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Biology Reviewer Final1
Biology Reviewer Final1
Biology Reviewer Final1
CARBOHYDRATES
● Associated with sugar, energy, and starch
3 Types of Carbohydrates
❖ Monosaccharides
● Simplest form of sugar
● Basic unit
❖ Disaccharides
➢ Two monosaccharides joined together
❖ Polysaccharides
➢ Made up of repeating units of sugar joined together by glycosidic bonds.
Monosaccharides
● Mono means single.
● Saccar means sugar.
● ose - the suffix of most of the monosaccharides.
● Consist of one sugar unit.
● Chemical formula: C6H12O6
● Glucose (C6H12O6)
○ Dextrose, blood sugar, or grape sugar.
○ to provide energy.
○ No digestion required.
○ Most abundant carbohydrate in the blood.
○ Glycosuria- glucose present in the urine.
● Fructose (C6H12O6)
○ Levulose
○ sweetest among the sugar.
○ found in fruits, honey, and corn syrups.
○ can be metabolized directly or converted to glucose in the liver
● Galactose
○ Aldohexose, brain sugar
○ Obtained from milk.
○ Serve as a blood marker.
○ Half as sweet as glucose.
○ Galactosemia- genetic metabolic disorder (usually infant) that affects how
the body processes galactose.
● Glyceraldehyde
○ simplest monosaccharide
○ Triose
● Erythrose
○ Pentose phosphate pathway
○ Erythrose
BIOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER
● Ribose
○ Part of DNA and RNA (nucleic acids)
○ Pentose
Disaccharides
● Di means double.
● Two monosaccharides are joined together.
● Chemical formula: C12H22O11
● Glycosidic bond- the bond that joins the two simple sugars.
● Should be broken down to serve as fuel for cellular activities.
● Sucrose (G+F)
○ Table sugar
○ A combination of glucose and fructose (50:50).
○ Excellent natural preservative.
● Lactose (G+GL)
○ Found in milk.
○ Combination of glucose and galactose.
○ Lactase is needed to break this sugar.
○ Lactose intolerance- digestive disorder where the body cannot fully digest
lactose.
● Maltose( G+G)
○ Found in beer.
○ Composed of two glucose.
○ Provide energy in germinating seeds.
Polysaccharide
● Poly means many.
● Saccar means sugar.
● Made up of repeating units of sugar joined together by glycosidic bonds.
Components
● Nitrogen - proteins and nucleic acids
● Phosphorus- part of cell membrane and of energy storage molecules
● Sulfur- structural component of most proteins
● Chlorine- component of digestive acid
BIOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER
Bodily Fluids
● Sodium- the primary ion
● Chlorine- the major ion
Constituent of Bones
● Calcium and Phosphorus
Constituent of Hemoglobin
● Iron
LIPIDS
● insoluble in water
● Non Polar /Hydrophobic or water-fearing/hating.
● Contains Hydrocarbons /Carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds
Functions of Lipid
● Energy storage
● Protection
● Insulation
● Lubrication
● Hormone precursor
● Key component of the cell membrane
Categories of Lipids
● Fat
● Phospholipid
● Steroid
● Wax
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1. Fat
● Also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides
● Solid at room temperature
● Used by animals for insulation, protection, and long term energy storage.
● Example: lard and butter
● Storage of fats
○ Adipocyte- animal cells
○ Seed- plant cells
● Components of fats
○ Glycerol- organic compound with 3 carbons, 5 hydrogen, and 3 hydroxyl
groups.
○ Fatty Acid
■ building blocks of fat
■ Carboxyl group makes it an acid
■ attached to each of the three carbons of the glycerol molecule
■ with an ester bond through an oxygen atom.
● Palmitic acid
○ Saturated fatty acid derived from the palm tree.
● Arachidic acid
○ Derived from Arachis hypogea scientific name for groundnuts or
peanuts.
2. Phospholipid
● Contain glycerol and two fatty acids.
● A phosphate group is attached to the third carbon and not the glycerol.
● Unsaturated fatty acid causes kink in tails
3. Steroid
● Composed of four fused rings of carbon with different functional groups
attached.
○ Cholesterol
■ precursor for the synthesis of other steroids.
■ Stabilizes the plasma membrane
■ regulates membrane fluidity.
○ Sex hormones
■ Responsible for the development of primary and secondary sex
characteristics.
■ Male hormone - Testosterone
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■ Female hormones - Progesterone and Estrogen
○ Adrenocorticoid hormones
■ Aldosterone
● regulates the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions
● kidney tubules.
■ Cortisol
● increases glucose and glycogen concentration
4. Wax
● Found in protective coatings on leaves and outer surfaces of animals.
● Prevent excessive water loss in plants.
● Produces in the ears of some animals to protect the eardrum.
● Nonpolar and repel water.
● Esters made of an alcohol chain and a fatty acid chain.
PROTEINS
● A large, complex molecule composed of many amino acids.
● Amino acids - monomers that comprise protein.
Types of Protein
● Enzyme
○ May help in breakdown, rearrangement, or synthesis reaction.
○ Salivary amylase which hydrolyses its substrate amylose, a component of a
starch.
● Hormones
○ Chemical- signaling molecules secreted by endocrine cells
○ control or regulate specific physiological processes
○ growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction
○ Insulin- regulates the amount of glucose in the body.
Functions of Protein
● Movement
○ Actin and myosin, necessary for contraction of muscle fibers
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● Structure
○ Keratin
■ forms hair, nails, horns, feathers, and scales.
○ Collagen
■ the most abundant protein in the human body,
■ Forms bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage.
● Transport
○ Hemoglobin in RBC carries oxygen
● Nutrition
○ Casein in milk stores amino acids for use by some newborn animals.
● Defense
○ Antibodies help animals fight off invasion by viruses and bacteria.
● Regulation
○ Enzymes help control chemical reactions in the body
● Side chain (R) will identify the type of amino acid and give its nature whether it is
acidic, basic, polar, or non-polar.
● Peptide bond- bond between amino acids
Protein Structure
● Primary Structure
○ The number and sequence of the amino acids found in the protein.
○ Linear sequence of amino acids.
○ Slight change can change the entire protein.
○ Sequence determines the function of protein.
○ Sickle cell anemia– glutamic acid replaced by valine (RBC become rigid,
sticky, and shaped like a crescent)
● Secondary Structure
○ Coil and spiral ■ Parallel strand of
■ H-bond polypeptides
■ Flexible and elastic ■ H-bond
■ Example: Hair and wool ■ Flexible but not elastic
■ Example: Silk (spider
web)
○ Beta pleated sheet
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● Tertiary Structure
○ Folding and bending of the coils
○ Three-dimensional complete folding pattern of the protein
○ 1 individual subunit (interaction among R groups) (like charges repel and
unlike charges attract in polar and nonpolar; so hydrophobic will be in the
inside and hydrophilic at the outside).
● Quaternary Structure
○ Multiple subunits (interaction of subunits or several polypeptides)
○ Protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain
● Irreversible Denaturation
○ Drastic
○ Protein will coagulate or precipitate from solution
○ Example: Fry egg (White)
Renaturation
● Reagent will regain native structure and their biological activity (function)
● Denaturants were removed, the denatured proteins will fold back to native
conformations.
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NUCLEIC ACIDS
● store information which determine the type and structure of all specific proteins
● Polymers made up of nucleotides (monomers).
Nucleotide
• Phosphate molecule
• Pentose/ Sugar
• Nitrogenous bases
Bonds
● Covalent Bond
○ Bond between the 3 components of nucleotides.
● Phosphodiester Bond
○ Linked nucleotides together to form nucleic acid.
Nitrogenous Bases
● Purine (double ring)
○ Adenine
○ Guanine
● Pyrimidine( single ring)
○ Cytosine
○ Thymine (DNA)
○ Uracil (RNA)
Structure of DNA
● Discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick.
● Base pair and sugar phosphate backbone
● Double helix or spiral molecule
● Backbone runs antiparallel
● Nitrogenous bases
○ A doubled bonded with T
○ C triple bonded with G
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● Hydrogen bond between bases
Types of RNA
● Messenger RNA (mRNA)
○ transmits genetic instruction coded in the DNA
○ inside the nucleus to the cytoplasm particularly in the ribosome.
● Transfer RNA (tRNA)
○ Found in the cytoplasm of the cell
○ translates the codon of the mRNA into amino acids
○ attaching amino acids to the ribosomes facilitating protein synthesis.
● Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
○ The protein factory of the cell
○ abundant in the cytoplasm
DNA RNA
Sugar
Nitrogenous Bases A, T, G, C A, U, G, C