Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile

Escuela de Ingenierı́a
Departamento de Ingenierı́a Eléctrica

Electric Vehicles
IEE2393 Redes Inteligentes para Energı́a Sustentable

Prof. Álvaro Lorca

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Outline

1 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs

Technology State-of-the-art
Mobility Requirements and Consumer Behavior

2 Grid Integration
Challenges and Opportunities
Distribution Impacts

3 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

4 V2G Research at OCM Lab

5 Bibliography

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs

Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs

Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs

Overview
Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) worldwide

Source: [Trigg et al., 2013]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs

Overview
Electric Vehicle Drivers

Source: [Germany Trade & Invest., 2016]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs

Overview
Electric Vehicles annual sales

Source: [ Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy, 2016]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Chargers, charging times

A 40-mi-range PHEV might take about six hours to charge at 120V or three
hours to charge at 240 V.
The providers of the charging services could be utilities, commercial
establishments, parking garages, employers, or third parties.
Solutions for billing could be as simple as swiping a credit card or as complex
as having the charge added back to the customer’s home utility bill.
The electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) consists of a supply device
(supplies electrical power and contains information), a power cord (cable that
carries electrical power and signals), and a connector (connects the EVSE to
charging sockets of the EV).

Source: [Dickerman and Harrison, 2010]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Chargers, charging times

Typical set of charging options developed for an EV

Source: [Dickerman and Harrison, 2010]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Chargers, charging times

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Chargers, charging times

Figure: Charging connector of Tesla Motors. Figure: Home charging station of Siemens

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Chargers, charging times

Figure: Nissan charging station.

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Fast charger protocols

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Advantages/Disadvantages of EVs

Advantages Disadvantages
Tailpipe emissions in all-electric Battery cost is still significant
mode, with a net, reduction in CO2 Long charging times
High efficiency and performance Some additional infrastructure
Electric fuel is widely available, required
relatively inexpensive, and highly (still) missing standards (in
flexible particular for grid connection and
Storage and demand flexibility communication)
potential for the power grid

Source: [Dickerman and Harrison, 2010] & [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Batteries: one of the main cost drivers

Source: [Trigg et al., 2013]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Batteries: one of the main cost drivers

Lithium Ion technologies are some of the most promising storage options
A trade-off between High Energy (Wh/kg) and High Power (W/kg) has to
be considered dependent on the application.
Current costs of High Energy and High Power Li-Ion Storage are in the range
of:
550 $ / kWh (High Energy)
800 $ / kWh (High Power)
Further development and economies of scale are projected to cut prices by
half (2020).

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Batteries

Trade-off of Power vs. Energy density of storage technologies.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
EV classification

Source: [Sovacool and Hirsh, 2009]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
EV classification

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
EVs Costs

5 year TCO (total cost of ownership) for five different vehicle types bought and
driven in Germany for the year 2020.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Available EVs

Figure: BMW I3 Figure: Chevrolet Spark

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Available EVs

Figure: Toyota prius Figure: Volskwagen e-golf

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Technology State-of-the-art

Technology State-of-the-art
Available EVs

Figure: Voze (first chilean EV)

Figure: Tesla model S

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Mobility Requirements and Consumer Behavior

Mobility Requirements and Consumer Behavior

Mobility behavior (in Germany) and EV implications

Average daily trip lengths (German Mobility Panel)

A high share of daily driving needs could be covered by current EV range.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Mobility Requirements and Consumer Behavior

Mobility Requirements and Consumer Behavior

Mobility behavior (in the US) and EV implications

Overall distances are higher in the US than in Germany.

95% of the times distances can be easily covered by an EV (160 km).

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Technology, Mobility Requirements and Costs Mobility Requirements and Consumer Behavior

Mobility Requirements and Consumer Behavior

Mobility behavior (in the US) and EV implications

Significant clustering of departure and arrival times can induce clustering of charging
activity.
Probability of extra load peaks.
Vehicles low utilization enables large flexibility in timing of charging activity.
At home can be expected to be the dominant charging location.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Grid Integration

Grid Integration

Grid Integration

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 Grid Integration Challenges and Opportunities

Challenges and Opportunities

Challenges
High costs of upfront infrastructure (transformers, substations, line capacity).
High costs and lack of rapid charging infrastructure.
Peak load impacts of uncontrolled charging.
Who pays for what?

Source: [Silver Spring Networks, 2013]

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 Grid Integration Challenges and Opportunities

Challenges and Opportunities

Opportunities
Maximizing utilization of infrastructure.
Shift peak demands.
Avoid having to build new peak generating capacity.
Reducing Greenhouse Gases.
Empowering customers in energy efficiency.

Source: [Silver Spring Networks, 2013]

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 Grid Integration Challenges and Opportunities

Challenges and Opportunities

Source: [Silver Spring Networks, 2013]

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Grid characteristics

Transmission
Extra-high-voltage sector.

Distribution
High-voltage sector (subtransmission level)
Medium-voltage sector
Low voltage sector

EV’s are charged between 120 - 500 Volts.

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Distribution Impacts

Technicals impacts:
Reverse or bi-directional power flow (protections scheme, line loading,
congestion, etc.).
Voltage profile.
Phase imbalance.
Power losses.
Transformer loss of life.
Harmonic distortion levels.

Source: [II et al., 2011]

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Congestion caused by EV’s penetration

Figure: Branches congestion levels for a DN Figure: Branches congestion levels for a DN
without PEVs. with PEVs.
Source: [Lopes et al., 2009]

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Voltage profile and line loading caused by EV’s penetration

Figure: Phase voltages for varying levels of

EV penetration.
Source: [Richardson et al., 2010]

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Charging Strategies

There are two ways of accommodating the the connection of EV in DN. Plan
for new networks in such a way that they can fully handle the new loads or to
create a smart management system [Lopes et al., 2010].
One of the main motivations of charging strategies is that EVs can be seen as
a large resource for Demand Response as they bring with them a high
flexibility for a considerable part of their overall demand
[Sumedha Rajakaruna, 2015].

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Categorising PEV charging coordination

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Catogorising PEV charging coordination

Centralized Control (CC)

CC approaches require detailed information about individual driver/EV trip

requirements.
CC can be employed for technical oriented charging coordination objectives.
Control over the vehicle is given to the coordination instance.

Decentralized Control
Decentralized Control (e.g. price based) charging coordination has
substantially lower communication requirements.
Depending on the employed mechanism the reaction capabilities can be lower.
Control over the charging process remains with the driver/user.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Grid Integration Distribution Impacts

Main charging coordination objectives

Technical Objectives

Distribution grid optimization i.e. peak load and loss reduction.

Balancing single phase loads in distribution grids.
Provision of ancillary services in different power system architectures

Renewable Energy System Integration

Reduction of CO2 emissions for residual load coverage.

Wind power balancing scenarios (eg. Denmark, CH, US).
Real time utilization of RES.

Economic Objectives

Competitiveness of EVs as balancing resources.

Economic evaluation of different charging strategies and different pricing options.
Evaluation of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) operation strategies.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G

Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G

Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

The concept

Source:
[Kempton and Tomić, 2005b, Kempton and Tomić, 2005a, Kempton and Letendre, 1997]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

The concept

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

The concept

Motivation
Idle vehicles can provide backup and balancing power.
Vehicles are mostly parked: highly flexible load.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

The concept

Requirements for V2G to work

Grid connection with high power capability.
Connection with ISO.
Control infrastructure.

Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Potential Benefits

Additional revenue to EV owners by selling power back to the grid.

Help maintaining reliability and operation standards of the grid (Ancillary

Services).

Extra revenues for Utility companies during off-peak hours, if they are
coordinated with EVs’ charging schedules.

Source: [Sovacool and Hirsh, 2009]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Potential Benefits

Reduce emissions and air pollution in the electricity sector by providing

storage support for intermittent renewable-energy generators.

Offset the need for spinning reserves and load management necessary to
integrate intermittent resources.

Source: [Sovacool and Hirsh, 2009]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Potential Benefits

Market participation
Battery characteristics of fast discharge in comparison to normal generators
enables EVs to participate in balancing energy markets.
Source: [Schuller et al., 2015]

Ancillary Services
EVs can provide primary frequency control when aggregated. Performance payments
have been designed to compensate these distributed resources appropriately.

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Potential Barriers

Availability of V2G Capacity during peak demand hours: V2G capacity is

usually lowest during load peaks.

Battery efficiency.

The cost of cycling power: the cost of battery life and how to quantify it.

The cost of managing fragmented V2G supply: metering and billing systems.

Source: [Morgan, 2012]

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 Renewable Energy Utilization + V2G Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

Vehicle to Grid (V2G)

California Roadmap for Vehicle-Grid Integration.

Source: [CAISO, 2014]

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Research at OCM Lab

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Project
Real-Time Strategies for an EV Fleet Aggregator to Provide Ancillary Services

Scheduling ISO

Schedules Bids Awards SoC AGC

DER-CAM
Trajectories SoC
Real-time strategies to coordinate
Preprocessing distributed resources using Convex
Arrival
Departure
Minimum SoC
Maximum SoC
Optimization and Model Predictive
Trajectory Maximum Power SoC
Generation Efficiency Control.
Real time distribution
Power [kW]

SoC[kWh] EV EV EV EV EV
Power [kW]

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Project
Real-Time Strategies for an EV Fleet Aggregator to Provide Ancillary Services

Independent System Operator

Ancillary Services Market

AGC signal Frequency Regulation Performance =
Services Capacity + Accuracy

EV Aggregator

Power Distribution
Charging and
Schedules Real-Time
Discharging
Charging Strategies
Commands

EVs

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Project
Real-Time Strategies for an EV Fleet Aggregator to Provide Ancillary Services

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Project
CAISO Ancillary Services

EV Fleet Aggregated Regulation Capacity Day-Ahead

Energy Market
of 18 Nissan Leaf Real-Time
Frequency Regulation
250
Max Regulation
Power (kW)

EV Availability

Min Regulation
-250
0 500 1000
Time (min)

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Project
Myopic Trajectory Following

Minimize signal deviation from pre-calculated trajectories (r ) for each time step k.

min α1 ||r k − E k ||2 + α2 |ek | + ||α3 ◦ p ck ||1 + ||α3 ◦ p dk ||1

p ck ,p dk

s.t. E k = E k−1 + (p ck + p dk )∆t

X
d −
ek = c
pik /ηi+ + pik ηi − gk
i∈Tk

Γ− c
k−1 ≤ p k + p dk ≤ Γ+
k−1
p ck ≥ 0, p dk ≤0

Obs: α3 penalizes the power variables to account for p c · p d = 0

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Project
Results

Controller Trade-off
Simplicity Performance

Accuracy Cycling

Accuracy comparison Relative average Arc Length

(relative to time-invariant case) (relative to EDF)
100 % 100 %

Arc Length, relative to EDF

95 % 95 %
Relative Accuracy

90 % 90 %

85 % 85 %

80 % 80 %
TFMPC TFMPC TFMPC TFMPC
EDF LLF TFAPPROX TF EDF LLF TFAPPROX TF
ARIMA Perfect ARIMA Perfect

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

V2G Project
Conclusions

Proposed controllers outperform

benchmarks.
Key metric: Accuracy of following AGC
signal.
The generality of the approach enables the
40 Nissan Leaf being tested use of the same framework for any kind of
at LA Air Force Base: stochastic batteries: buildings, industrial
500 kW Capacity! processes, etc.

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 V2G Research at OCM Lab

Conclusion

Electric vehicles are evolving fast and rapidly increasing their presence

They will play a key role in the electric power system that is coming up

Vehicle-to-grid schemes are not easy to implement but will provide significant
flexibility and resilience to the network

Electric vehicles are beautiful

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 Bibliography

Bibliography I
Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (2016).
Global plug-in light vehicles sales increased by about 80% in 2015.

CAISO (2014).
California vehicle-grid integration (VGI) roadmap: Enabling vehicle-based grid services.

Dickerman, L. and Harrison, J. (2010).

A new car, a new grid.
IEEE Power and Energy Magazine, 8(2):55–61.

Germany Trade & Invest. (2016).

Electromobility in germany: Vision 2020 and beyond, issue 2015/2016.

II, R. C. G., Wang, L., and Alam, M. (2011).

The impact of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on distribution networks: A review and outlook.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(1):544 – 553.

Kempton, W. and Letendre, S. E. (1997).

Electric vehicles as a new power source for electric utilities.
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 2(3):157–175.

Kempton, W. and Tomić, J. (2005a).

Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals: Calculating capacity and net revenue.
Journal of power sources, 144(1):268–279.

Kempton, W. and Tomić, J. (2005b).

Vehicle-to-grid power implementation: From stabilizing the grid to supporting large-scale renewable energy.
Journal of power sources, 144(1):280–294.

Lopes, J. A. P., Soares, F. J., and Almeida, P. M. R. (2009).

Identifying management procedures to deal with connection of electric vehicles in the grid.
In PowerTech, 2009 IEEE Bucharest, pages 1–8.

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 Bibliography

Bibliography II
Lopes, J. P., Polenz, S. A., Moreira, C., and Cherkaoui, R. (2010).
Identification of control and management strategies for {LV} unbalanced microgrids with plugged-in electric vehicles.
Electric Power Systems Research, 80(8):898 – 906.

Morgan, T. (2012).
Smart grids and electric vehicles: Made for each other?
International Transport Forum Discussion Paper.

Richardson, P., Flynn, D., and Keane, A. (2010).

Impact assessment of varying penetrations of electric vehicles on low voltage distribution systems.
In IEEE PES General Meeting, pages 1–6.

Schuller, A., Ströhle, P., Dauer, D., and Gärttner, J. (2015).

Electric vehicles as elemets of the smart grid.
eEnergy: Markets, Services, Systems. Electric Vehicles as Elements of the Smart Grid, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology Lecture.

Silver Spring Networks (2013).

How the smart grid enables utilities to integrate electric vehicles.

Sovacool, B. K. and Hirsh, R. F. (2009).

Beyond batteries: An examination of the benefits and barriers to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (phevs) and a vehicle-to-grid (v2g) transition.
Energy Policy, 37(3):1095–1103.

Sumedha Rajakaruna, Farhad Shahnia, A. G., editor (2015).

Plug In Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids: Charging Strategies.
Springer.

Trigg, T., Telleen, P., Boyd, R., Cuenot, F., D’Ambrosio, D., Gaghen, R., Gagné, J., Hardcastle, A., Houssin, D., Jones, A., et al. (2013).
Global ev outlook: understanding the electric vehicle landscape to 2020.
Int. Energy Agency, pages 1–40.

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