PAMPANGA COLLEGES

COLLEGIATE DEPARTMENT
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
GE 4 – Mathematics in the Modern World
1st Semester | AY 2022 – 2023
Lesson 4.1 Linear Correlation Analysis
There are many variables or quantities that exist in nature that are observed and measured showing
some kind of relationship or manifest certain causal or logical connection. For example, we observed that
the taller person, the heavier he is, and generally, short people are light. Is there relationship between a
person’s height and his weight?

Sir Francis Galton discovered the idea of correlation by developing the correlation chart for depicting
a analyzing between the traits of fathers and their sons.

Correlation – is a statistical tool to measure the relationship or association between two or more
quantitative variables. It means that the two variables tend to vary together; the presence of one
indicates the presence of the other; one can be predicted from the present of the other. The
relationship of two variables does not imply cause-effect relationship.

For example: suppose we found a positive correlation between watching violence on TV and violent
behavior in adolescence. It could be that the cause of both of these is a third (extraneous) variable – say for
example, growing up in a violent home – ad that both watching of TV and the violent behavior are the
outcome of this.

Three possible categories of correlational study:

1. When two social, physical or biological phenomena both increase or both decrease
proportionately and simultaneously at the same time because of identical external factors, the
phenomena are positively correlated.

Example: height and weight. Taller people tend to be heavier.

2. If one increases in the same proportion that the other decreases, the two phenomena are
negatively correlated.

Example: height above sea level and temperature. As you climb the mountain (increase in
height) it gets colder (decrease in temperature).

3. If one neither increases or decreases while the other increases, the phenomena are not
correlated or have zero correlation. No relationship exists between two variables.

Example: There is no relationship between the amount of tea drunk and level of intelligence.

EXERCISES: The following are examples of correlated variables: Tell whether if the 2 quantities are
positively, negatively or not correlated.

1. Smoking and Lung cancer

2. Family income and purchasing power
3. Child reading and spelling ability
4. Number of household appliances and electric consumption
5. Advertisement and increase of sales
6. Price of commodities and supply of commodities
7. Demand and price for laptop computers
8. Altitude and oxygen level
9. Years of formal education and income
10. Sleeping late and drunkenness

Correlation Analysis is a statistical method of evaluating the strength of such relationship between the two
quantitative variables. A high correlation means that the two or more variables have a strong relationship
with each other, while a weak correlation means that the variables are hardly related. In other words, it is the
process of studying the strength of that relationship with available statistical data.
 Lesson 4.2 Correlation Coefficient r : Determining Correlation Strength

Correlation Coefficient is a single number to estimate the degree of relationship or linear

association based on sampling data. It is usually symbolized by letter ‘ r ‘ and it ranges from -1 to +1. The
coefficient is only used if the variables are in the interval or ratio scale of measurement. The sign of the
correlation coefficient indicates the direction of the association. The magnitude of the correlation coefficient
indicates the strength of the association.
Note: The meaning of coefficient of correlation just simply inform us that when two variables change, there
may be a strong or weak relationship taking places.

TABLE OF INTERPRETATION OF CORRELATED VALUES

RANGE OF VALUES (r) INTERPRETATION

± 1.00 Perfect positive or negative correlation
± 0.91 - ± 0.99 Very high/Very strong positive or negative correlation
± 0.71 - ± 0.90 High/Strong positive or negative correlation
± 0.51 - ± 0.70 Moderately positive or negative correlation
± 0.31 - ± 0.50 Low/Weak positive or negative correlation
± 0.01 - ± 0.30 Negligible positive or negative correlation
0.00 No correlation

For example, a correlation r = 0.83 suggests a strong positive association between two variables, whereas a
correlation of r = -0.42 suggest a weak negative association. A correlation close to zero suggest negligible
association between two continuous variables.

Lesson 4.3 Coefficient of Determination r2

The coefficient of determination is the square of the correlated coefficient multiplied by 100%. This
will give us information regarding the extent to which the independent variable x influences the dependent
variable y. it is denoted by the symbol CD.

Formula for Coefficient of Where:

Determination CD = coefficient of determination
r = correlation coefficient
CD = r2 X 100% r2 = square of correlated coefficient
r2 X 100% = the square of correlated coefficient multiplied by 100%

Lesson 4.4 Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient

This formula was developed and perfected by Karl Pearson, an influential English Mathematician and
bio-statistician. He is a colleague of Francis Galton who made behavioral studies of human. It became the
basis of different theories in the field of heredity, psychology and anthropometry, and statistics. It can be
used to determine the linearity of the relationships between two variables.
For the Pearson r correlation, both variables should be normally distributed (normally distributed
variables have a bell-shaped curve). Other assumptions include linearity and homoscedasticity. Linearity
assumes a straight line relationship between each of the variables and homoscedasticity assumes that data
is equally distributed about the regression line.

The linear correlation coefficient, Pearson r, is the most common statistical tool in measuring the
linear relationship between two random variables, say x and y, that are either ratio or interval. Of various
correlation coefficients in current use, it is the most widely used computational formula.

Pearson r reveals the magnitude and direction of the relationship in two variables and cannot
differentiate between dependent and independent variables, It reveals that if the correlation is direct or
inverse, or if the data set are not correlated. Its values ranges from +1 through 0 to -1.

Types of research questions a Pearson correlation can examine:

a. Is there a statistically significant relationship between age, as measured in years, and height
measured in inches?
b. Is there a relationship between temperature, measure in degrees Farenheit, and ice cream sales
measured by income?
 c. Is there a relationship between job satisfaction, as measured by the JSS and income, measured in
dollars?

The formula for Pearson r is;

Where:

x = Observed data for the independent variable

y = Observed data for the dependent variable
n = Sample size
r = Pearson-Moment-Correlation Coefficient
Σx = Sum of x-scores
Σy = sum of y-scores
Σxy = Sum of the product of x and y-scores
Σx2 = Sum of squared x-scores
Σy2 = Sum of squared y-scores

Example 1: Below are the fourth year high school general weighted average (x) of 10 graduating BEEd
students and their practice teaching performance (y). Find the Pearson r, the degree of determination and
interpret the result.

GWA PTF
x2 y2 xy
x y
88 92 7744 8464 8096
87 87 7569 7569 7569
80 87 6400 7569 6960
85 93 7225 8649 7905
86 89 7396 7921 7654
83 92 6889 8464 7636
83 93 6889 8649 7719
85 89 7225 7921 7565
90 96 8100 9216 8640
Σx = 852 Σy = 907 Σx = 72662
2
Σy = 82343
2
Σxy = 77309

Compute for the Pearson Moment Coefficient of Correlation by substituting them in the given values to the
formula.

10(77,309) – (852 907)

r=
√[10(72,662) – (852)2] [10(82,343) – (907)2]

326
r= = 0.44
√(716)(781)

Interpretation:

From the table of values, the computed Pearson r =0.44 from 0.31 – 0.50. this means that the fourth year
high school general weighted average (x) and practice teaching performance (y) of 10 graduation BEEd
students have low/ weak positive correlation.
Example 2. A research study was conducted to determine the correlation between student’s grade in
English and their grades in Mathematics. A random sample of 10 students of Pampanga Colleges were
taken and the results of the sampling are tabulated below. Calculate the Pearson’s r. the degree of
determination and interpret the result.

Student Grade in English Grade in Math

xy x2 y2
Number x y
1 93 91
2 89 86
3 84 80
4 91 88
5 90 89
6 83 87
7 75 78
8 81 78
9 84 85
10 77 76
n=

Example 3. The following are the number of hours which 12 students studied for midterm examination and
the grades obtained in Mathematics. Calculate the Pearson’s r. the degree of determination and interpret the
result.

Number of
Midterm Grade
Hours Studied xy x2 y2
y
x
5 50

6 60

11 79

20 90

19 85

20 92

10 80

12 82

8 65

15 85

18 94

10 70

Lesson 4.5 Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient

The Spearman Rank Order Coefficient of Correlation or Spearman ρ (rho)

The Spearman Rank Order Coefficient of Correlation is a non-parametric test that is used to measure the
correlation or the degree of association between two ordinal variables. It does not require the astringent
assumption of normality about the distribution of the data and is the appropriate correlation analysis when
the variables are measured on a scale that is at least ordinal.

Spearman Rank correlation test was named after Charlse Edward Spearman who developed it, often
denoted by (rho) ρ. It is used when the Pearson Product Moment Correlation test gives misleading results.
When the intervals between data points are problematic, it is advisable to study the rankings rather than the
actual values.
The assumptions of the Spearman correlation are that data must be at least ordinal and the scores on one
variable must be monotonically related to the other variable.

Types of research question a Spearman Correlation can examine:

a. Is there a statistically significant relationship between participants’ level of education (high school.,
bachelor’s, or graduate degree) and their starting salary?
b. Is there a statistically significant relationship between horse’s finishing position a race and horse’s
age?

The formula used to calculate the Spearman rank correlation is

Where: ρ = Spearman rank correlation

d1 = the difference between the ranks of corresponding variables

n = number of observations or sample size

ρ Example 1: A research study was conducted to determine the correlation

between students grades in English and their grades in Mathematics. A
random sample of 10 students of the Pampanga Colleges were taken and the results of the sampling are
tabulated below. Calculate Spearman’s , the degree of determination and interpret the result.

Student Grade in Grade in

Number English Math Rank x Rank y d1 d12
x y
1 93 91 1 1 0 0
2 89 86 4 5 1 1
3 84 80 5.5 7 1.5 2.25
4 91 88 2 3 1 1
5 90 89 3 2 1 1
6 83 87 7 4 3 9
7 75 78 10 8.5 1.5 2.25
8 81 78 8 8.5 0.5 0.25
9 84 85 5.5 6 0.5 0.25
10 77 76 9 10 1 1
n =10 Σd1 =18
2

6(18)
ρ=1-
10(102 – 1)

108
ρ=1-
990
ρ = 1 – 0.11

ρ = 0.89 High or strong positive correlation 0.89X0.89 = 0.7921 X100% =79.21%

Interpretation:

From the table of values, the computed Spearman’s ρ = 0.89 ranges from 0.71 – 0.90. this means that the
student grades in English and their grades in Mathematics have high/strong positive correlation.
Furthermore, the degree of effect of the grades in English affected by the grades in mathematics is 79.21%.
(0.892 X 100% = 79.21%). That is, the higher the student ranked in English, the higher he/she ranked in
Mathematics also, and vice versa.

Example 2: The following are the Prelim Scores of the 12 BEEd students in their subject Calculus and
Physics. Calculate the Spearman’s ρ , the degree of determination and interpret the result.

Student Score in Score in

Number Calculus Physics Rank x Rank y d1 d12
x y
1 56 66
2 75 70
3 45 40
4 71 60
5 62 65
6 64 56
7 58 59
8 80 77
9 76 67
10 61 63
11 83 72
12 51 49
n = 12 Σd12 =

Example 2: Ten instructors were rated by 3rd and 4th year students on their “mastery of the subject matter”
and the results were tabulated. Calculate the Spearman’s ρ , the degree of determination and interpret the
result.

RATE OF INSTRUCTORS
Instructor 3rd Year 4th Year Rank x Rank y d1 d12
x y
A 44 46
B 45 43
C 38 40
D 32 30
E 46 39
F 47 37
G 37 44
H 38 46
I 27 48
J 40 50
n= Σd12 =
 ACTIVITY 1 : PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Ask the weight in kilograms and height in centimeter of twelve members in your family or relatives. Test
whether there is significant relationship between the height and weight of the family members by computing
the value of correlation coefficient and interpret the result.

Height (cm) Weight (kg)

No. Student Number xy x2 y2
x y
1 56 66
2 75 70
3 45 40
4 71 60
5 62 65
6 64 56
7 58 59
8 80 77
9 76 67
10 61 63
11 83 72
12 51 49

ACTIVITY 2 : SPEARMAN RANK ORDER COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION

Below are the salary (x) of 15 government employees and their performance rating (y). Compute for the
value of correlation coefficient using Spearman ρ, coefficient determination and interpret the result.

Employee Performance
Salary
Number Rating Rank x Rank y d1 d12
x
y
1 10 000 80
2 12 000 83
3 13 500 84
4 17 500 88
5 15 000 86
6 20 000 91
7 21 500 92
8 28 000 96
9 27 000 95
10 16 500 85
11 30 000 98
12 19 000 90
13 15 500 87
14 17 500 88
15 18 500 89
n= Σd12 =