Chapter 6

Language and Culture

 Taboo

1. What is ‘taboo’?
2. Taboo Words in English
3. Swear words
4. Euphemism
 Culture p.78/para.1

= the socially acquired knowledge that a

person must know in order to have an
acceptable manner to succeed in the
tasks of daily life in a particular society
 p.78/para.2

 Human language is one of the noticeable

properties of human culture. Therefore,
the process by which language is passed
on from one generation to the next is
described as cultural transmission. Hence,
language and culture are closely related to
one another.
 p.78/para.2/L.4-5

Language and culture are closely related to one another.

 p.78/para.3

 Ifwe want to know how cultural meanings in a

language are expressed and how the values of
a society have an effect on its language, we
can study the social phenomena known as
taboo words.
 p.78/6.1/para.1

 Taboo refers to behavior, which religious or magical

rules regard as supernaturally forbidden such as the
naming, use, or touching of a person or object
considered too holy or evil. It is also believed to be
immoral or improper behavior that is strongly
prohibited or avoided by social custom in an irrational
manner. It deals with behavior that is believed to be
harmful to its members since it can cause them
anxiety, embarrassment, horror, or shame.
 Taboo p.78/6.1/para.2

 The word “taboo” was borrowed from Tongan, a

Polynesian language. In that society, ‘taboo’ refers
to acts that are forbidden or are to be avoided.
When an act is taboo, any reference to that act
may also become taboo. That is, first, we are
forbidden from doing something, and then we are
forbidden from talking about it.
 Taboo behavior p.78/6.1/para.1/L.1-2

religious or magical rules

* naming
* use
* touching of a person
or object

If a black cat crossed your path, it was bad luck.

 Generally, there are two main types of taboo:
(a) Taboo subjects
Taboo subjects can vary widely such as sex,
death, excretion, bodily functions, religious matters, or
politics.
(b) Taboo objects
Taboo objects that must be avoided or used
carefully include use of the left hand (the origin of
“sinister”), the mother-in-law, or animals.
6.2 Taboo Words in English

Taboo Word

= words or expressions that are strongly

forbidden by social custom, especially for use
in general polite conversation and in print

p.79/6.2/para.1
 p.79/para.3
Reasons why taboos are accepted
and remain in the language:

1. to draw attention to oneself

2. to show a total lack of respect
3. to be aggressive
4. to be “talking dirty”
 p.79/6.2/para.2/L.2-3

Words and expressions are taboo because of

the attitudes of the speakers and value system

of a particular society.
The most severe English taboo words and expressions are
divided into three groups.
(a) Christian religion
A number of words related to the Christian
religion are considered holy by some people when
they are used in religious ceremonies and in formal
and respectful speech or writing. Careless use of
those words may be disturbing to some.

Examples: Jesus Christ, God

(b) Sex
Many words connected with sexual activity or
sex organs are regarded as shocking. In polite or
formal speech and writing, these words are
generally avoided or replaced by other words and
expressions that are politely appropriate.

Examples: fuck, balls, dick, prick

(c) Excretion
The word excretion refers to the solid or liquid
waste matter passed from the body. They are
regarded as “dirty”, shocking, or just not polite to
use.

Examples: piss, shit, crap

‘Strength of taboo words’ p.80/para.3/L.2-3

not very upset *

‘strength’ star(s)

= freedom from **
social restrictions

****
very shocking
‘Strength’ of taboo words p.79

1. Christian religion
1. damn*
2. blast* (BE)
3. hell*
4. God*
5. Jesus**
6. Christ**
 ‘Strength’ of taboo words
1. Christian religion 2. Sex
1. damn* 2.1 sexual activity
2. blast* (BE)
1. fuck***
3. hell*
2. jerk off***
4. God*
3. bitch***
5. Jesus**
4. whore**
6. Christ**
5. bastard**
p.79 p.81
2. Sex 3. Excrement
2.2 parts of the body 1. piss***
1. asshole*** 2. shit***
(BE arsehole***) 3. crap**
2. balls*** 4. fart**
3. cock***
4. dick***
5. prick***
6. cunt**** p.81
 6.3 Swear words p.82/para.1

= taboo words that are used for swearing.

= a word that is considered

offensive or strongly shocking
by most people
 Reasons for Using Swear Words

In situations when speakers want to express their

powerful emotions, such as surprise, anger,
hate, disappointment, etc., or to give force to
an expression, they use ‘strong’ language. It is
called “swearing”.
 p.82
Common expressions used for swearing
Annoyance Surprise Insult
(My) God! (My) God! Bastard
Jesus! Jesus! (Son of a)Bitch
Christ! Christ! Prick
Jesus Christ! Jesus Christ! Fucker
Damn (it)! God damn! Cunt
Hell! Shit
Shit! Asshole
Fuck (it)!
 p.82

When people swear, taboo words used in an expression

usually change the original meanings completely.
 p.82

piss (someone) off

= ‘to annoy’
or
‘to be angry’

The strength of the taboo word remains, but the

original meaning disappears.
 p.83

Words Literal Meaning New Words New Meaning

(in a more violent form)

fuck have sexual fuck off go away

intercourse (with)
fuck up ruin, spoil, destroy

piss urine, urinate piss off go away

pissed drunk (BE slang)
annoyed, angry (AE)
pissed off fed up
Swear words can be used as adjectives
and as intensifying adverbs. p.83

Adjective Adverb

Bloody hell! bloody soon

fucking idiot fucking good

 p.83/para.3

 In certain societies, certain things are not said because

speakers think that those things are unpleasant, so they
avoid saying them.

 Moreover, sometimes if those things are talked about,

they are talked about in indirect ways. This kind of
linguistic usage is called euphemism.
6.4 Euphemism p.83/6.4/para.1

= a softened or inoffensive word or expression

used to present or substitute unpleasant,
embarrassing, frightening or hurtful thoughts
politely or positively
 A euphemism allows speakers to talk about unpleasant or
fearful matters. It also neutralizes the unpleasant subjects
such as sickness, death and dying, unemployment, and
crime. Moreover, it allows us to give labels to unpleasant
tasks and jobs to make them sound attractive.
 Unpleasant subjects Words

sickness crippled / retarded

death and dying dead / die (v.)

unemployment fire (v.) / unemployed

crime kill / jail

unpleasant jobs beggar / police officer

sickness death and dying
unemployment crime

 We took the dog down to the

vet's and had her put to sleep.
 unpleasant jobs

homeless person police officer

In polite or formal speech and in writing,
euphemisms are used to replace swear
words in order to avoid mentioning certain
matters directly.
 p.84
Taboo words Euphemism

Jesus Christ = Gee Whiz / Gee

God = Gosh
Damn it! = Darn it!
shit = shoot / defecates
hell = heck
bloody = ruddy, bally
Holy crap! = Holy cow!
 p.85
Old native
Anglo-Saxon words Latin and French

sweat perspire
spit expectorate
bled menstruated
to tell lies prevaricate
very stupid feebleminded
 fat p.85

chubby / overweight
p.85
 p.85/last para.

Effects of taboo words

Taboo words and expressions can

cause a linguistic change, especially
words that are phonetically similar
to taboo words. These words can be
lost from a language.
Examples
older word new word

coney [knI] rabbit

cock rooster
 In a bilingual situation, for instance, Thai students in
English-speaking countries avoid Thai words such as
/fák/ “squash” and /phrIk/ “chili” because these could
be perceived as fuck and prick.

 Moreover, they often have difficultly saying the English

words “yet” and “key” because they sound very much
like the Thai words /yέd/ “to have intercourse” and
/khi:/ “excrement”.
 Taboo words and expressions can reflect the
particular customs and views of the society.
The End