of Periodical, year, page number)
▪ Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during summer months (New
Yorker, 2007, p. 97).
• In most other cases, use double quote marks around the title, publication year, page
number
o (“Article title or Chapter title,” year, page number)
▪ Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during summer months (“Study
Results,” 2007, p. 77).
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Group as Authors - Corporations, associations, government agencies, research groups, etc.

are usually listed each time they are used in text, unless an abbreviation makes the group
easily recognizable.
• Reference in text
o First time mentioned: Full name (year).
▪ The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) reports… (2002).
o Subsequent mentions: abbreviation (year).
▪ The NIMH reports… (2002).
• Not referenced in text

o First time mentioned (full name, year)
▪ (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2002).
o Subsequent mentions (abbreviation, year)
▪ (NIMH, 2002).
Other Variations
Basic Author Name(s) in
Sentence
Two primary authors (M.M.F. Graves, 2002) M.M.F Graves (2002)

with the same last (B.B. Graves, 2000) has corroborated
name with the
findings of B.B Graves
(2000) …
Multiple works by the (Derryberry & Reed, Derryberry & Reed

same author in the 2005a) (Derryberry & (2005a) Derryberry &
same year Reed, 2005b) Reed (2005b)
Multiple works by the (Gogel, 1990, 2006) Gogel (1990, 2006)

same author in the
same citation
Multiple works by (Minor, 1999; Shafranske N/A

different authors in the & Mahoney, 1998)
same citation
Classical Works
• When using classical works such as the Greeks, Romans, or the Bible, a reference entry is not
required. You must only identify the version and lines used.
o 1 Cor. 13:1 (Revised Standard Edition)
• When using very old works where the date is not applicable, list the year of the translation
you used.
o Reference in text
▪ Aristotle argues . . . (trans. 1922).
o Not referenced in text
▪ The ethos, pathos, and logos . . . (Aristotle, trans. 1922).
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• If a text does not have a date, cite the author’s name followed by “n.d.” o
Reference in text (n.d.)
▪ Julius Caesar argued . . . (n.d.).
o Not referenced in text
▪ The Trojan horse . . . (Caesar, n.d.).
Reference List
Used to indicate where information presented in the essay can be
retrieved. • Only include texts cited in the essay or text.
• Listed alphabetically by author or title. All authors’ names are written in inverted order with
the surnames fully spelled and first name and middle name written in initials. • Reference list
begins a new page, with “References” centered at top of page. • The first line of an entry is at
the left margin, and subsequent lines are indented one-half inch (hanging indent).
• Double-space all reference entries.
Capitalization of Titles
• Capitalize the first word in the title and subtitle, and any proper nouns (cities, countries,
peoples’ names) for book, article, and chapter titles
• Capitalize the first word, all nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives for names of journals • Use
no special treatment for titles of shorter works (poems, short stories, essays, short articles) •
Italicize titles of longer works (books, periodicals/journals)
• Don’t drop any words, such as A, An, or The, from the titles of periodicals (newspapers,
magazines, journals)
Place of Publication
• Give the city for US publishers and add the state abbreviations for all US cities except
Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. o
City, State: Name of press
▪ Anderson, IN: Warner Press.
• Use a shortened version of the publisher’s name except for an association (AMA),
corporation, or university press; drop Co., Inc., Publishers, but retain Books or Press. o City,
State: Name of press
▪ Anderson, IN: Warner Press.
Books – Three main parts: Author, Title, and publication Information

• Book with one author
o Last name, first initial. (year). Title. City of Publication: Press.
▪ Broadway, B. (2002). Pink houses and family taverns. Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University Press.
• Book with two authors

o Last name, first initial. & Last Name, first initial. (year). Title. City of publication: Press.
▪ Broadway, B. & Smith, T. (2007). How the lady sings. New York: Harper.
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• Arrange references by the same author chronologically, with the earlier date of publication
listed first
• Van Delay, A. (1994). Venetian blinds: Contemporary study of compulsive lying. New
York: Pendant Publishing (not “Publishers”).
• Van Delay, A. (1997). Seinfeld: The show about nothing. New York: Penguin Books.
• No Author
o Title (year). City of publication: press.
▪ Creation of the media: Political origins of the media. (1922). Los Angeles:
Houghton-Mifflin.
▪ The Chicago manual of style (15th ed.). (2003). Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
With Editor Only

• Place the abbreviation ed. Or eds. Following the author/s name/s marked by a comma. o
Reid I, ed. (2006). The place of genre in learning: Current debates. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Journal Articles
• Four major parts: author, date, article title, and publication information (periodical title,
volume number, and page number)
o Last name, first initial. (year). Title of article. Title of publication, volume, pages. ▪ Tyson,
P. A., & Gordon, M. G. (1998). The Psychology of women. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 46, 361-364.
▪ Bernstein, B. J. Atomic diplomacy: Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Diplomatic History,
28(3), 126-129.
Newspaper and Magazine Articles

• Five major parts: author, date of publication, title of article, title of newspaper or magazine,
page numbers. Do not abbreviate the names of the months.
o Last name, first initial. (Year, month day of publication). Title of article. Title of
newspaper or magazine, page numbers.
o For magazines, the volume number is italicized, with the issue number in parentheses
after, and inserted after the magazine title; formatted: Volume (Issue).
▪ Kramer, C. F. (2003, June 22). A health threat baffling for its lack of a pattern. The
New York Times, p. A14.
▪ Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing
worker well-being: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their
research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology. 39(5), 26-29. ▪ Crane, N.
F. (2003, September). Anarchy at sea. Atlantic Monthly, 50-80.
Electronic Sources – Article accessed through a library subscription service. Seven major parts:
Author’s name, Year of Publication, Title of the Article and Publication, Page Numbers, and
where retrieved. Do not abbreviate the names of months.
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• Last name, first initial. (year). Title of article. Title of publication, volume, page numbers. Date
retrieved from (the website).
o Jackson, G. (2004). Multiple historic meanings of the Spanish civil war. Science and
Society, 68(3), 272-276. Retrieved March 2, 2010 from the Lexis Nexis Academic
database.
o Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan. Retrieved October
26, 2012 from http//edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperative learning. Htm.
Online Daily Newspaper - Six major parts: author’s name, date of publication, title of article
and publication, and web address.
• Last name, first initial. (Year, month day of publication). Title of article. Title of publication.
Retrieved date, from web address.
o Foreman, R., Bennett, E., & Collins, T. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions,
most people flunk out. The New York Times. Retrieved March 3, 2013 from
http://www.nytimes.com.
Personal or Professional Websites

• Four major parts: website name/author of website (if known), web address.
o Last name, first initial. Page of site. Retrieved web address.
▪ Colbert, S. (n.d.). Home page. Retrieved from http://www.colbertnation.com.
o Title of website. (Last updated date). Retrieved from web address.
▪ American Association for Artificial Intelligence. (2001, March). Retrieved from
http://www.aaai.org.
Online Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

• Poverty. (n.d). In Meriam-Webster dictionary online. Retrieved from http://www.merriam
Webster.com/dictionary/poverty
Sample Reference Page

American Association for Artificial Intelligence. (2001, March). Retrieved
from http://www.aaai.org
Bernstein, B. J. Atomic diplomacy: Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Diplomatic History, 28 (3),
126- 129.
Broadway, B. (2002). Pink houses and family taverns. Bloomington, IL: Indiana University
Press. Broadway, B., Carrol, L., Smith, T. (2007). How the lady sings. New York: Harper.
Broadway, B., et al. (2008). How the man sings. New York: Harper.
Crane, N. F. (2003, September). Anarchy at sea. Atlantic Monthly, 50-80.
Creation of the media: Political origins of the media. (1922). Los Angeles: Houghton-Mifflin.
Foreman, R., Bennett, E., & Collins, T. (1999, February 16). In forecasting their emotions,
most people flunk out. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
Gilbert, D. G., McClernon, J. F., Rabinovich, N. E., Sugai, C., Plath, L. C., Asgaard, G., …
Botros, N. (2004). Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and attention last for more
than 31 days and are more severe with stress, dependence, DRD2 A1 allele, and
depressive traits. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6, 249-267. doi:
10.1080/14622200410001676305
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DLA 9
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
This DLA gives you a review of Qualitative Research Designs, it also highlights the steps on how
each design should be conducted.

• recall the different qualitative research designs as discussed from the earlier weeks and; •
take note of the characteristics of a qualitative research.
Qualitative Research
For you to recall what we have learned from the introductory part of this course, let’s define once
again qualitative research. As defined by Tan & Dela Cruz (2020), metaphorically speaking,
Qualitative Research is an intricate cloth composed of different fibers, many colors, various
textures, and different blends of materials.
In addition, Denzin & Lincoln (2008) emphasized that it turns the world into a series of
representations, including notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos
to the self.
In Qualitative Research, we put much importance and high value on people’s experiences,
perspective, and thinking.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
1. Natural Setting – Qualitative researchers collect data in the field at the site where the
experiences or problems under study arise. Face-to-face interaction
2. Researchers as Key Instrument – The researchers themselves examine the documents,

observing behaviors, and interviewing participants. They do not rely on instruments…
3. Multiple Sources of Data – It typically gather multiple forms of data rather than rely on a
single data source. Interviews, observations, and documents.
4. Inductive Data Analysis – Bottom-up Process, or from the smallest detail up to the biggest.
5. Emergent Design - Some phases, while on the process, might change or shift after the
researchers enter the field and begin to collect data. For example, some questions might
change, forms of data collection might shift, and individuals and sites might be modified.
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Therefore, as a qualitative researcher, one must be willing to do the following:

1. Commit extensive time in the field.
2. Engage in the complex, time-consuming process of data analysis.
3. Write long passages to show multiple perspectives.
4. Participate in a form of social and human science research that is constantly changing.
When to use Qualitative Research?

• One conducts qualitative research because an issue or a problem needs to be investigated,
an exploration that requires complex and in-depth understanding of the issue.
• This understanding will only be achieved if the researcher goes to the field and talk to the
concerned people directly.
• Qualitative research is used to empower individuals to share their stories, hear their voices,
and minimize the gap between the researcher and the participant through participant
observation.
Qualitative Research Designs

Types Recommended Steps
CASE STUDY 1. First, determine if case study is appropriate

• Involves the in-depth analysis of an issue for the research problem. This is a good
over time explored through one or approach when the researcher has clear
more cases, a choice of what is to be identifiable cases with boundaries and
seeks to provide an in-depth
studied.
understanding of the cases or a
• It is an exploration of a case (or multiple
comparison of several cases.
cases) over time through detailed, in 2. Second, identify the case/cases. These cases
depth data collection involving multiple may involve an individual, several
sources of information rich in context. individuals, a program or an activity. In
conducting a case study, purposive
Psychology, Medicine, Law, sampling is preferable.
Political Science and Education 3. Data collection in case study is typically
extensive, drawing on multiple sources of
e.g. information such as observation, interviews,
DYCI’s Most Outstanding Values documents and audiovisual material
Formation Program analysis.
ETHNOGRAPHY 1. Primarily, determine if ethnography is well

• A qualitative study of a particular suited for your topic. It is appropriate if the
cultural group to get a clear needs are to describe how a cultural group
understanding of its organizational works and explore their beliefs, behaviors
and address some issues regarding
set-up, internal operation or lifestyle.
dominance and power.
o All the ways a group of people solve
2. Next, locate a culture-sharing group to your
problems.
study. Ideally, this group is one that has
o A pattern of living those guides been together for quite a time already, so
thoughts, actions, sentiments as their shared language, patterns of
reflected in language, dress, food, behavior and attitudes can emerge as an
traditions, customs). obvious pattern. As a result of participant
observation through immersion, the
researcher can identify his gatekeeper or
key informants.
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Here are some examples where 3. Decide on the cultural themes to discuss about
ethnography is applicable: the group. The themes may include topics
• The Wedding Traditions of Jehova’s such as socialization, learning, inequality,
child and adult development, even birthing
Withnesses
and education. Such themes are diverse; that
• How Bocaueños Deal with Money and
is why ethnographers should describe a
Debt holistic perspective of the group’s history,
religion, politics, economy or environment.
4. Gather information where the group works or
what we call fieldwork. Gathering these types
of information typically needed involves
going to the site and collecting a wide variety
of materials.
PHENOMENOLOGY 1. Determine if phenomenology is the best

• Phenomenology describes the meaning approach to apply to your topic. Remember
of the lived experiences of a concept that phenomenology deals with
or event for several individuals. understanding several individual’s common
experiences in order to develop deeper
• Phenomenologists describe what the
understanding about the features of such
participants have in common after or
event.
while experiencing similar phenom 2. Gather data from the individuals who
• To this end, qualitative researchers experienced the phenomenon. One can use
identify a phenomenon or object of interviews with the participants. Other forms of
human experience, such as insomnia, data, such as observation, journals, taped
being left out, anger, grief, conversations and others are welcome.
undergoing surgery, surviving a plane 3. Ask broad, general questions regarding their
crash, among others. experiences. Other open-ended questions
should be asked, leading to a description of
Here are some examples of experiences to provide understanding of these
phenomenology: common experiences.
4. Transcribe interview and highlight significant
• Lived Experiences of Accident Survivors •
statements, sentences or quotes that provide
A Phenomenology on Optimizing an understanding of how the participants
Teachers’ Skills in Teaching English experienced the phenomenon. After
highlighting them, write a description of what
the participants experienced.
5. From the structural and textual descriptions, the
researcher must connect the description and
present its essence of the phenomenon,
making the lived experience a significant
ingredient to the qualitative research.
GROUNDED THEORY 1. Determine if grounded theory research is

• Grounded theory research refers to appropriate for the research problem.
analysis of data leading to the Grounded theory is recommended for topics
development of a theory. that cannot be explained by existing theories.
Theories may be present, however do not
• This qualitative research’s goal is to
address valuable issues to the researchers,
develop a theory about the
thus making the theories incomplete or
processes in social behavior or scene irrelevant. On a lighter note, a theory may be
under investigation in a natural needed to explain how people encounter
setting. some phenomena, and grounded theory can
provide a new perspective or framework.
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2. The questions that the researcher should ask
should zero in what was the process and
what are the steps to the certain process.
After knowing these, the researcher will then
focus on the core phenomenon, the cause
of the phenomenon, and strategies during
the process and the effects of it.
3. Apply open coding; the researcher forms
categories of information about the
phenomenon being studied. Within each
category are several properties or sub
categories.
4. The researcher may then develop visually a
portrayal of a conditional matrix that shows
social, historical conditions that influence a
phenomenon.
5. The result is called substantive-level theory,
which then may be tested later for its
empirical verification to check if it can be
generalized or applied only to a selected
sample.
FACET CASE STUDY ETHNOGRAPHY PHENOMENOLOGY GROUNDED

THEORY
FOCUS Developing Describing Understanding Developing a

an in-depth and the essence of theory
description interpreting a an grounded in
and analysis culture experience a field
of a case or sharing
multiple cases group
UNIT OF An event, a A group that Several A process,

ANALYSIS program or has the same individuals that action or
activity, more culture share the interaction
than one same experience involving
individual many
individuals
PROBLEM Providing an Determining Needing to Grounding a

in depth the shared describe the theory in the
understandi patterns of essence of a views of the
ng of a culture of a lived participants
case or certain group experience
cases
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DLA 10
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
This DLA will provide guidance for you to select the participants of your study – the sampling
procedures.

• demonstrate an understanding on the concept of sampling;
• identify the types of probability and non-probability sampling and;
• apply the proper sampling procedure on their research writing.
Concept of Sampling
When we talk about ‘sampling’ in research, this concerns about the people or object you may
want to study in your research. Simply, who or what do you want to study?
By sampling, as researchers, we choose subjects who are ‘representatives’ of the study

population. From a large group of people, you would only choose a portion that would
represent the whole.
Population pertains to the set of individuals, objects, groups, or events in which the researcher is
interested.
Sample is a relatively small subset selected from a population. As defined by Field (2005), it is a
smaller collection of units from a population used to determine truths about that population.
Why do we need to get the sample? Consider your resources such as time, money, and
workload. Also, it gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated mathematically.
For you to get the sample from a population, you need to draw them from a sampling
frame which can be coming from (take for example) registrar’s office or class rosters.
Three Factors that Influence Sample Representativeness

1. Sampling Procedure
2. Sample Size
3. Participation/Response
When might you sample the entire population?

• Population is very small
• Extensive resources
• You don’t expect a very high response
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Slovin’s Formula
�� =��
�� + ��
where
n is the sample size
N is the population size
e is the margin of error
�� =��
��
��+(��)(��.��) �� =��
��
��+(��)(��.��) �� =��
��.��
�� = ��. ��
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Probability Sampling (Unbiased)

• With probability sampling, all elements in the population have opportunity of being included in
the sample.
• One which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in
the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined.
• Often used in Quantitative Research.
A. Simple Random Sampling

• Selected by using chance or random numbers.
• Each individual subject (human or otherwise) has an equal chance of being selected. •
Applicable when population is small, homogenous, and readily available.
Example: Drawing names from a hat/lottery, random numbers
B. Stratified Random Sampling

• Divide the population into at least two different groups with common characteristic/s,
then draw SOME subjects from each group (group is called strata or stratum). • Each
stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population or minority group. • Adequate
representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured. • Results in a more
representative sample.
C. Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of
every kth element from then onwards.
• In this case, k = (population size/sample size).
• A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory. •
Simple to use so it is used often.
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population.
D. Cluster Sampling
• an example of 'two-stage sampling'
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
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• Divide the population into groups (called clusters), randomly select some of the groups,
and then collect data from ALL members of the selected groups.
• Used extensively by government and private research organizations.
• If you want to have a sample of 120 out of 1,000 students, you can randomly select
three sections with 40 students each to complete the sample.
Example: Exit Polls
Nonprobability Sampling
• With nonprobability sampling, population elements are selected on the basis of their
availability (e.g., because they volunteered) or because of the researcher's personal
judgment that they are representative.
• The consequence is that an unknown portion of the population is excluded (e.g., those who
did not volunteer).
• Often used in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.
A. Quota Sampling
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on a specified
proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60.
• It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling. •
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
• For example, interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The
problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of
selection.
B. Convenience Sampling
• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or haphazard sampling. •
Involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand.
That is, readily available and convenient.
• The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the
total population from this sample.
• For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping center early in the
morning on a given day, the people that he/she could interview would be limited to
those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other
members of society in such an area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times
of day and several times per week.
• This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
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C. Snowball or Network Sampling
• Snowball sampling is where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the
sample.
D. Judgmental or Purposive Sampling

• The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the
study.
• This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the
area being researched.
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DLA 11
DATA GATHERING METHODS IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCHES
In this DLA, you will learn the ways on how you can gather data needed for your study.

• identify which kind of data to use on your study and;
• familiarize yourself on data gathering tools in qualitative research.
Research Instrument
In terms of data gathering methods, the first one that you need to identify is what kind of
instrument are you going to use that refers to your research instrument.
A research instrument…
• translates the research objectives into specific questions/items;
• thus, each question or item must convey to the informant’s idea or group of ideas
required by the research objectives, and each item must obtain a response which can
be analyzed for fulfilling the research objectives.
First, identify which kind of data you are going to need for your study. There are two kinds:
If you: Then use:
• want to conduct statistical analysis Quantitative

• want to be precise
• know what you want to measure
• want to cover a large group
• want narrative or in-depth information Qualitative

• are not sure what you are able to measure
• do not need to quantify the results
Obviously, if you are working on a qualitative research, you need to gather qualitative data.
However, there is what we called as mixed-method research wherein the researcher gathers a
combination of qualitative and quantitative research.
Second thing that you need to remember is the method of gathering the needed data. It is
either Obtrusive or Unobtrusive.
1. Obtrusive – a data collection method that directly obtain information from those being
evaluated like interviews, surveys, focused groups.
2. Unobtrusive - a data collection method that do not collect information directly from
informants like document analysis.
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Third, you should decide on the data collection approach. Remember, your choice depends on
the situation, but each technique is more appropriate in some situation than others so be careful
as they are also subject to bias.
For you to be sure of the data you have gathered, know how to do triangulation to increase the
accuracy of data.
• Triangulation of Methods – collection of same information using different methods. •
Triangulation of Sources – collection of same information from a variety of sources. •
Triangulation of Evaluators – collection of same information from more than one evaluator.
Data Gathering Tools
In Qualitative Research, there are three ways in which you can gather data: Observation,
Interview, and Focused Grouped Discussion.
A. Observation
• A technique of gathering data whereby the researcher personally watches, interacts, or
communicates with the subjects of the research
• Records what people do and say in everyday life
• Obtains data in natural setting
• Results are interpreted in a subjective manner
Types of Observation
1. Participant Observation
o The observer takes part in the activities of the individual or group being observed.
o “Actual involvement” = firsthand information on behavior and the way they
interact with each other
o Uses DIARY METHOD or LOGBOOK
• Descriptive observation – describes people, places, events, conversation, and
other things involved in the activity
• Narrative Account – researcher’s interpretation or reflections about everything
he/she observed
o Best for ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
2. Non-Participation/Structured Observation
• Detaches the researcher from the target of observation
• Just watching and listening to the observed do their own thing without participating
• Uses a Checklist or Observation Schedule
Methods of Observation
1. Direct Observation
• See or listen to everything that happens in the observation (e.g., classroom, court
trial, street trafficking, market).
• Remember to stick to the questions you aim to answer while observing.
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Ways to Record
Information
1. Observation Guide – printed form with space to record.
2. Recording sheet or checklist – yes/no options; tallies
3. Field notes – least structured, recorded in narrative, descriptive style
2. Indirect Observation
• Aka behavior archeology
• Observe traces of past events to get information or a measure of behavior, trait,
quality of subjects
o Example
▪ Listening to tape recordings, those seen in pictures, letter, notices, minutes
of meetings, garbage cans, and so on.
Continuous Monitoring
• Researcher observes to evaluate the way people deal with one another •
Use in Behavioral Psychology
• Record people’s anxieties, habits, & problems in shopping malls, play areas, family
homes or classrooms
Spot/time Sampling
• Record observations in an oral manner, not in a written way
• Two types
o Time Allocation – records best activities of people observe
o Experience Sampling – record people’s responses anytime of the day to questions
their present activities, companions, feelings
• Facilitated by modern electronic / technological gadgets e.g., cellphones
Advantages Disadvantages
Collects data on actual vs Observer bias, potentially unreliable;

self-reported behavior or interpretation and coding challenges;
perceptions. It is real-time vs sampling can be a problem; can be
retrospective. labor intensive; low response rates.
B. Interview
• Technique that makes the researcher verbally ask the subjects or informants questions
to give answers to research study
• Aims at knowing what the informants think and feel about the topic of research •
Traditional – Face-to-face situation
• Modern – using technological communication devices e.g., internet, mobile phones,
e-mail
Types of Interviews
1. Structured: Requires an interview schedule or list of questions answerable with one and
only item from a set of alternative responses.
2. Unstructured: Informants answer the questions based on what they personally think and
feel about it; no suggested answers.
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3. Semi-structured: Has both characteristics, asks same general set of questions but
answers to the questions are predominantly open-ended, thus flexible and organized.
Individual Interview – one-on-one interview
Group Interview / Focus Grouped Discussion
Mediated Interview – interview through electronic communication devices e.g.,
cellphone, emails, telephone; disregarding non-verbal communication.
C. Focus Grouped Discussion

• Type of qualitative research where small homogenous groups of people are brought
together to informally discuss specific topics under the guidance of a moderator •
Purpose: to identify issues and themes, not just interesting information, and not “counts”
Focus Groups are inappropriate when:

• Language barriers are insurmountable.
• Evaluator has little control over the situation.
• Trust cannot be established.
• Free expression cannot be ensured.
• Confidentiality cannot be assured.
Phase Action
1 Opening Ice-breaker; explain purpose; ground

rules; introductions.
2 Warm-Up Relate experience; stimulate group interaction;

start with least threatening and simplest
questions.
3 Main Body Move to more threatening or sensitive and

complex questions; elicit deep responses;
connect emergent data to complex, broad
participation.
4 Closure End with closure-type questions; summarize and

refine; present theories, etc.; invite final comments
or insights; thank participants.
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DLA 12
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

The most essential part of the research process, the method of analyzing the findings in your
study or simply, the qualitative data analysis.

• demonstrate an understanding on qualitative data analysis and its types; • apply the
qualitative data analysis approach accordingly in their study and; • analyze the
statements given to them by their informants following the steps in data analysis.
As made mentioned, this is the most important part of the research process as this is where you
will learn how you are going to interpret the statements or the data that the participants in your
study have given you.
Let us talk about the definition, types, and steps in Qualitative Data Analysis as compiled by
Billups (2016).
Qualitative Data Analysis
This is also known as the QDA, this is the range of processes and procedures whereby the data
that have been collected will move into some form of explanation, understanding, or
interpretation of the people and situations being studied. On a lighter note, we as researchers,
we convert the data that we have collected into its meaning so we can draw conclusions for our
study.
These are types of analytic approaches depending on the Qualitative Research

design: • Domain/Content
• Thematic
• Grounded theory/Constant comparative
• Ethnographic/Cultural
• Metaphorical/Hermeneutical
• Phenomenological
• Biographical/Narrative Analysis
• Case Study, Mixed Methods, Focus Groups
Approaches and Experts

With these types being introduced to you, the following are experts who may help you match
specific qualitative research designs with appropriate qualitative data analysis strategies: 1.
Domain Analysis
• Spradley (1979)
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2. Grounded Theory, constant comparison analysis

• Birks & Mills (2011)
• Charmaz (2006)
• Glaser (1967)
• Strauss & Corbin (1990)
3. Thematic Analysis
• Boyatzis (1998)
• Guest, MacQueen, Namey (2012)
4. Ethnographic Analysis
• Spradley (1979)
• Sunstein & Chiseri-Strater (2012)
• Wolcott (2005, 2008)
5. Linguistic/Metaphor Analysis: Thematic, Emotional Barometer, Cultural Values •
Whitcomb & Deshler (1983)
6. Cultural Analysis
• Wolcott (1999)
• Van Maanen (1984)
7. Phenomenological Analysis
• Colaizzi (1978)
• Giorgi (1985, 2009)
• Holstein & Gubrium (2012)
• Moustakas (1988, 1990)
• Smith, Flowers, & Larkin (2009)
• Van Manen (1990)
8. Auto/Biographical Analysis
• Denzin (1989)
• Spry (2011)
9. Narrative Analysis
• Holstein & Gubrium (2012)
• Reissman (2008)
• Yussen & Ozcan (1997)
10. Case Study
• Stake (1995)
11. Focus Groups
• Krueger & Casey (2009)
12. Mixed Methods
• Creswell & Plano Clark (1995)
• Tashakkori & Teddlie (2010)
Getting Started
Now that you are familiar with the approaches in qualitative analysis, let us now talk about its
process. Remember, you can perform qualitative data analysis if you have conducted any of
these data gathering techniques: interviews, focus groups, observations, document or artifact
analysis, and journal notes or reflections.
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What to do with all this data?
Just as there are numerous statistical tests to run for quantitative data, there are just as many
options for qualitative data analysis.
REMEMBER: What you are about to do is similar to the process of cleaning a closet. The same
basic steps apply!
It’s the same process…

1. Take everything out of the closet.
2. Sort everything out – save or toss?
3. Look at what you have left and organize into sub-groupings. (chunking)
4. Organize sub-groups into clusters of similar things that belong together. (Cluster, codes) 5.
As you put things back, how would you group them to maximize functionality? How do the
groups make it work together? (Interpretation, presentation)
FOUR BASIC STEPS

Let us apply these steps in qualitative data analysis. Remember these four essential
steps: 1. Raw Data Management – Data Cleaning
2. Data Reduction I, II – Chunking, Coding
3. Data Interpretation – Coding, Clustering
4. Data Representation – Telling the Story, Making Sense of the Data for others.
Data Analysis Spiral 1
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1: RAW DATA MANAGEMENT
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STEP
This is the process of preparing and organizing raw data into meaningful units of analysis. Take for
example, text or audio which will be transformed into transcripts and image data transformed
into videos, photos, and charts.
As you review your data, you may find that some of it is not usable or relevant to your study,
hence you should only select those which will be significant. Like for example, from the interview
transcript, obtain only significant statements.
RAW DATA SAMPLE

Check the interview transcript below, notice that the highlighted words are considered unusable
or irrelevant.
I always wanted to get my doctorate but I never felt I had the time; then I reached a point in my career where I
saw that without the credentials, I would never advance to the types of positions I aspired to. But I doubted I could
do the work. I wasn’t sure I could go back to school after so much time. And did I have the time, with working and
a family? These were the things I struggled with as I looked for the right program.
Um, ...finally starting the program with others like me, it felt surreal. Once you switch gears from being an established
administrator at a college to being a doc student, you realize you lose control over your life. You are not in charge
in that classroom, like you are in your office. But also, once you say you are a doc student, people look at you
differently. And people at work began to take me more seriously, ask for my opinion as if I now possessed special
knowledge because I was going for the doctorate. It was the same information I had shared previously but
somehow it had a special quality? It’s like magic!
I can’t think of a particular example right now…
STEP 2: DATA REDUCTION I

1. Get a sense of data holistically, read several times.
2. Classify and categorize repeatedly, allowing for deeper immersion.
3. Write notes in the margins.
4. Preliminary classification schemes emerge, categorize raw data into groupings. (Chunking).
Winnowing
1. Develop an initial sense of usable data and the general categories you will create. 2.
Preliminary set of codes developed, cluster raw data into units that share similar meanings or
qualities.
3. Create initial code list or master code book.
CHUNKS-CLUSTERS SAMPLE
I always wanted to get my doctorate but I never felt I had the time; then I reached a Which sections
point in my career where I saw that without the credentials, I would never advance to of data are
the types of positions I aspired to… But I doubted I could do the work. I wasn’t sure I broadly
could go back to school after so much time. And did I have the time, with working and a
family? These were the things I struggled with as I looked for the right program. similar? Green for
Finally starting the program with others like me, it felt surreal. Once you switch gears from Credentials, Blue
being an established administrator at a college to being a doc student, you realize you for Personal
lose control over your life. You are not in charge in that classroom, like you are in your Struggles, Purple
office. But also, once you say you are a doc student, people look at you differently. And for Shift in
people at work began to take me more seriously, ask for my opinion as if I now possessed Identity.
special knowledge because I was going for the doctorate. It was the same information I
had shared previously but somehow it had a special quality? It’s like magic!
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Example of
the Process of
Creating
Formulated
Meanings
from
Significant
Statements
Significant Statements Formulated Meanings
I do not like to see people because all of them are curious to look People are curious to look at the
at something strange, and I always hear from most of the people patient, considering different
that my hair will not grow again because of chemotherapy, they appearance than normal.
only want to look at me. (Transcript 2, page 2, lines 83-85)
I feel that I have changed, I am ugly, my face is very yellow, Patient realizes that the current
and sometimes I have dark discoloration below my eyes, it is appearance is undesirable due to skin
scary and abnormal… like ghosts. (Transcript 6, page 2, lines discoloration throughout the body
85-87) surface.
Nurses are always kidding with me, and when I buy new clothes, Nurses kindly regard patient’s
they say to me they are very beautiful. (Transcript 6, page 4, lines appearance and dress.
146-147)
DATA REDUCTION II
Still part of the step 2, data reduction. We apply the process of reducing data from chunks into
clusters and codes to make meaning of that data:
• Chunks of data that are similar begin to lead to initial clusters and coding. o Clusters – assigning
chunks of similarly labeled data into clusters and assigning preliminary codes.
o Codes – refining, developing codes books, labelling codes, creating codes through 2-3
cycles.
Coding Process
• Initial coding may include as many as 30 categories.
• Reduce codes once, probably twice.
• Reduce again to and refine to codes that are mutually exclusive and include all raw data
that was identified as usable.
A Priori In Vivo Codes
Codes derived from literature, Codes derived from the data by
theoretical frames using code names drawn from
participant quotes or interpretation
of data.
Coding Levels
• Descriptive to Pattern Coding
o Moves from summary to meaning to explanation
• Open to Axial to Selective Coding
o Moves from initial theory to developing relationships between codes for emerging
theory.
• First Cycle to Second Cycle Coding
o Moving from describing the data units to inferring meaning.
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CODING SAMPLE
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I always wanted to get my doctorate but I never felt I had the time; then Chunking to coding:
I reached a point in my career where I saw that without the credentials, • Green for Credentials – codes
I would never advance to the types of positions I aspired to… But I include career goals (CG),
doubted I could do the work. I wasn’t sure I could go back to school career advancement (CA).
after so much time. And did I have the time, with working and a family? • Blue for personal struggles – codes
These were the things I struggled with as I looked for the right program. include self-doubt (SD), time
Finally starting the program with others like me, it felt surreal. Once you management (TM).
switch gears from being an established administrator at a college to • Purple for shift in identity – codes
being a doc student, you realize you lose control over your life. You are include student role SR, identity at
not in charge in that classroom, like you are in your office. But also, once work IW, shift in control SC.
you say you are a doc student, people look at you differently. And
people at work began to take me more seriously, ask for my opinion as if
I now possessed special knowledge because I was going for the
doctorate. It was the same information I had shared previously but
After categorizing the statements into codes, revisit the coding levels in order to do the coding
progression.
Descriptive to Interpretative Pattern – Inductive Meaning
Credentials CG, CA CR – needing a doctorate to advance professionally

Needs for career advancement, and to meet personal goals for achievement
goals
Personal PSD, PG, PWL PG – personal struggles evolve to address self-doubt

Self-doubt about abilities, trying to achieve things before time
Personal Growth runs out, balancing responsibilities with family, self,
Work-Life Balance work.
Identity IS, ISR, ISC IS – managing the shift from student to graduate, from
Identity Shifting candidate to doctor, from non-expert to expert in
Student Role work settings, from losing control to re-gaining control
Shift in Control at home and work.
STEP 3: DATA INTERPRETATION & THEMES

1. Chunks of related data that have similar meaning are coded in several cycles. 2.
Once coded, those ‘chunks’ become clustered in similar theme categories. 3. Create
meaning for those clusters with labels as themes emerge from those clusters. 4. Interpret
themes to answer research questions.
I always wanted to get my doctorate but I never felt I had the time; then THEMES SAMPLE
I reached a point in my career where I saw that without the credentials, • How do you compile the clusters
I would never advance to the types of positions I aspired to… But I into emerging themes? (Green
doubted I could do the work. I wasn’t sure I could go back to school for Credentials, Blue for Personal
after so much time. And did I have the time, with working and a family? Struggles, Purple for Shift in
These were the things I struggled with as I looked for the right program. Identity).
Finally starting the program with others like me, it felt surreal. Once you • Begin to see themes emerge:
switch gears from being an established administrator at a college to Getting the degree, becoming a
being a doc student, you realize you lose control over your life. You are new person, personal
not in charge in that classroom, like you are in your office. But also, once achievement…
you say you are a doc student, people look at you differently. And
people at work began to take me more seriously, ask for my opinion as if
I now possessed special knowledge because I was going for the
doctorate. It was the same information I had shared previously but
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First Theme: Second Theme:

Awareness of Deteriorating Physical Changes Psychosocial Impact and Effects
Awareness of altered skin Reflecting on self-body image

• Losing hair • Frightened and scared from appearance change
• Darkness below eyes • Feeling of embarrassment
• Hand spots from cannulation • Feeling ugly
• Freckles • Feeling different from people
• Yellowish skin color • Giving less interest towards clothes
• Difficulty to tolerate changes
Awareness of impaired body integrity
• Mouth and lip sores Effects on psycho-spiritual status
• Brittle skin and nails • Depression
• Skin texture change • Feeling of sadness
• Puffiness of skin and eyes • Feeling of boredom
• Shrinkage of leg muscles • Feeling of annoyance
• Feeling of defeat
Awareness of changed body weight • Feeling of aggression and nervousness
• Changed weight • Feeling of powerful spirit
• Difficulty to find suitable dress • Hallucination
Third Theme: Fourth Theme:

Coping Strategies Developing Supportive Structures
A. Problem-focused strategies Approaching contacted-people support

Deliberate measures of concealing signs • Supportive and colleagues
• Wearing hats, masks, wigs, and scarves • Supportive healthcare providers
• Wearing pajamas for changed weight • Supportive teacher
• Wearing family clothes that are suitable for patient’s
size Connection to family
• Wearing full sleeves • Family members relieving tension by talking, playing,
• Wearing belts and accompanying
• Wearing fashionable dress • Family reassuring back to the normal appearance
• Stop wearing T-shirt gradually
• Shaving hair • Husband Support
• Using cream for spots • Parents Support
• Using makeup and putting eyeliner
• Eating broccoli plant as hair booster
Utilizing time wisely

• Spending time playing on computers
• Talking with patients with same condition
• Reciting the Qur’an and going to pray
OTHER STRATEGY
Concept Mapping –
placing concepts in a
graphical format.
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STEP 4: DATA REPRESENTATION

1. Interpretation or analysis of qualitative data simultaneously occurs.
2. Researchers interpret the data as they read and re-read the data, categorize and code
the data and inductively develop a thematic analysis.
3. Themes become the story or narrative.
DATA REPRESENTATION TYPES

• Telling the story with the data
o Storytelling, narrative
o Chronological
o Flashback
o Critical Incidents
o Theater
o Thematic
o Visual representation
o Figures, tables, charts
HOW WILL IT LOOK LIKE IN THE END?
Theme #2 The Degree is Greater than the Sum of its Parts: From Candidate to Graduate.
As one participant stated, “The doctoral process is complicated!”. Each individual expressed similar
sentiments as they described their first impressions of their course work, and the eventual evolution to dissertation
research. As separate parts of the doctoral program, they seemed manageable, but when viewed as a whole
program, they seemed overwhelming. The consensus, however, was that each program component informed the
next in a way that defied description, and prepared them for the dissertation process. As one participant expressed,
“My understanding of what the degree meant was not clear until I stepped into my defense... I had a moment
when I realized that now it all makes sense…”
SAMPLE FOR PHENOMENOLOGY

Table 3. Theme Clusters and Formulated Meaning under the Emergent Theme, “Disabling Struggles.”
Emergent Themes Theme Clusters Formulated Meanings
Disabling Struggles Performing Activities of • Problems with gait, due to loss of balance
Daily Living • Encountered struggles with daily tasks
• Everyday activities became routine
• Regaining the ability to do self-care independently •
Diminished daily activities due to imposed restriction
Table 3 shows the first emergent theme Disabling Struggles. The theme highlights the hardships, difficulties, and challenges
experienced by the diabetic amputees which are considered to be disabling. The term struggles were used to denote the difficulties
encountered by the amputees in performing self-directed activities. It was used in context of their condition regarding how they performed
activities of daily living, functionality, external constraints, pain experienced post-amputation, physical factors, and the presence of co
morbidities and complications coexisting with their disease, among others. The said limitations further incurred their disability in a multi
disciplinary approach principally.
Also, physical consequences of amputation constitute the main focus of rehabilitation following amputation (Coffey, 2012). This
describes their experiences associated to the Shock phase of the Theory of Humans in Crisis (Cullberg, 1992) by which the main focus was
the physical responses or those initial effect to the body. The following were the responses from the question directed to the changes
encountered by the amputees.
In performing daily activities, one of the most reported complaints involve problems with mobility, most especially when it comes
to gait and balance. A co-researcher affirmed this in the statement:
“Ni-hindi nga po ako pwedeng tumakbo eh. Dahil wala nang panimbang eh. Iyong kunwari eh sa upuan di ba minsan, upuan,
tatayo ka may aabutan ka tapos gaganun ka, hindi ko na kaya iyon. Mahuhulog ako at mabubuwal. Wala na akong
panimbang.” (Transcript 3, page 25, Line 1095-1097)
(I can’t run anymore. I don’t have sense of balance. When I stand, in an instant, I sometimes fall on the ground. I’m having
problems with my balance).
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RESEARCH WRITING GUIDELINES
DYCI Research Format

• Use the Times New Roman typeface for all pages, it should be in size 12.
• Apply double-spacing or 2.0 for line and paragraph spacing.
• Make sure that your text would not touch the blue line on both sides that serves as
your margin as well as the logo on the upper left. Adjust your indentions.
Title Page
Title of your research – it should be written in all

caps and in bold typeface, longest line first then
followed by shorter lines (inverted pyramid).
A Thesis Paper presented to the Faculty Members of Senior

High School Department
Dr. Yanga’s Colleges, Inc.
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements in

Practical Research 1: Qualitative Research
Your Strand. For example:

Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics - STEM
Submitted by: then followed by your name

and groupmates, surname first.
Month and
year Submitted to: (Your Research Adviser)
e.g. Mr. Juan A. Dela Cruz
Preliminary Pages
A. Approval Sheet and Certificate of Originality

These two will be coming from your research adviser once you have
successfully defended your research paper.
The approval sheet contains the acceptance of the thesis presented

signed by your research adviser, the thesis defense committee, and the Senior
High School department head.
On the other hand, the Certificate of Originality contains the results of

the plagiarism check as proof that you have cited your sources properly.
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B. Acknowledgement
This page simply includes your expression of gratitude and appreciation
to the people who in some way provided assistance, guidance, and support all
throughout your research writing. It should be simple and avoid excessive
recognition.
C. Abstract
This is a brief descriptive summary of your research paper, in DYCI
Research Format, number of words should not exceed 200 words. Simply include
your research questions, explain briefly the design and method utilized in your
research, a glimpse of your findings, the conclusions derived from your findings
and of course, your recommendations.
At the lower part of the sheet, after your abstract, you may put at least
five (5) keywords about your research.
D. Table of Contents
This shows the division of sections and chapters of your research
together with their page numbering. This is how it should look like:
E. List of Tables
This page shows the list of your tables in your research paper. It should
be presented in a tabular form with three columns namely, Table no., Title of the
Table, and Page number where the table can be found.
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F. List of
Figures
Similar to list of tables, this page shows the list of figures used in your
research such as your Conceptual Framework and the Data Gathering process.
There should be three columns which are: Figure No., Title of Figure, and Page
number where the figure can be found.
Chapter 1: The Problem and Its Background

In this chapter, you are going to introduce the research problem. You are going
to explore the important variables in the study and clarify them to your readers. You will
discuss as well the limitations and significance of your study.
A. Introduction
Discuss in this part the reasons why it is necessary to study the problem, you
start on the existence of the problem then clarify terminologies which are
significant to the problem. Tell the importance of the study by describing it and
providing factual information related to the problem.
B. Background of the Study

Explain the problem further by citing some past events regarding the
problem, your personal insights are welcome as well. You may specify the areas to
be explored in your research.
C. Theoretical Underpinnings
You may look for theories relevant to the study, discuss what it is all about
and its relevance to your research. This will serve as the foundation of the study.
Make sure to include its proponent/s.
D. Statement of the Problem

Simply state the research problem and your research questions.
E. Assumption/s
Simply state your assumption regarding the subject matter you are
studying.
F. Scope and Limitation

Explain to your reader the boundaries and your range of operation in your
research.
G. Significance of the Study

You may list down the sectors or people who will benefit in your research
and why is it significant to them.
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H. Definition of Terms
Define the important terminologies in your research, operationally. It
should be in bulleted form and alphabetically-arranged.
I. Review of Related Literature
The studies related to your research will be given focus on this part.
J. Synthesis
Discuss the common points on your literature review.
Chapter 2: Research Methods

In this chapter, you are going to present your research design, your respondents
or participants, the locale of your study, the instrument to use in your data collection,
and the ethical consideration.
A. Research Design
Explain the design to be used in the study.
B. Research Locale
Simply describe the geographical location of your study.
C. Research Participants
You are going to introduce the target participants, their profile, the
sample population, and criteria for selecting them.
D. Research Instrument
You may display the sample questionnaire to be used in the study.
E. Data Gathering Procedure

Illustrate your data gathering procedure through a flow chart then have a
brief explanation of it afterwards.
F. Data Analysis
Explain the kind of analysis that you are going to use in your qualitative
data.
G. Ethical Consideration
Enumerate the things that you, as a researcher, should consider about
moral practices when dealing with your respondents or participants.
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Chapter 3:
Results and
Discussions
Discuss in this chapter your analysis and interpretation of the significant
statements gathered from your research participants. Please refer to DLA 12:
Qualitative Data Analysis for the procedure.
Chapter 4: Summary of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
This chapter should be well-written for it includes the most important part of your
research paper, your results and conclusions.
A. Summary of Findings
Have a recap of the important aspects in your study. All these important
aspects should be written in a brief, direct, and clear manner.
B. Conclusions
For the readers to easily grasp the conclusions made in your research,
enumerate your conclusions in a bulleted form, still, your conclusions should be in a
brief statement.
C. Recommendations
This part will showcase the recommendations of doable actions, programs,
and activities that can help solve the problem posed in your research, or can help
establish or develop an existing system in the community.
References
All of your relevant sources’ information should appear in this section. They should
follow the format of APA Referencing Style, arranged alphabetically and should be
grouped according to where they came from such as Books, and Online Source.
Appendices
This section includes the supplementary material used in your research paper
such as the Letter of Intent, Letter of Consent, Editing Sheet Certificate, and a sample of
your instrument.
Curriculum Vitae
The researchers’ profile and educational background should appear in this
section.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Baraceros, PhD., E.L. (2016). Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method
Approaches 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Dela Cruz, S.R. & Tan, J.K. (2020). Research Made-Easy. Bocaue, Bulacan: Dr. Yanga’s
Colleges, Inc.
Online Sources
Martinich, A.P. (n.d.). Epistemology. Philosophy. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology/A-priori-and-a-posteriori
knowledge
McLeod, Ph.D., S. (2019). What’s the difference between qualitative and quantitative
research? Simply Psychology. Retrieved from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html
Spicer, A. (2019). Why We “Speak” APA in Academics. CSU Global Official Blog.
Retrieved from https://csuglobal.edu/blog/what-is-apa-style-and-why-is-it-important
62

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DLA Page No.

1 Sources of Knowledge; Inquiry and Research 1

2 Variables and Types of Research 5

4 Identifying and Stating the Problem 14

5 Review of Related Literature 17

6 The Process of Review of Related Literature 22

7 APA Citation Methods 26

8 Parenthetical Citations and Reference List 30

9 Qualitative Research Designs 36

11 Data Gathering Methods in Qualitative Researches 45

12 Qualitative Data Analysis

Research Writing: Format and Guidelines 57

At the end of this DLA, you are expected to:

There are five ways on how people can know something.

Definition of Knowledge Gained through observable Reality is socially constructed.

Objectivity and Subjectivity Objective Subjective as individuals

The problem with personal experience is that:

Like personal experiences the tradition has also its setbacks:

Although reasoning may be valid, there are also limitations:

When it involves a process, a development or testing of a theory, and acquisition of knowledge,

The scientific method happens in five steps:

The Nature of Inquiry and Research

A good research can be characterized by the following, remember COSTAR:

At the end of this DLA, you are expected to:

Basic Types of Variables

Guidelines for IV and DV

Once again, IV affects DV. Let us have some examples:

This is also known as intervening, modifying, and confounding variables.

Variables that have a minimum-sized unit of measurement, which cannot be sub-divided or

Based on Application of Research Method

PURE/BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

Correlational Research • Shows relationships or connectedness of two factors,

Action Research • Studies on ongoing practice of a school, organization,

Type of Probing Simple

What is Qualitative Research?

Most Frequent Uses

Qualitative research is used for the following reasons:

Case Study • It involves a long-time study of a • DYCI as the 2012

Ethnographic • Study of a particular cultural group • The Birthing

Phenomenologic • This simply studies how people find • Lived experiences

Content and • Requires examination/analysis of the

Content Analysis • Examine how news, drama, A Content Analysis

Discourse Analysis • Study of the ways in which language Critical Discourse

Grounded Theory • Refers to analysis of data leading to Development of the

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

• Adopts a naturalistic approach. • Can’t extrapolate to the whole

IDENTIFYING AND STATING THE PROBLEM From the

At the end of this DLA, you are expected to:

Identifying and Stating the Problem

Background of the Problem

The Research Questions

The statement of the problem should consist of:

A research problem may be stated either interrogative or declarative form.

Criteria of a Good Research Topic

“Social Media as a Major Teaching and Learning Tool”

Criteria of a Good Research Problem

Your chosen research topic or problem should be reflective of the following

Research Topics to be avoided

Sources of Research Topics

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

At the end of this DLA, you are expected to:

Review of Related Literature

Information that may be collected: