AGRICULTURE NOTES

FORM ONE

M. S. GOROGODO
 CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL AGRICULTURE

Agriculture

Agriculture is the growing of crops, rearing of animals, processing and marketing of products. It involves
the use of natural resources, technology and financial input to come up with a product that can be sold
for a profit.

Land use

Agricultural activities are dependent on the availability of land, which belongs to the state. The state
therefore determines the use of its land to sustain its citizens. The land is used for forestry, wildlife
management, and crop and livestock husbandry and protected.

Forestry – it is the practice of growing, managing and harvesting of forest trees. The trees can either be
indigenous or exotic and are left to grow. Notable areas that have been left for foresting include
Chirinda forest of Chipinge. Forest are also a provider of timber which is required for the construction
and furniture industry.

Figure representing a natural forest

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Wildlife management - wildlife refers to living forms of life that is not domesticated. These are animals
and plants that grow without the purposeful interference of man. Proper management of wildlife leads
them to not become extinct. The state allocates land that enables the fauna and flora to thrive without
any interference from people, which include game parks, sanctuaries and conservancies.

Figure representing wildlife

Crop and livestock husbandry – people are very dependent on crops and livestock, therefore it is the
main priority of the government of Zimbabwe. It allocates adequate land for these agricultural activities,
for both the national and international market.

Protected areas – is land chosen by state as scientific reserves, with the public having limited access to
these areas and are protected by the law of Zimbabwe. National parks, national monuments, nature
reserves and wildlife sanctuaries fall under this categories. They are well distributed throughout the
country.

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Factors affecting land use in Zimbabwe

Rainfall is the major factor that influences agricultural activities in Zimbabwe. The distribution pattern of
rainfall changes with area, which has been used to determine natural farming regions.

Terrain and sloppiness also have a bearing on what agricultural practice is to be done in these areas.
Mountainous regions practice forest and tea production because of their slopes. These include the
Eastern Highlands, which also receive adequate rainfall.

Land tenure

Land tenure is how land is owned, controlled and used by individuals. These are system of rules that
determine how land is allocated to people, linked to politics, the economy and social structure and
governed by the law of the land.

1. Freehold tenure - this system gives rights of ownership to an individual, a group of people or
company, and full control of the land. The owner can use the land for whatever they want, in
accordance to the local regulations. Proof of ownership is through a document known as the
`Title deed`
2. Leasehold – this is when a farmer with property rights to an area, lets out parts of their land to
individuals, groups or companies to carryout farming activities. The tenant signs a lease
agreement that acts as proof that they have been allowed to utilize the given land, for a certain
period of time. The contract entered between the farmer (landlord) and his tenant, highlights
also how much `rent` is to be paid.
3. Communal ownership – this land, owned by the state, is controlled by the Rural District Council,
and allows qualifying individuals to utilize it, but does not own it. If later it is require for
redistribution, the state can do so and allocate the occupant somewhere else.
4. Resettlement model – it is a program by the Zimbabwean government that was used to resettle
the landless. It follows agreements made at the Lancaster House in 1979. It allocates arable,
under-utilized areas that was formerly owned by white commercial farms to deserving,
indigenous, black subsistence farmers who were located in smaller, unproductive lands.

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Historical background of land tenure

In Zimbabwe, land is an important national heritage, which has been passed down for generations. It
carries valuable mineral resources which give the country required foreign currency. Agricultural
activities are done on land, making it very important. Therefore land should be used with care so that it
is not destroyed or made unproductive.

Pre-colonial land tenure

Generations ago, people who lived in Zimbabwe were nomadic, relying on hunting and gathering later
they started to tame wild animals and plants but still being nomadic. They later adopted sedentary life
initially growing crops using shifting cultivation.

Shifting cultivation involved the clearing of a piece of land and burning the trees and grasses, growing
crops then moving to new land after several seasons. This then changed to subsistence farming when
the people built permanent residence on their land. This still continues up to today.

Colonial land tenure

The occupation of Zimbabwe by white settlers was from 1890 to 1920, bringing with it changes in land
tenure systems. They took land and cattle from the indigenous people. It has been concluded that these
settlers, 1 % of the population used 45 % of the total land, with the remaining squeezed in 55% of the
land.

The reserved land was not productive than the rabble land that they allocated for themselves. This led
to many indigenous people working for the whites. They were also forced to reduce their total herd of
cattle to disempower them, leaving them poor.

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Land reform – the 3rd Chimurenga

Post independent Zimbabwe initiated ways of trying to rewrite these imbalances, agreeing with the
British Government to resettle the indigenous community. They used a `willing buyer, willing seller`
approach, but it was not very efficient.

Frustrated with this slow pace, communal farmers started to forcibly take land from the privileged white
commercial farmers. Seeing this, the government intervened by regularizing the land distribution
process. It hoped that the program would also increase agricultural productivity of the peasant farmers,
create employment and give them opportunity to market their goods internationally.

The land distribution program was structured into two main models:

A1 model – farmers were allocated land between 12 – 15 acres, depending also o the agro-ecological
region, for farming. They settled as villagers, headed by a chairperson, and allocated a separate area for
grazing.

A2 model – this was characterized as commercial farming, with government giving the farmers 99 year
leases for the farmers in this category. They were instructed to pay levies and other charges to be
determined by the RDC they were located and give a 5-year development plan before being given the
lease.

Environmental factors influencing agriculture

Environmental factors are factors that affect agricultural activities, but the farmer has no control over.
They determine the success or failure of crops being grown and animals being reared.

Wind

Wind is air in motion. It moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. Wind direction
is measured using a wind vane and uses the cardinal points of direction. Wind speed is measured using a
cup anemometer and uses knots or kilometres per hour as units of measurement.

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 A diagram showing both a wind vane and a cup anemometer

Advantages of wind

 Wind blows rain bearing clouds to an area

 It separates grain from chaff when winnowing
 Wind is used for pollination by some plants
 Wind removes humid air around plants, which reduces fungal infections

Disadvantages of wind

 Strong winds blow flowers off plants reducing production

 Strong wings can even uproot standing crops such as maize and rapoko
 Wind can erode fertile top soil
 Strong winds cause animals to be exhausted causing them not to graze
 Some winds can even dry up the air, increasing transpiration and cause plants to wilt

Temperature

This is the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere. It is measured by a six`s thermometer and
uses degrees Celsius as units of measurement.

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 A diagram showing a six`s thermometer

Effects of high temperatures to plants and animals

 Temperature above 35oC cause crops to wilt and die because of high transpiration
 The high temperatures can also cause flower drop reducing fruit yield
 Animals are faced with heat stroke and death due to high temperatures e.g. broiler chickens
 Male animals are temporarily infertile as high temperatures reduce sperm count
 It reduces animal appetite, reducing growth rate

Effects of low temperatures

 Most plants are susceptible to frost e.g. tomatoes

 Frost damages plant leaves and stems and even animals, which can lead to their death
 Fruits become discoloured by frost, reducing their quality
 Animals eat a lot of fees but have little growth witnessed

Rainfall

Rain is water that falls form clouds and is a major influencer to agricultural activities. It affects though its
reliability, distribution, effectiveness, intensity and seasonal length. It is measured by a rain gauge and
uses millimetres as units of measurement.

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 A diagram showing a rain gauge

Effect of excessive rainfall

 Too much rainfall promotes leaching of nutrients deep into the soil, in areas that plant roots
cannot reach
 It promotes soil erosion
 Water logging will reduce air circulation in the soil, causing microorganisms to stop
decomposing organic material and reduces nutrient uptake
 Plant start to lodge or drupe because roots are not properly anchored.
 Animals can be affected by diseases that favour wet conditions

Effects of too little rainfall

 Plants will wilt and die

 Animals became dehydrated as they have little water to drink, which can cause death
 There is reduced pastures therefore reduced grazing by animals

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Humidity

This refers to the amount of water vapour that is in the atmosphere. It is measured by an instrument
known as a hygrometer and uses percentages as units of measurements.

Diagram showing a hygrometer

Effects of humidity on plants and animals

 High humidity reduces water loss by plants through transpiration

 Low humidity promotes transpiration which can lead to wilting and reduced yields
 High humidity promotes rotting in plants
 Harvested crops can also quickly decay in the market in high humidity conditions
 Animal disease quickly spread in high humidity e.g. foot rot and pneumonia
 pest breeding is encouraged in high humidity conditions, affecting animals

Soil

Soil is a complex mixture of rock minerals, air, water and organic material. Many microorganisms that
are important for agricultural production are found in the soil. The soil is the source of nutrients for the
plants, which will be taken by plants through roots. The type of sol is important as it influences which
crops to be grown, the most fertile being loamy. Soil quality through texture and structure is also a
major influence to agricultural production.

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Natural farming regions

Zimbabwe is divides into five agro-ecological regions called natural farming regions. Rainfall,
temperature, soil quality and agricultural activities among other factors are used to divide the country
into these regions.

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 Region Annual rainfall Annual Farming system
(mm) temperatures
I Very reliable Diversified and specialized farming
Covers 1.6% of the annual rainfall of Mean annual of Suitable for dairy farming, horticulture,
land area >1 000mm 15-18oC. forestry, maize, tea, coffee and fruit
production
II Reliable Intensive farming
Covers 18.8% of Annual rainfall of Mean annual of Suitable for maize, tobacco, cotton and
the land area between 16 – 19oC livestock production.
750 – 1 000 mm
III Less reliable Semi-intensive farming
Covers 17.6% of Annual rainfall of Mean annual Suitable for livestock, fodder and cash crop
land area between temperature of production with good management
650 – 800 mm 18 – 22 oC
IV Unreliable Semi-extensive farming
Covers 33% of the Low annual rainfall Mean annual Suitable for livestock and resistant fodder
land area of between temperature of crop production, irrigated. It is also used for
450 – 650 mm 18 – 24 oC wildlife management
V Unreliable Extensive farming

Covers 29 % of Annual rainfall of Mean annual Suitable for extensive cattle and game

the land area < 450 mm temperature of ranching and wildlife management/tourism
21 – 25 oC

Importance of the natural farming regions

It is very important for a farmer to identify the natural farming region were their lands are located so that they can
identify suitable crops to grow and livestock to rear based on:

 growing time
 drought tolerance
 predicted rainfall and temperature
 plan of harvesting, grading, packing and marketing of the crops
 prepare for water storage for irrigation
 prepare supplementary fed if necessary for livestock

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 Chapter two

FORESRTY AND WILDLIFE

Forestry

Forestry is the management of forests focusing on sustainability and an integration of ecological, social
and economic values. Forests are large areas covered by trees. The nature of forests differs from area to
area depending on the climate, altitude and slope of the area.

Types of forest

1. Savannah forest – they are common in Zimbabwe, characterised by scattered trees and
grasslands. They experience semi-arid conditions with alternating dry and wet seasons.
2. Equatorial forests – they are areas found within 10o north and south of the equator. They have
no dry periods, with a monthly mean rainfall precipitation above 60mm. they have tall trees,
unbranched, packed and having buttress roots.
3. Mediterranean forest – these are sparsely populated forest with bushy type trees.

Importance of forests

Most communities of animals and human beings depend on the provisions of forests. It is therefore
important to use forests sustainably.

Ecological importance

 Trees reduce the impact of land degradation and therefore enhance the ability of the soil to
provide food and energy
 Trees are able to convert carbon dioxide to organic substances and oxygen and so reduce
greenhouse gases and the therefore global warming

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  Roots and canopy reduce surface runoff and therefore soil erosion and siltation
 Trees supply the atmosphere with water vapour through transpiration and therefore contribute
to rainfall
 They provide a habitat for animals

Social importance

 Provide people with essential nutrients through food obtained by hunting and gathering,
traditionally
 The aesthetic value of forests make them to be used for recreational activities
 Many people still use traditional medicines obtained from forest e.g. using Zumbani

Economic importance

 Using the products of forest like timber for sale can create employment and benefit the local
communities
 The scenic and recreational value of forest can be used in tourism and thus create employment

Classification of forests

Forest in Zimbabwe are classified into two major groups according to the trees origin. Indigenous forest
are majorly formed by trees whose origin is Zimbabwe and include trees such as Zebrawood (musasa),
Wild loquat (muzhanje)and Balsam trees (mopani). Those forest mostly that have trees originating
outside our borders are known as exotic forest. They have trees such as the Jacaranda, Eucalyptus and
cypress.

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The Chirinda forest Chipinge district comprise mostly of indigenous trees left to grow naturally. The
Eastern Highlands mountainous belt stretching from Nyanga to Chimanimani have exotic forests.

Wildlife

This refers to the undomesticated animals (fauna) and the plants (flora) that occur naturally in the
environment. In Zimbabwe, there is diverse vegetation and animal populations that occur naturally,
which vary with locations.

Importance of wildlife

Cultural importance

 Provides resources that are used in many cultural activities such as ceremonies and traditional
healing practices like leopard and lion skins are worn as a sign of prestige
 Some areas are sites of these practices such as the mobola plant is used to hold traditional
meetings and ceremonies
 Some animals are regarded as sacred e.g. the pangolin and the fish eagle which are national
insignias
 Some of these resources are used in construction of traditional houses like thatch grass for
roofing and certain fibres are tuned in into twine which is also required in roofing
 Traditionalist also use the site of some animals for predicting future events e.g. the water bird is
used to signify coming rains

Socio-economic importance

 Some wildlife resources are a source of food as some are hunted for their meat, their eggs,
some fruits are processed to drinks and bees produce honey
 Some wild fruits are sold as a source of income and to boost the economy of the locals e.g.
muzhanje

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  Some wildlife resources are used as raw materials in industry such as leather used in the fashion
industries
 The scenic value of some of these areas has promoted tourism, which has boosted the economy
of locals e.g. Hwange National Park
 The establishment of these tourist destinations has created employment of the locals bettering
their standards of living

Ecological importance

 It is used to preserve biodiversity by maintaining food chains and keeping some species in check
 Some animals are used in seed dispersal a and so reduce competition for resources

Classification of wildlife

The animals that occur naturally in forest are classified according to their feeding habits, as follows:

a) Producers – these are plants that convert light energy into chemical energy through a process
known as photosynthesis. These energy is used to make organic compounds (carbohydrates,
proteins and fats) that are transferred to animals by feeding
b) Herbivores – these are animals that feed on plants and grasses. They include grazers that feed
on grasses e.g. buffalos and antelopes. They are also browsers that feed on flowers fruit and
tree leaves e.g. giraffes and kudus.
c) Carnivores – these are animals that fed on flesh only. They hunt and kill other animals (prey)
using mostly their sharp nails (talons in birds) and canine teeth. They include lions, leopard, fish
eagle etc.
d) Omnivores – these are animals that feed on both flesh and plants. They include baboons, guinea
fowl and warthogs

The `big five`

These are animals are game that were classified by hunters who considered them as the most difficult to
hunt. They are found in the national parks of Zimbabwe and include:

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 Buffalo
 Rhinoceros
 Lion
 Elephant
 Leopard

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 Chapter three

SOIL AND WATER

Soil formation

Soil is a thin loose layer of weathered material on the earth`s surface which is the site of growth for
plants. It is a complex mixture of organic material, inorganic matter, water and air. It is formed from
rocks which undergo weathering. The rocks that form soil (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic)
differ in their mineral composition because they are formed differently.

Name of rock Method of formation Description Common

examples
Igneous Hot molten rock (magma) from They are formed by different Granite, basalt,
the earth`s interior is released minerals which form crystals. dolerite
on to the surface (lava). Lava Some rocks have rough shiny
then cools, solidifies and forms crystals because they cooled
igneous rocks. longer than those with dull,
small, smooth crystals
Sedimentary Eroded rock material deposits The rock appears as layers, Sandstone,
as layers of sediments in a with organic material and limestone, shale
depression. With time, they are small crystals acting as the
compressed by the overburden glue between them
(sedimentation) to form solid
hard layers of rock
Metamorphic This involves sedimentary and It is fine-grained rock, Gneiss from
igneous rocks being changed in containing shiny crystals. Its granite, marble
conditions of intense heat and layers are wavy. from limestone,
pressure to form a new type of quartzite from
rock. sandstone

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Weathering of rocks

This is a term used to describe the breakdown of rocks to form soil, in-situ. The main agents of
weathering are water, wind, temperature, plants and animals.

Physical weathering

This results in the rocks breakdown into smaller particles due to changes in temperature, plant and
animal activities and human activities.

Change in temperature – as rocks have many minerals, they have different expansion rates when
exposed to high temperature. This causes the fracturing of the rock, which also occurs when the rocks
are cooled. The continuous fracturing leads to the peeling of the outer pats of the rock (exfoliation)

Running water – after heavy rains, running water carries small rocks, which then bounce against each
other or underlain rock. This breaks them causing them to form small rock particles and eventually soil.

Freezing and thawing – when water penetrates rock crakes then temperature falls to below 0 oC, it
freezes. This increases its volume and exerts a force to the sides of the cracks, making them wider and
eventually breaking.

Wind – strong winds carry small rock particles which bounce on exposed rock bed causing friction and
breaking the rock.

Biological weathering

This is weathering that occurs because of living organisms such as plant roots and animal hooves.

 The roots can grow in the crevices of the rock, widening them and causing to further crack.
 Some roots releases acids that are used break the rock
 Lichens (small plants) can break the rock

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  Small animals that burrow into the rock causes cracks resulting in the formation of small
fragments and eventually breaking down.
 Animal hooves that trample on the rock can be used to break the rock
 Human activities such as farming, road construction and mining also contribute to rock
weathering

Chemical weathering

It is when rocks breakdown as a result of chemical processes causing minerals within them to change
chemically. The rocks then weakens and results in the formation of soil.

Hydrolysis – it occurs when water molecules separate into two charged particles:

Water hydrogen ion + hydroxyl ion

(H2O) (H+) (OH-)

These charged ions attack the bonds that hold minerals together within the rock and cause the rock to
disintegrate and also change the chemical nature of the rock.

Carbonation – when carbon dioxide reacts with water, it forms a weak carbonic acid:

Carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid

(CO2) (H2O) (H2CO3)

Solution – this occurs minerals simply dissolve in water and are washed away in solution.

Factors that influence soil formation

Soil differs from place to place in terms of characteristics such as colour and texture. This is due to
various aspects in the soil formation process, including:

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 1. Climate – the temperature and rainfall characteristics of an area play an important role in soil
formation. The expansion and contraction of minerals that are in the rock, which causes stresses
in the rock then forms soil, are due mostly to changes in temperature. This means the greater
the temperature range, the more the weathering. Rainfall is used to dissolve minerals leaving
them susceptible to various weathering processes. There for the more the rain the, more the
weathering.

2. Parent material – this is the rock from which the soil is formed. The main characteristics of soil
are from the parent material. Sandstone produces sandy soil and volcanic rock results in clay
soils.

3. Topography – this is the gradient of the area`s surface. Steep slopes tend to promote runoff
reducing chemical erosion. Areas that have gentle slopes promote infiltration and vegetative
growth thus promote biological and chemical weathering.

4. Living organism – plants and animals play an important role in weathering. Leaves and twigs
decay when on the ground and can form humic acid that is used for chemical weathering. Roots
of trees and other small organism can navigate their way I n the small spaces of the rock and so
encourage weathering.

5. Time – the age of the rock determines how susceptible the rock is to weathering, thus the older
the rock, the easier it weathers. Time also refers to the period that weathering affects the rocks
as some soils are a result of millions of years of weathering.

Soil characteristics

Soil texture

This refers to the `feel` of soil grains when rubbed between the index finger and the thumb. It used to
classify soil grains into sand, silt and clay particles. Sand particles are the largest soil particles and so
have a course texture and clay has a fine texture. A texture of sand, silt and clay is known as clay.

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 CLASS PARTICLE SIZE
Heavy clay >50 % clay
Clay 30 – 50 % clay
Clayey loam 20 – 30 % clay and <50 % sand
Sandy clay 30 – 50 % clay and >50 % sand
Sandy clayey loams 20 – 50 % clay and > 50 % sand
Sandy loams >20 % silt, >20 % clay and > 50 % sand
Loamy sands 15 – 20% silt and clay, 80 – 85 % sand
Sand < 15 – 20 % silt, > 85 % sand

A good soil structure offers the following to plant growth:

 It is used as a basis of soil classification so that farmers can determine the type of crop to grow
 Chemical processes that occur in the soil are largely influenced by the sizes of grains
 It determines the water application method to plants, either drip or sprinkler
 It determines the soils permeability, aeration, water retention and leaching capacities of the soil
which are related to its fertility

Soil structure

It is the arrangement of the soil grains (aggregates). These form a distinct shapes like single –grained or
blocky or crumby. These are the most important indicator to how easy the soil is workable.

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION
Single-grained The soil is broken in to individual particles which do not stick to each
other. This is more common in sandy soils
Granular (crumb) Resemble crumbs of bread which is good for crop production. Water
and nutrients can be held between the grains
Blocky Form blocks which are irregular with a diameter of 1.5 – 5 cm mostly
found in the B horizon of the soil profile

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 Prismatic Has a flat vertical surface, tall and long in shape.
Platy Has plates that lie horizontal, commonly found on soil surface in
compacted soils and can prevent seedling emergence.

Good soil structure has the following importance:

 More pore spaces for aeration required by micro-organisms and respiration of roots
 Free water movement within it
 Spaces for root development and penetration
 Crumb structure is not prone to erosion

Soil fertility

Plant nutrients

These are mineral nutrients coming from the soil that are absorbed by the roots and used by the plants
for their growth and maintanance. There are classified into:

a. Macro-nutrients which are required by plants in large quantities e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
b. Micro-nutrients are required in small quantities e.g. calcium, iron, boron, zinc, magnesium,
molybdenum, sulphur

Nitrogen

It is found in the atmosphere as ammonia gas and is fixed by plants such as legumes or supplied as
fertilisers.

Function

 Nitrogen is required for vegetative growth of the plants

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  Found in leaf chlorophyll and takes part in photosynthesis
 It also lengthens the growing period of plants

Deficiency symptoms

 Stunted growth
 Gives rise to pale green leaves (chlorosis)
 Plants fail to photosynthesise

Over-supply

 Plant logging due to rank growth

 Soft stems

Phosphorus

It is a very immobile nutrient in the soil depending on soil pH. Under waterlogged conditions,
phosphorus is present in the soil but is not available for plant absorption.

Functions

 Phosphorus is required to develop a healthy root system

 It is also required for normal seed development
 It is required for many metabolic processes in plants that require energy like respiration,
photosynthesis and cell division

Deficiency symptoms

 The leaves turn blue

 The roots become destroyed
 There are signs of necrosis – plants become brown and die
 Ripening is delayed

Oversupply effects

 Blocks the uptake of other nutrients such as iron, zinc and manganese

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  Also causes potassium deficiency

Potassium

It is a major nutrient that is absorbed by plants

Functions

 It enhances disease resistance by strengthening stems

 Controls turgor pressure so that the plant does not wilt
 Enhances fruit size, texture and development.
 It is involved in the activation of enzymes
 Regulates water usage
 Improves drought tolerance
 It is involved in protein synthesis

Deficiency symptoms

 Slow growth
 Chlorosis and then necrosis
 Leaf burn at the edges
 Forward curling at the leaf edges

Oversupply

 Results in magnesium deficiency

 Less green chlorophyll is produced
 Stunted growth

Calcium

This element is responsible for the construction of cells in plants and promoting proper functions. It
occurs naturally in organic soil.

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Functions

 A component of cell wall

 Promotes root and stem tip growth
 Required for cell elongation and division
 Required for root and leaf development

Deficiency symptoms

 Causes empty pods in groundnuts

 Malformed and disintegrated terminal part of the plant
 Marginal discoloration
 Stems are weak
 Low germination percentage

Oversupply

 Reduces the uptake of calcium

 Purple leaves

Magnesium

Occurs naturally in organic soils and required for various metabolic processes in plants

Functions

 Is part of chlorophyll and so required in photosynthesis

 Required also for protein synthesis
 Also required for respiration and enzyme activation

Deficiency symptoms

 Yellowing of the older leaves

 Interveinal chlorosis
 Reddish or purple leaf edges

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Sulphur

Most inorganic and organic fertilisers contain sulphur in them

Functions

 Used in protein and chlorophyll synthesis

 Development of enzymes and vitamins
 Seed production
 Promotes nodulation in nitrogen-fixing plants

Deficiency

 Young leaves turn yellow

 Later whole plant turns pale yellow
 Stems are usually small and the plant spindles

Molybdenum

Functions

 Necessary for enzyme activity

 Assist in nitrogen fixation in legumes

Deficiency symptoms

 Pale leaves that may be scorched, cupped and rolled

 Leaves may be thick and brittle and later wither away

Boron

Functions

 Involved in cell division and growth of meristems (plant tips)

 Facilitates normal seed setting and fruit development
 Encourages pollen germination and development

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Deficiency

 It causes dieback in fruit trees such as apples

 Yellowing and rosetting of some crops (poor flowering )

Toxicity/over-supply of boron

 Leaf tips turn brownish then a rapid necrosis

 Sensitive crops to oversupply include legumes, potatoes, tomatoes grapes etc.

Copper

Functions

 Required in protein and chlorophyll formation

 Plays a role in respiration

Deficiency symptoms

 Chlorosis of younger leaves

 Stunted growth and delayed maturity
 Prone to diseases attack

Iron

Functions

 Serves as a catalyst in chlorophyll synthesis

 Involved in respiration and photosynthesis

Deficiency symptoms

 Interveinal chlorosis
 Entire plant then becomes whitish-yellow and then necrosis follows

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Manganese

Functions

 Primary part of enzyme systems

 Serves as a catalyst in chlorophyll synthesis
 Activates enzymes
 Required in photosynthesis

Deficiency symptoms

 Interveinal chlorosis in young leaves

Zinc

Functions

 Aids in the plant growth compounds and enzyme systems

 Enzyme activation
 Chlorophyll, carbohydrate and hormone synthesis

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