832-Article Text-1979-1-10-20210610

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Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), Volume 6, Issue 6, (page 1 - 17), 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v6i6.832
Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH)
Volume 6, Issue 6, June 2021
e-ISSN: 2504-8562
Journal home page:

www.msocialsciences.com
Food Security Problems Before and During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A case study in
New Zealand
Maureen De Silva1, Emma Tingkas1, Lai Yew Meng2, Zainuddin Baco1, Diana Peters1, Dg. Junaidah
Awang Jambol1 1Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS)
2Knowledge and Language Advancement Center, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS)
Correspondence: Maureen De Silva (maureend@ums.edu.my), Lai Yew Meng (lyewmeng@ums.edu.my)
Abstract
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
This study aims to explore the dynamics of food security problems occurring among the people
before and during the Covid-19 pandemic. Based on a case study on the country of New Zealand,
this study will unravel the food security issues experienced by New Zealanders in the last two
decades and the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on food security problems among the people.
This study found that in the past 20 years, a number of New Zealanders have been faced with the
issue of access to food, especially the Maori and Pacific ethnic groups, the homeless, children,
single parents, and the disabled. They are faced with the issue of not having enough food which
affects nutrition, mental stability and family relationships. The food security problem faced by New
Zealanders was exacerbated when the Covid-19 pandemic occurred at the end of 2019. This
pandemic has not only caused a health crisis but it has also caused an economic crisis which
together poses a threat to food security among many others. New Zealanders. Among them, the
Covid-19 pandemic has affected access to food in terms of the lack of sufficient sources of income
to buy food due to lockdown or dismissal; disruption to supply chain systems in the event of critical
product shortages due to panic buying and packaging problems; the increase in the price of goods,
especially fresh vegetables and fruits, which affects nutritional intake; and the closure of food
banks and small businesses during the lockdown period because they are not categorized as
essential. This study uses a historical analysis approach based on the use of primary sources
(especially documents, reports, newspapers) and secondary sources.
Keywords: food security, food security problems, Covid-19 pandemic, New Zealand
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Food Insecurity Issued Before and During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Case Study of
New Zealand
Abstract
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
This study aims to trace the dynamics of food insecurity in New Zealand before and during the
outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic. Based on a case study of New Zealand, this study attempts
to analyze issues of food insecurity experienced by New Zealanders over the past two decades
and to what extent did the current Covid-19 pandemic exacerbate food insecurity among the people. The
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study finds that during the past twenty years, a proportion of New Zealanders had faced problems of
access to food, especially the Maori and Pacific ethnic groups, the homeless people, children, single
parents, the disabled etc. They were faced with insufficient food which among others affects nutrition,
mental stability and family relationships. Food insecurity faced by New Zealanders were exacerbated
by the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic in late 2019. The pandemic has not only triggered a health
crisis, but it has also caused an economic crisis that together posed a threat to food security among
many more New Zealanders. Among others, the Covid-19 pandemic has affected access to food due
to insufficient income to buy food during lockdowns and layoffs; disruption to supply chain systems
with the shortage of essential products due to panic buying and packaging problems; rising prices of
goods notably fresh vegetables and fruits which compromised intake of nutrition; and the closure of
non-profit, non-essential food charities and small food businesses during lockdown. This study uses
a historical analysis approach based on the use of primary sources (especially documents, reports,
newspapers) and secondary sources.
Keywords: food security, food insecurity, Covid-19 pandemic, New Zealand

______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Food security can be defined as the state in which every individual has physical, social and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food. In addition, the food must meet the daily nutritional
needs to allow the individual to live an active and healthy lifestyle. Food insecurity means disruption
to food intake or eating patterns due to lack of money and other resources.
According to The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, published by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FOA) and the World Health Organization (WHO), about 2 billion people in
the world experience moderate or severe food security problems. Lack of access to nutritious and
adequate food regularly puts them at risk of malnutrition and poor health. The majority of individuals
who face this problem are those who live in low-income countries, and more women than men. The
impact of food security problems is enormous, and these include political instability, economic
imbalances, and persistent poverty (FAO et al, 2019).
One of the countries that is also dealing with food security issues is New Zealand, which is one of
the developed countries that has a high per capita income. New Zealand is a country with a population
of around 5,002,100 million (Stats NZ, 18 May 2020).
As a developed country, New Zealand ranks high in national performance comparisons at the
international level, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government
transparency, and economic freedom. New Zealand's total food exports can feed 20 million people,
which is four times its population.
Despite this, the FOA et al (2019) report stated that 14.0% of New Zealand's population faced food
security issues in 2018, much higher than developed countries in Europe and North America which
have an average rate of 8.4% (FAO et al, 2019). When the Covid-19 pandemic sneaked into New
Zealand and the impact of the pandemic worsened, the situation became worse when it was
estimated that the number of New Zealanders facing food security issues due to the Covid-19
pandemic was as much as 1 million people, which is 20% of the population in the year 2020 compared
to 10% in 2019 (FAO et al, 2019).
Why does this happen? If New Zealand is one of the main exporters of food, why is there a food
security issue among its people before and during the Covid-19 pandemic? Who is the most affected
group? By using a historical analysis approach that examines causes based on primary and
secondary sources, this study aims to
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explore the dynamics of food security problems that occur among the people before and during the
Covid-19 pandemic. Based on a case study on the country of New Zealand, this study tries to unravel
the food security issues experienced by the people of New Zealand in the last two decades and the
extent to which the Covid-19 pandemic has impacted the people with food security issues.
Food Security and Pandemics: A General Background
In general, an individual will have 'food security' when at all times this individual can obtain enough
food to continue a healthy and active life. The definition of food security introduced at the 1996 World
Food Summit was refined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FOA) in 2002. In the glossary of
the FAO annual report, food security is explained as "a situation that exists when all people, at all
times, have physical , social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets
their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" (FAO, 2002). This definition
introduces a new element: the social aspect to food access. This aspect refers to the need to consider
the accessibility of food according to factors such as ethnicity, religion, and political affiliation. These
factors influence the quantity of food eaten, nutrition, variety and intake of nutrient-rich foods.
The widely accepted dimensions of food security include, (1) food availability, which is the amount of
food that is consistently available; (2) food access, or sufficient resources to obtain food suitable for a
nutritious diet; (3) food consumption, through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation and health care
to achieve well-being where all physiological needs are met, and (4) food stability, which refers to
stability to the availability, access and consumption of food, and is achieved when a reliable supply of
food products available to everyone at all times (FAO, June 2006). The extent to which each of these
dimensions supports the vulnerable varies across the world. In addition, the level and manifestation
of food security problems are in various forms with different economic backgrounds.
In the context of "food insecurity" , it refers to a situation where individuals do not have sufficient
access to the resources needed for a nutritious diet (FAO, 2015). It can happen when food security is
limited or uncertain. Food security problems are chronic in situations of long-term insufficient access
to adequate amounts of food, associated with persistent poverty and combined with a lack of coping
mechanisms due to complex conditions or lack of assets and inadequate access to productive
resources or finance (Thomson and Metz 1996). The problem of chronic food security has several
manifestations, including lack of access to food and food stocks, insufficient food rations throughout
the year, malnutrition in children under the age of five, purchases of small amounts of food and unpaid
household debt ( Sassi, 2018: 12). Temporary food security problems occur when the lack of adequate
access to food is temporary or happens in the short term. It can be temporary (when unpredictable
shocks suddenly affect household rights) or cyclical/seasonal (when there is a periodic pattern of
inadequate food access) (Sassi, 2018; FIVIMS 2003).
If viewed food is included in a broad global ecosystem where geopolitical, economic, political and
environmental aspects have an intimate relationship with the problem of food security (Kaiser et al.,
2015). The issue of food security is closely related to aspects of health, sustainable economic
development, environment and trade (WHO, 2015). According to some scholars, it is linked to poverty
and affects vulnerable groups such as children, the elderly, the homeless, ethnic minorities and female
heads of households (Warr, 2014; Martinez and Kawam, 2014; Franklin et al., 2012). The issue of
food security among this group has serious implications for well-being, such as increased susceptibility
to chronic diseases, weak immunity,
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negative implications for mental health and even death (Yousafzai et al, 2013; McLaughlin et al.,
2012, FAO, 2010). The inability to get enough food can lead to malnutrition, which in turn can
have a negative impact on school performance and work ability.
In general, a pandemic can be defined based on several characteristics. It refers to the movement
of disease, ie epidemics of infectious diseases that spread on a large scale, reaching a wide
geographical area, for example across continents or around the world, and affecting a large part
of the population (Last, 1988). Some pandemics are also characterized by a high rate of infectivity
(infectiousness) and can be contagious (contagious) easily from one individual to another, such
as influenza. The immunity of the population is very minimal against the disease. Pandemic is also
said to have novelty characteristics or describe a new disease, or at least related to a new variant
of an existing organism — for example, antigenic changes that occur in the influenza virus (Morens
et al, 2009).
Throughout history, pandemics have had a devastating impact on humanity, sometimes changing
the course of history and marking the end of entire civilizations.
Since the 20th century, there have been several outbreaks of diseases labeled as pandemics
because of the widespread network of spread and across extensive geographic areas. Most
important is "the mother of all pandemics" which is the Spanish Flu (1918-1919) with 500 million
people having become victims of this influenza. Genes from this 1918 virus have been found in
almost all subsequent influenza pandemics (Taubenberger, 2006). Almost 40 years after the
Spanish Flu, namely in 1957-1958, the world was shaken by the Asian flu pandemic (H2N2) that
started in China, and spread across the continent to the United States and claimed more than 1
million lives. The virus that causes this outbreak is a combination of bird flu viruses. In 1968, the
H3N2 pandemic emerged in Hong Kong and spread to the United States and Europe. The first
pandemic of the 21st century appeared in the spring of 2009 when a new influenza A H1N1 virus
(from swine) was detected in Mexico and the United States and spread throughout the world. In
one year, the virus has killed between 151,700 and 575,400 people (Relman et al, 2010). All these
pandemics have left a deep impact on human life.
The Covid-19 pandemic that existed at the end of 2019 is another pandemic episode that has
caused paralysis involving almost all human social activities around the world.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is defined as a disease caused by a novel coronavirus now
called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV 2; previously called 2019-
nCoV), first detected in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China on the end of 2019 (Cennimo, 2021). It has
spread rapidly around the world, especially to countries such as South Korea, Italy and Iran. The
World Health Organization (WHO) has declared Covid-19 as a global pandemic on March 11,
2020 after an assessment was made on the contagion of the epidemic which has the ability to
spread through the human population and across a wide area to cross national and continental
borders and even to the whole world. As of May 5, 2021, the WHO reported a total of 3,221,052
million deaths recorded with the cumulative number of cases of Coronavirus worldwide reaching
153,954,491 (WHO, 2021).
Countries such as India, the United States, Brazil, Turkey and France are the countries that
recorded the highest rate of new cases with India reporting more than 300,000 new cases a day
in the last two weeks – a figure considered conservative by experts (Pal, 2021 ). The overall
number of cases according to the WHO and other data providers have given an idea of how the
Covid-19 pandemic is about to become the worst health crisis ever to occur in the history of human
civilization after the Spanish Flu pandemic in 1918.
According to the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the global health impact of an
influenza pandemic could affect the workforce, transportation systems, and supply chains. The
effects of the virus in other areas of the world may cause communities elsewhere to experience
food crises before the influenza virus reaches them. Among the important indicators of how a
pandemic can cause food security problems is when industries that depend on imports and exports
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are struggling, food supplies are difficult to obtain locally and economic activities are disrupted
(PAHO, no date).
Before the emergence of the COVID-19 virus, food security issues were already prevalent in some
places with chronic and acute hunger already on the rise due to various factors including conflict,
socio-economic conditions, natural disasters, climate change and insect pests. FAO estimates that
the number of undernourished (including those suffering from chronic and acute hunger) increased
from 624 million people in 2014 to 688 million in 2019 (The World Bank, 2021). The Covid-19
pandemic has exacerbated this situation as the impact of COVID-19 has caused a severe and
widespread increase in global food security.
The economic and social disruption caused by the pandemic is devastating when tens of millions of
people are at risk of falling into extreme poverty, while the number of undernourished people also
increases drastically. The ongoing global health crisis has affected the food system and threatened
access to food through various dynamics. Not only is there a major disruption to the food supply
chain due to the "lockdown" , but there is also a very slow global economic development (The World
Bank, 2021). The crisis has led to an increase in retail prices for some items and combined with a
drop in income has resulted in more and more households not being able to afford food while some
are forced to reduce the quantity and quality of their food consumption. This has undermined the
objective where every individual has the right to obtain food and affected the efforts outlined in 2015
to achieve "Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2: "Zero hunger" by 2030. According to the WHO,
the Covid-19 pandemic will continue to bring bad impact (Ghebreyesus, 2020) because this virus
will continue to hover among the community for at least one or two more years (Scudellari, 2020).
Food Security Issues in New Zealand before the Transmission of the Covid-19 Pandemic
New Zealand's reputation as a developed country with a strong agricultural system led many to
assume that the country would not be affected by food security issues. As a food producing country,
New Zealand is certainly not faced with the problem of lack of food in the country because New
Zealand is one of the countries in the world that can be self-sufficient, and at the same time
contributes to global nutritional needs. It was found that 45% of New Zealand's fertile land is devoted
to food production with farmers exporting enough food for 20 million people, which is four times the
population of New Zealand which is only around 5 million (Rush, 2019). Among the products that
dominate New Zealand's exports are dairy, beef and lamb, kiwi fruit, apples, onions and wine. The
amount of food imports can feed 10 million people, which is twice the population of New Zealand
(Rush, 2019).
In reality, the issue of food security is a global issue that also impacts New Zealand. This is
acknowledged by the Director General of Health, Dr. Ashley Bloomfield, in 2019, "Food insecurity is
an issue that no New Zealand family should have to worry about. Unfortunately this is not currently
the case in Aotearoa/ New Zealand" (Ministry of Health, 2019:III). The problem that arises is actually
the accessibility to the food. A person will be considered "food insecure" if they have to use special
needs grants or food banks; buy cheaper goods or food to enable them to buy other goods; and
often neglect fresh fruits and vegetables (Carter et al, 2010).
In the first decade of the 21st century, a survey was made on the problem of food security among
the population of New Zealand. Survey figures for the year 2008/09 stated that 7.3% of the people
experienced serious security problems while 33% were moderate (Graham, 2019). About 20% of
New Zealand households lack money to buy food, which is exacerbated by the ever-increasing food
price index. In addition, the remote residential location, high number of households and ethnicity
also affect the problem of food security among the people (Bowers et al, 2009; Rush and Rusk,
2009; Carter et al, 2010).
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The second decade of the 21st century also showed almost similar findings. Over a five-year period
(2014-2019), the cost of food prices has increased by 4% but fruit and vegetables have outpaced
this, with a cost increase of 9% (Rush, 2019). This greatly affects the people.
A survey conducted by the New Zealand Ministry of Health in 2015/2016 reported that at least one
in five children aged between 2 and 14 in New Zealand (19%) lived in households experiencing
moderate to severe food security issues. severe (Ministry of Health, 2019). Children with these
food security issues usually live in poor neighborhoods; have a low household income; receive
government assistance; live in a rented house; consists of Pacific or Maori ethnicity; and living with
two or more children in the home.
These children will be affected by their nutrition and nutrition because they will not get the nutrition
they need for healthy growth (Fram et al, 2015). Compared to children who do not have food
security issues, children whose nutrition is affected will consume less fruit and vegetables, will not
eat breakfast before school, and will consume more fast food and soft drinks (Child Poverty Action
Group, August 2019:3-4). This will cause obesity problems (Utter et al 2012), worse health status
and more problematic development and behavior rates which will also affect school performance
(Whitaker et al, 2006).
Historically, the indigenous Maori have lost almost 95% of their land and resources following
European colonization post-1840 (Beavis et al, 2019) which in turn makes the indigenous Maori
live in isolation and become the worst affected group when epidemics occur (smallpox in 1913) or
pandemic (Spanish Flu 1918 to 1919). The lack of land to accommodate population growth
contributed to the migration of large numbers of Maori to cities, and participation in a wage-based
economy (Poata-Smith, 2013). However, this made Maori vulnerable to the economic restructuring
that began in 1984 and continued into the 1990s, resulting in significant job losses in areas where
Maori were dominant. The Maori unemployment rate has been recovering since its peak (27.3%)
in 1992, but there are still wide employment differences in New Zealand by ethnicity and this affects
household income (Beavis et al, 2019).
Before the Covid-19 crisis occurred, two out of three whÿnau (extended families) from Maori
households were already dealing with the issue of accessibility to nutritious food. The main factor
in this happening is poverty, further supported by other causes such as transportation issues or
living too far from food sources. Low or limited income causes spending ability to also become
limited among the indigenous Maori community. A large number of whÿnau do not earn enough
income to buy the healthy food they deserve even though in 2009 the FOA identified access to
food as a human right, especially for indigenous communities (Kira, 2020).
As for Pacific ethnic groups (comprising Samoan, Cook Islands Maori, Tongan, Niuean, Fijian,
Tokelauan and Tuvakuan), the issue of food security is also very deep. In 1997, 60% of Pacific
ethnic households said they could afford to eat well compared to 90% of New Zealanders of
European and other descent (NZEO). Five years later, in 2002, only 46.6% of Pacific ethnic
households were able to eat well compared to 86.1% of NZEO households. The two surveys made
(1997 and 2002) prove that more than 50% of Pacific adults and children are burdened by food
security issues compared to other ethnicities. Between those two years also marked a decline in
food security for Pacific (and Maori and NZEO) households. This food security problem includes
aspects of not being able to eat well, running out of food, eating less because there is no money
and this also affects the type of food eaten, depending on other parties to get food, as well as using
food grants or food banks (Rush & Rusk, 2009) ).
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The behavior and access of Pacific communities to food is heavily influenced by geographic
location, ethnic differences, language, family size, culture and worldview, strong Christianity and
ties to the church, socioeconomic status (including health status, occupation, workplace and shift
work), length of time in New Zealand, and finally, supply, access and needs. In the context of the
church for example, the church has a special place in the Pacific community and plays a major
role in providing information and services. In a study reported in 2020, 92% of mothers reported
their affiliation with a religious institution and 65% had a traditional commitment to family or church.
Two-thirds of them asserted that giving gifts/commitments to family or church had worsened their
financial situation. Peer pressure is also used to encourage families to "mortgage their homes,
starve or go bankrupt" to make payments to the church and family on their home island (Rush &
Rusk, 2009).
There is an opinion that states the issues of food security and poverty faced by the people of New
Zealand in the 21st century are no different from the lives of people living in the "slums" area of
London during the era of Queen Victoria's administration in the early 20th century (Graham, 2019:
3). This can be traced from the type of diet taken by the people in both eras. Reeves (1913) in his
study on the issue of poverty and infant mortality in the Lambeth area, south of London, stated
that the diet chosen by people facing food security problems was cheap and filling. They have no
choice because what needs to be taken into account is money. Meanwhile, according to the New
Zealanders interviewed in the Hamilton and Greater Waikato region in the 21st century, in facing
the challenges of poverty and food security problems, they prioritize staple foods that require the
easiest way to prepare food, the cost of storing food that is minimal, non-perishable, filling and
satisfying. This includes "2 minute" instant noodles and budget foods such as bread, pasta, rice,
eggs, milk and canned foods (Graham, 2019). With NZD25 for a week's worth of food, citizens /
parents are pragmatic and buy only what is essential. It is common for them to eat poor quality
food such as food that is out of date, bad or tasteless as daily food because it is important for their
survival (Graham et al, 2018).
The impact of this lack of food security has affected people's lives. Not only do they not get the
nutrition the whole family needs, it also affects family relationships causing parents and children
to be stressed and anxious. Some are dealing with eating disorders. Sometimes the tension that
occurs will cause fights and affect the relationship between children and parents. The pressure
faced by having to "eat what's available" also increases the emotional and mental burden on
parents because there are no resources to provide enough food. In most cases, parents will make
sacrifices to ensure their children have food.
There are also children who are concerned with the challenges their parents face and do their best
to help. Some bring home leftovers from school or community events for the whole family. Other
options include emptying trash cans, and finding part-time work and the wages received will be
used to buy food (Graham, 2019).
When dealing with food security issues, many will use food grants or food banks provided by
government or non-government organizations. In June 2018, as many as 88,000 families with
children received special grant assistance linked to food needs (Perry, 2018). Meanwhile, a non-
governmental organization called the Salvation Army claims that they distributed 56,500 food
packages to 29,500 families in 2016. This amount increased by 12% between 2016 and 2017.
The use of food banks or grants is linked to many factors other than need, including local
availability and stigma. This means that the number of households that benefit from the use of
food banks or grants to meet their needs is higher (Ministry of Health, 2019). This number
increased manifold when the Covid-19 pandemic occurred at the end of 2019.
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New Zealand Government Policy on the Covid-19 Pandemic: “Go Hard, Go Early” ,
"Unite Against Covid-19"
In 2019, New Zealand ranked 35th in the world in the pandemic preparedness index compared to
its neighbor Australia (ranked 4th), and behind Indonesia and South Africa (Mc Lean, 16 February
2020; Stockman, 4 January 2021) . A public health system that is mired in debt and lacks strong
central control is led by a weak Ministry of Health. This is evidenced by the limitations and lackluster
response of the Ministry of Health to the measles outbreak that occurred in 2019. Basically, New
Zealand was not prepared for COVID-19 (Stockman, 4 January 2021).
The first case of Covid-19 was reported to have occurred in New Zealand on 28 February 2020.
This was a community infection involving a 60-year-old New Zealander who had just returned from
Tehran, Iran using Emirates Airline via Bali, Indonesia. New Zealand confirmed its second case on
March 4, 2020, a woman in her 30s who had just returned from northern Italy. The number of cases
continued to record a significant increase throughout March 2020, a total of 58 new cases were
recorded on March 31, bringing the total number of Covid-19 cases in New Zealand to 647 cases
as reported by Dr Ashley Bloomfield as New Zealand's Director of Health in a daily press conference
which held together with Sarah Stuart-Black who is also the Director of Civil Defense and
Emergency Management (Stuff, 31 March 2020).
According to Healy and Malhotra (2009), investing in prevention is far more efficient and cost-
effective than reacting to a crisis (Healy and Malhotra, 2009: 388). This is what the New Zealand
government has done in the early stages of the Covid-19 pandemic. The initial step of the Ardern-
led government was to mobilize the National Health Coordination Center about a month before the
first case of Covid-19 was reported in New Zealand. This PPKN functions to monitor the spread of
epidemics and then issue warnings related to infectious diseases to the public to prepare New
Zealanders to take precautions in the face of any potential worst health crisis to occur. Although
New Zealand's geographical position is relatively isolated, the government is aware of the threat
and danger of Covid-19 due to the high number of tourists and students who arrive in the country
every summer, especially from Europe and mainland China. They expected the disease to spread
widely, paralyze the health system, and burden Maori and other Pacific populations (Baker, Wilson
& Anglemyer, 2020: e56(1)).
Because of that, the New Zealand government began to implement the agenda to deal with the
pandemic in earnest in February, including preparing hospitals to receive many patients. Border
control policies are also enforced to prevent the spread of the Covid-19 disease. New Zealanders
who have just returned from China are required to undergo a 14-day quarantine at a military facility.
Ardern has ordered the closure of all national borders with immediate effect on 3 February 2020.
This government action shows how seriously the government is dealing with the Covid-19 pandemic
issue even though no cases have been reported in the country at that time.
However, by mid-March 2020, community transmission was increasing in New Zealand. The chain
of transmission is spread throughout the country, with the highest cases in popular tourist areas
and wedding events where the chain of transmission spans various age groups (Robert, 2020).
Unlike Taiwan, Singapore and South Korea, New Zealand was not affected by SARS and MERS,
and therefore, had no experience of facing pandemics like those of its Asian neighbors. Not only
does the public health unit not have enough test kits, it also lacks the capacity to implement close
contact tracing to prevent rapid transmission (Stockman, January 4, 2021). It is very clear that
Covid-19 will affect the health system very deeply and will likely cause high mortality.
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Therefore, New Zealand has taken drastic action. All community social programs are not allowed
and the ban comes into force on 16 March 2020. Travelers returning to New Zealand are required
to self-quarantine for 14 days. On March 19, 2020, health retirees were asked to report to help the
government provide services at hospitals and health centers (Rice, 2020). On March 21, Ardern
announced a four-tier pandemic response system that describes the different responses and rules
that people and businesses need to follow to reduce the spread of Covid-19. Level 1 rules are the
loosest while Level 4 is the strictest. On 25 March 2020, New Zealand entered Level 4 with a
declaration of emergency and a nationwide "lockdown" enforced at 11.59pm for approximately four
and a half weeks (RNZ, February 2021).
The Level 4 response system is one of the strictest in the world and only allows the "essential
services" group to operate. All New Zealanders are ordered to stay at home unless they are
"essential" workers. This important service area refers to various activities but in the context of food
preparation or supply this includes; the supply, delivery, distribution, and sale of food, beverages
and other goods that are essential to maintaining the well-being of the people, the production and
processing of food, and the provision of welfare and social services. Although these essential
services include food production and distribution, there are a number of food services that are
exempt and need to be closed such as butchers, bakeries, restaurants, cafes, bars, and other small
scale food traders (New Zealand Government. Essential Business, 2020).
Historically, the approach used has typically been a mitigation model and focused on slowing the
arrival of the virus, followed by various measures to flatten the curve of cases and deaths. New
Zealand's decision to implement an elimination approach is very different from conventional pandemic
planning. When the lockdown showed encouraging results, Ardern ignored the mitigation strategy
that simply "flattened the curve" and switched to a one-off elimination strategy (Cousins, 2020;
Baker, Wilson & Anglemyer, 2020). Seven weeks later the lockdown is lifted, and New Zealand is
back to normal. After 103 days, COVID-19 has been successfully eradicated.
The speed of risk assessment associated with the early, decisive and efficient action of the
government is believed to be critical in helping Prime Minister Ardern control the spread of Covid-19
in New Zealand, thus gaining the attention and praise of the international community. Government
leaders realize their country is not prepared, and their health system cannot withstand the "attack" of Covid-19.
For this reason, the Ardern-led government uses the "Go hard, and go early" approach in the
intervention program carried out (Jamieson, 2020). Ardern has also shown empathic leadership
characteristics and has communicated effectively by delivering the main message to the public and
setting the agenda to fight the Covid-19 pandemic through the "Unite Against Covid-19" campaign
as the responsibility and cooperation of the "Team of 5 Million". Billboards and news feeds on social
media are filled with campaign messages. Leaflets are also distributed in every town, city and letter
box in the country. Every evening, Ardern and the Director General of Health appear on television
and give detailed updates, repeating important information over and over. Important messages such
as 'Stay Home - Save Lives' are translated into dozens of languages, and channeled to communities
through churches, mosques, community leaders and influential social media (Stockman, 2021).
Public opinion polls that consistently exceed 80% support for government policies (including
lockdowns) show the public's high confidence in Ardern's leadership to the point that they comply
with pandemic control methods that can not only burden them but deny civil liberties (Jamieson,
2020). . When there is a change in the situation, the government has made adaptations and
modifications to overcome the deficiencies that exist in the government's response (Jamieson,
2020). A growing sense of national pride also exists among its people.
10
Although New Zealand was successfully free of Covid-19 for 103 days in June 2020, this situation
did not last long because the end of lockdown and human movement will always expose the
country to the risk of re-infection. Since August 2020 until now (May, 2021), there have been
several lockdowns declared in the city of Auckland in their efforts to fight Covid-19. As of 27 May
2021, the number of active cases in New Zealand is at a double-digit level, which is 21 cases with
a total of 2670 cases with 26 deaths (Ministry of Health, 27 May 2021). The New Zealand
government's fast and efficient response may be able to reduce or eliminate Covid-19 in the country
in the near future, but the impact of this pandemic will be felt in the long term, especially in relation
to food security problems.
Food Security Problems in New Zealand Due to the Covid-19 Pandemic
The global Covid-19 pandemic poses a major challenge to food security, especially in relation to
food access, availability, and stability. The full impact of the pandemic on the food system cannot
yet be assessed. What is clear is that the pandemic has the potential to significantly worsen existing
economic imbalances, impacting those already experiencing food security problems. The stringent
pandemic response meant that in the Phase 4 “Lockdown” phase the New Zealand government
had effectively eliminated community transmission of Covid-19 for 103 days. The re-emergence of
new cases of Covid-19 in August 2020 was contained through Level 2 and 3 responses by area.
There is no doubt that the New Zealand government was successful in its response to protect the
health of the people. However, the lockdown restrictions have disrupted the domestic food system
at all levels, from production to manufacturing and processing, distribution and consumption of food.
Social services are temporarily closed or forced to adapt to pandemic restrictions.

People also had to change their practices in obtaining food sources and eating habits.
Despite disrupting the production process, during the pandemic, New Zealand did not face the
issue of food supply availability. Assistant Deputy Director General of the Ministry of Primary
Industries, Ruth Fairhall, said New Zealand had long enjoyed a food surplus, thanks to the country's
combination of natural resources and innovation. Therefore, the country is in a good position to
face pandemic disruptions to national and international trade and supply chains. The government
assured that the food industry would ensure a sustained supply of food to New Zealanders, and
would continue to export to international markets for the majority of the country's food products
(Mitchel, 2021).
The problem faced by New Zealanders in the context of food security is focused on their accessibility
to food when many do not get enough food due to the impact of the pandemic.
Auckland City Mission estimates that the number of New Zealanders facing food security issues
during and after the Covid-19 pandemic is as many as 1 million people, which is 20% of the
population in 2020 compared to 10% in 2019. With the population losing their jobs, panic buying in
stores and other factors, the Covid-19 pandemic has threatened food security issues more broadly
in New Zealand (Grieser, September 2020).
The best indicator showing the problem of food security among New Zealanders is the demand for
emergency food aid since the beginning of the Covid-19 lockdown has increased significantly, thus
showing the difficulty for households to meet their basic needs (Neuwelt-Kearns, 2020). Food
banks across the country are facing a huge increase in demand, with phone lines receiving tens of
thousands of emergency calls needing help, and queues outside Christchurch food banks for
example have caused traffic jams (Mitchell, 31 January 2021). The announcement of a level 4
lockdown at the end of March 2020 saw a threefold increase in food parcels reported by the
Christchurch City Missioner, while Wellington's City Missioner reported a 400% request for food aid.
The Salvation Army reports the distribution of 6000 food packages a week currently
11
movement control orders, which are numbers that are usually distributed within a month. During
2020, the Salvation Army distributed more than 113,000 parcels nationwide, almost double the
number in 2019 (RNZ, 17 February 2021). Requests for emergency food grants from the Ministry
of Social Development (MSD) have also increased in the three weeks after the lockdown came
into force and the granting of special grants for food has increased from 30,000 to 67,000 (Neuwelt-
Kearns, 2020).
According to research that has been done, the increase in the demand for packaged food is
influenced by a combination of three factors: the closure or absence of non-profit operations, the
closure of small food suppliers, and the loss of jobs/income thus reducing the ability to purchase
food. The first factor involved several parties included in the food distribution system in New
Zealand, especially those running non-profit-based operations, having to stop operations overnight
while the Level 3–4 warning system was implemented. This is because they are not registered as
'essential services', cannot adapt to increased health and safety or logistical requirements, or their
volunteers are unable to work due to their age or health profile. Included in this group are social
services that include several aspects of food preparation (eg youth groups, drug and alcohol
services, church meals, school breakfast clubs), as well as informal 'fellowships' that occur through
family and community (Dombroski, et al, 2020) ).
The second factor is the closure of small food suppliers where transactions revolve around food.
This includes farmers markets, cafes, butchers, restaurants, hotels, and fast food providers. The
closure of these businesses and distribution services will essentially push most food transactions
to supermarkets. These changes disrupt supply chains, affecting both producers and consumers.
As residents have described, during the lockdown vegetable and fruit markets could not operate,
and this wiped out 60% of Auckland's supply chain in one night. The two largest [fresh food]
markets are in South Auckland, so the closure of these small suppliers will restrict access to
markets for those most affected by food security issues. The price of fresh food tends to be lower
in the market compared to the price in the supermarket. Accordingly, this not only affects families
who are now no longer able to buy what they could previously buy at market prices, but it also
affects producers. So more consumers and producers will ask for help from food banks (Dombroski
et al, 2020).
A third factor is the loss of jobs/sources of income and the increase in workers being asked to take
unpaid leave leading to an increase in those relying on emergency food services. This group is at
great risk during the pandemic due to their inability to obtain adequate and nutritious food supplies.
Most of the communities that receive food aid during the emergency period are households whose
heads of families have lost income due to Covid-19 and have never used their services before,
that is, before the Covid-19 pandemic occurred (Neuwelt-Kearns, 2020). Unemployment in New
Zealand is expected to rise to around 9% in September 2020 with business reductions or closures
affecting a large proportion of New Zealanders. Many are laid off and for those who are still
working, they are faced with a reduction in working hours or pay levels, thus facing a decrease in
income without a reduction in the cost of living. Even among those who were still working full-time
during this period, the minimum wage remained insufficient to meet the necessities of life. Social
service agencies often report about their clients who, despite working full-time, still struggle to get
food and other basic needs after paying for housing costs (Neuwelt-Kearns, 2020).
New Zealanders affected due to low income sources do not have the capacity to stockpile food to
reduce movement. At the time when Covid-19 appeared in New Zealand and before the "lockdown",
there was panic buying among the community when long queues existed in supermarkets across
the country before the lockdown took place (RNZ, 23 March 2021). Many supermarkets run out of
food stocks, especially wheat flour,
12
canned food and pasta. Time and again the same message is conveyed to the common people:
there is no need to stock up on food, there is plenty of food in New Zealand, yet panic buying still
occurs (Oshri & Kotlarsky, 2020). This increases the chain's supply-related issues when
supermarkets cannot fill shelves as quickly as they are emptied. In other words, running out of
flour on supermarket shelves does not mean that New Zealand is running out of flour but it is due
to suppliers running out of packages, and rushing to package the flours to meet the surge in
demand for 1 or 2kg of flour (Mitchell, 2021).
Excessive buying or the attitude of stockpiling during the spread of COVID-19 occurs due to
several interrelated factors. This includes government intervention on public health that will
constrain normal consumer behavior and practices for example in terms of where, when and how
to buy; disruption of the food supply chain; social media; and sensationalized media reporting (Hall
et al, 2020; Zhao & Zhou, 2020; Kirk & Rifkin, 2020, Arafat et al, 2020). The feature of Covid-19
that is full of uncertainty especially related to the actual impact on daily life and the ability to
maintain the same routine during the curfew also does not help in reducing the panic buying of
New Zealanders (Oshri & Kotlarsky, 2020).
Although the New Zealand government advises the public to 'shop normally' and buy only what
they need, the well-off will buy a lot and stock up while the income-affected are unable to access
food supplies and basic necessities. At a time when the trend of panic buying is no longer
happening and the shelves in most supermarkets are being restocked, New Zealanders are being
asked not to shop too often to reduce contact with others. This is not an issue for the wealthy. But
for those who can't buy a lot of necessities, they have to visit the supermarket every time they
receive a salary or as often as possible to buy only the necessary food items.
In fact the channeling of supply and distribution of food through supermarkets, coupled with the
loss of income has hindered access both geographically and financially. When this is combined
with restrictions on public transport and the high demand for taxi and Uber services, many are
unable to access food from the available supermarkets. There are some locations in New Zealand,
including small towns and rural areas in particular, that do not have rental car or Uber services,
and taxis are also very limited. A combination of these factors has exacerbated the existing
imbalance issue and caused a sudden demand for food bank services from those who were
previously ineligible or never used this channel to get food. This includes those who can buy food
but who feel unsafe entering supermarkets, those who do not own a private vehicle and cannot
afford private taxis, and foreign workers and international students who have been dismissed by
their employers and are not eligible for state welfare assistance or network support family
(Dombroski et al, 2020).
In the era of the Covid-19 pandemic, approximately 23% of Maori live in low-income households
and experience food security issues. Not only that, the developments that took place in New
Zealand in terms of government policies that control movement caused some who used to be
"food secure" to become "insecure". It appears that access to traditional food sources through
hunting and fishing, and limited travel to obtain cheap fresh sources (such as at community
markets) have placed ongoing constraints on whÿnau.
Many Maori residents do not have time to adapt and plan strategies to overcome the situation
(Tunks, 2021).
This is evidenced by the increase and large demand for food parcels among the Maori population.
Financial assistance from the government and from tribal reserves shows that Maori Health and
Social Service Providers and non-governmental organizations have quickly mobilized aid in
response to the urgent need. Typical food products included in this package are canned soup,
tomatoes and beans, pasta
13
and rice, noodles, canned fruit, and sometimes cereal and bread. Usually foods high in
carbohydrates and sodium are essential (Tunks, 2021). Many Maori leaders themselves have tried
to organize the delivery of food parcels to reduce the physical and mental stress brought by the
epidemic. The action taken by the leaders of the indigenous people was praised by Jeffrey
Campbell, former manager of the Forest and Farm Facility section, FOA, where he stated that the
functional food system of the indigenous people is a manifestation of the spirit of reciprocity,
collective action, and caring for one another each other, and should be a target model for all parties
(Food Tank, November 2020). However, although food parcels provide the necessary support to
whÿnau, the sustainability of food access and availability needs to be taken into account so that
the resilience of the Maori population is increased and there is no reliance on food parcels alone.
The transmission of the Covid-19 pandemic has caused child poverty to increase due to many
families being hit with difficulties when parents or guardians lose their jobs or lack of working time.
It turns out that government aid helps a lot but the aid given cannot compensate for the long-term
economic impact during the lockdown and global recession. So there is an increase in poverty for
children who were in poor households before Covid-19, plus those who have just fallen into poverty
due to loss of income due to Covid-19.
For families that rely on school feeding programs, school closures put additional pressure on these
families. Lockdown disruptions mean more children will go hungry for long periods of time. The
absence or lack of sources of income to support themselves means that families will depend on
charitable assistance, making their food sources increasingly less (Child Poverty Action Group,
2020: 3).
Despite having returned to school, the issue of food security among children still occurs.
Based on a survey of 90% of 400 schools by KidsCan, a leading charity in New Zealand that helps
children affected by poverty, it was found that the problem of food security is very significant among
school children.
Before Covid-19, as many as 30,000 school children across New Zealand were helped by KidsCan
every day. But after the lockdown, the number increased to 40,000 every day. In the Wairapapa
district for example, hot meals have been provided to children in 5 schools for a total of four study
sessions in 2020 compared to only Sessions 2 and 3 last year (NZ Herald, 2021).
Conclusion
The problem of food security is indeed a problem that occurs globally and is being faced by a
number of people in the world. The spread of the Covid-19 pandemic has worsened this situation.
In the context of New Zealand, the problem of food security is an issue that occurred in New
Zealand before the Covid-19 pandemic. Although New Zealand is one of the world's food exporters
and can comfortably feed its population, it turns out that the issue of food security remains a
concern of the government during the first two decades of the 21st century. Since before the spread
of Covid-19, some residents have been dealing with the issue of "access" to food. These affected
groups include Maori and Pacific ethnics, homeless people, children, single parents, people with
disabilities. The occurrence of the Covid-19 pandemic that shook the world has had a significant
impact on the issue of food security in New Zealand. The characteristics of the disease that lead to
high infection rates and death cases at the global level have caused the New Zealand government
to implement a "go hard and go early" policy, which is a policy of direct elimination and not just a
mitigation policy of "flattening the curve". The implementation of the level 4 warning system which
imposes a state of emergency (lockdown) has controlled the movement of the population and
allowed only the essential groups to work outside and forced other citizens to stay at home.
14
Almost a quarter of New Zealanders need help from the government and non-government organizations
through special grants or food banks to ensure survival. Many have difficulty accessing food supplies (food
insecurity) for the first time. The Covid-19 pandemic has caused many workers to be laid off and some have
had their wages cut or reduced working hours because the employer's operations have been affected, thus
impacting sources of income. The lack or absence of sources of income due to the Covid-19 pandemic has
led to chronic and moderate food security problems for those who do not have money to buy food. The
Covid-19 pandemic has shown the weaknesses in the existing supply chain system with reference to the
occurrence of shortages of essential products due to panic buying among New Zealanders and the lack of
packaging work that can be done by manufacturers. It has also caused an increase in the price of goods,
especially fresh vegetables and fruits that affect nutrition. The closure of small business centers such as
fresh markets and dependence on supermarkets with more expensive prices have caused the problem of
food security among the people to become more acute. Geographical factors, transportation issues and
socio-cultural factors also affect access to food by some residents.
Accordingly, it can be said that the number of people facing food security problems in New Zealand increased
from before the Covid-19 era until the Covid-19 pandemic era based on their dependence on financial aid
and food parcels. In total, intervention from various parties whether government or private is very important
to guarantee the sustainability of food security among the people.
Appreciation
This study was funded by a research grant under the Special Fund Scheme (SDK0280-2020). The
researchers would like to express their deepest appreciation and gratitude to Universiti Malaysia Sabah for
funding this research.
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Machine Translated by Google

Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH)

Volume 6, Issue 6, June 2021

Journal home page:

Correspondence: Maureen De Silva (maureend@ums.edu.my), Lai Yew Meng (lyewmeng@ums.edu.my)

Keywords: food security, food insecurity, Covid-19 pandemic, New Zealand

Food Security and Pandemics: A General Background

Food Security Problems in New Zealand Due to the Covid-19 Pandemic

Social services are temporarily closed or forced to adapt to pandemic restrictions.

McLean, E. (2020). NZ 35th in pandemic preparedness. February 16. https://www.odt.co.nz/news/dune

Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency. (2019). Keeping Cities Moving. https://www.nzta.govt.nz/assets/

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