SUMMARY

Logic (Etymology, Real Definition, Natural Logic Definition)

Etymologically Logic derived from the Greek word Logike which denote a
treatise pertaining to thought, and it was introduced by Zeno the Stoic.
Logic is defined as the science and art of correct inferential thinking. It is also
known as a science and law and patterns of correct and certain inference. It is a
systematized study of the reasoning process for the purpose of helping think clearly,
easily, and correctly. Logic is a prerequisite of all sciences.
The ability to reason correctly is innate to man. He has the gift of common
sense which St. Thomas Aquinas defines as the habit of the first principles”. This
commonly known as natural logic.
Elements of the Definition
Logic is a science because it is a body and knowledge systematically
arranged and demonstrated to be true. However, Logic differs with empirical
sciences such as biology, physics, sociology, and etc. Logic deals with the reasoning
process leading to the discovery of truths.
Logic is an art because, art in general is the habit of something with a certain
degree of order and harmony. In this sense logic is an art. At the same, it is a
practical science which leads to the formation of the habit of thinking easily, orderly,
and correctly.
Necessity and Importance of Logic
Logic is important because it contributes to the quality of human life, it also
contributes to the growth of an individual, and it enhances the art of creative thinking
of every person which they can utilize in their chosen profession.
Scope and Study of Logic
Inferential thinking, our subject matter proper, is a complex process involving
three distinct mental operations:
(1) Simple Apprehension which is the act of the mind by which we grasp of the
essence of the thing. Its mental product is Idea and Concept and its external sign is
Term.
(2) Judgment which is the act of the mind which we compare two concepts and
declare them to be either in agreement or disagreement with each other. Its mental
product is Enunciation and its external sign is Proposition.
(3) Reasoning which is the act of the mind which we derive new truths from what is
previously assumed to be true. Its mental product is Argument and its external sign
is Syllogism.
Division of Logic
The study of logic is divided into:
(1) Material Logic in which it teaches how truths arrive at with a certitude. It provides
for the principles by which we may acquire true and certain knowledge.
(2) Formal Logic in which it teaches how we may be correct in the presentation of an
argument. It gives us the principles and rule of logical thinking. Every argument has:
 Matter which refers the thought content of propositions.
 Form which refers to the structure of an argument.
A valid argument is that it is true in its matter and correct in its form.
Brief History of Logic
 Aristotle (384-322 BC) is considered as the founder of this science. He wrote
six treatises on logical matters which was called “organon”.
  Zeno the Stoic (336-246 BC) introduces the actual name. His logical works
was mainly Prior and Posterior to Aristotle’s logical works.
 Porphyrius (323-304 AD) wrote a small introduction to the categories of
Aristotle, called the “Isagoge”.
 Severinus Boetius (470-524 AD) translated the “organon” and wrote
commentaries on the “Isagoge” of Porphyrius.
 St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) wrote extensive commentaries on the
logical works of Aristotle.
 Francis Bacon (1516-1626) aimed to improve the “organon” and wrote the
“Novum Organon. He introduced the theory of Induction.
 John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) developed the theory of Induction into a general
theory for scientific investigation.
 George Boole (1815-1864) founded the new symbolic logic.

The Nature of Idea or Concept

Concept or Idea are mental realities. They are present only in the mind. They
represent the things we know. The material world and everything on it is object of our
mind. They are what we know the things we can possibly understand.
Definition of Concept or Idea
Idea in the intellectual image or representation of a thing. It is the same as the
concept in the mind. It is the abstract representation of things, and may be
expressed or defined by meaningful terms.
Differences of Idea and Phantasm
The idea must be carefully distinguished from the phantasm. Idea is found in
the intellect while phantasm is found in the imagination. Idea is universal while
phantasm is individual. Idea is constant while phantasm is changeable. Idea is
possible of complex and immaterial things while phantasm is not possible.
Simple Apprehension: The First Act of the Mind
Simple Apprehension is the first act of the mind by which it “grasps” or knows
the nature or essence of a thing without affirming or denying about it.
Abstraction
The mental process involved in obtaining idea is called “abstraction”.
According to its Latin origin, abstraction means the drawing of something from some
source. There are two types of abstraction:
The Formal Abstraction which draws conceptually a formal feature of its
subjects, and the Total Abstraction which draws conceptually a “universal whole” or
nature from particulars or from individuals
Evolution of Concept
The evolution of concept is called the IDEOGENESIS. From the thing outside
our mind we create percept and it
transfer to the phantasm which is the
raw data of what should be
abstracted, then the abstracted
nature will create what we call concept.
Properties of Idea
Idea has two important logical properties:
(1) Comprehension which is the set of thought elements or conceptual features
contained in an idea.
(2) Extension which is the
range or scope of individuals
and classes to which an idea may be applied. The General Laws on comprehension
and extension is that the greater the comprehension, the less the extension, and vice
versa.
Classifications of Idea
There are two classification of Idea: (1) Concrete Idea which is the idea that
expresses or signifies a nature or quality as found residing in an individual or subject.
(2) Abstract Idea which signifies the nature or quality as though it exists on its own
right and apart from the individual or subject.
 Concept according to Comprehension: Simple and Compound.
 According to Extension: Singular, Universal, Particular, Collective,
Univocal and Analogous.
 According to Origin: Real or Arbitrary concept and Immediate or
Mediate concept.
 According to Relation: Identical, Similar, Compatible, Incompatible,
Relative, Privative, Contradictory, Contrary.
Term and its Classification
Since terms express concepts, they are essentially signs. Term is defined as
a sensible conventional sign expressive of a concept or idea. It is also defined as a
verbal sign expressing an idea or concept.
Since terms are signs of ideas, the classifications of ideas are also applicable
to Terms. There are some classification of terms that do not apply to ideas:
 According to Meaning: Univocal, Equivocal
 According to Extension: Common, Singular
 According to Comprehension: Generic, Specific
 According to Quality: Positive, Negative
 According to Relation: Identical, Different
 According to Object: Real, Logical
Definition and its different type
Definition is a statement that gives meaning to the term. There are two types
of definition:
Nominal Definition merely points out what the term stands for. A nominal
definition is either by etymology, by synonym, by description or by example.
Real Definition not only declares what a thing signifies but it explains its
nature. It explains what a thing is and how it is different from another. The two types
of real definition are, definition by property and definition by logical accident.

Judgement: Second Act of the Mind

Judgment is the second act of the mind. It is the act of the mind pronouncing
the objective identity, or non-identity of one concept with another.
Prerequisites of Judgment
The prerequisites of judgement are:
 Apprehension of two concepts
 Mental comparison of two concepts
 Perception of the objective identity or non-identity of the two concept or
of the agreement or non-agreement of the one with the other
 Pronouncement of the objective identity or, non-identity of one concept,
the subject, with the other, the predicate
Kinds of Judgment
Immediate Judgment expresses agreement or disagreement at once.
 Mediate Judgment expresses agreement or disagreement that should go the
process of inference.

The Proposition, Sign of the Mental Sentence

Proposition is the external manifestation of the mental sentence or pronouncement.
It is defined as an external enunciation which expresses the objective identification,
or non-identification of one concept with another
Elements of the Proposition
The elements of proposition are:
(1) Subject is the person or thing that is being described.
(2) Predicate is what is affirmed or denied of the subject.
(3) Copula is either “is (am, are)” or “is (am, are) not”. If the copula is “is”, the
proposition is affirmative, if the copula is “is not” the proposition is negative.
Material Structure of Proposition
A proposition is composed of the Subject, the Copula and the Predicate.
Ex. Logic is Easy
S C P
Characteristic of the Logical Proposition
Logical Proposition is a sentence in logic that specify proposition. It is
expressed in the indicative mode, it is expressed in the present tense, its predicate
should be expressed from the sounding verb “is”.
Kinds of Proposition
Categorical Proposition cuts or separates two concepts by means of a linking
verb to be.
Hypothetical Proposition cuts or separates two concept or two sentences by
means of a non-verb copula. What is being used is conjunction.
Square of Proposition:
A - Universal Affirmative
E - Universal Negative
I - Particular Affirmative
O - Particular Negative

Reasoning: The Third Act of the Mind

Reasoning is the last and the highest act of the mind. It is called Logical
Inference which seeks to conform to the standard set by the proposition in order to
establish a frame of logical reference to new ideas.
The Syllogism (Its Matter and Form)
Syllogism is a process by which one proposition is arrived at and affirmed or
denied in the basis of one more proposition accepted as the starting point of the
process.
Syllogism has exactly three terms: The major term is the predicate term of the
conclusion. The minor term is the subject term of the conclusion. The middle term is
the term, appearing in both premises but not in conclusion.
The premise in which the major term appears in the major premise. The
premise in which the minor term appears in the minor premise. The result of the
relationship between the premises is the conclusion.
Ex. "All mammals are animals. All elephants are mammals. Therefore, all
elephants are animals."
Moods
 It is the different patterns of syllogism obtained from the different
arrangements of the propositions according to quality and quantity.
1st Figure: bArbArA, cElArEnt, dArII, fErIO
2nd Figure: cEsArE, cAmEstrEs, fEstInO, bArOcO
3rd Figure: dArAptI, dIsAmIs, dAtIsI, fElAptOn, bOcArdO, fErIsOn
4th Figure: brAmAntIp, cAmEnEs, dImArIs. fEsApO, frEsIsOn
Rules of Syllogism
Rules of syllogism governing the Term are: Syllogism must contain only 3
terms, no term can have a greater extension in the conclusion than it had in the
premise, the middle term should not be found in the conclusion, and the middle term
must be distributed universally at least one in the premise.
Rules of syllogism governing the Premise are: Two affirmative premise cannot
give a negative conclusion, from two negative premise no conclusion can be
inferred, from two particular premises no conclusion can be inferred, conclusion must
always follow the weaker side.
Syllogistic Variation
The Syllogistic Variations are:
1. Enthymeme – is an abbreviated or shortened syllogism.
Ex. All men are rational. But Pedro is a man. Therefore, Pedro is
rational.
Pedro is rational, because man is rational
Pedro is a man, therefore he is rational
2. Epichireme – has an added explanation attach to one or both of it premises.
Ex. Man is rational, because he is capable of abstract reasoning. But
Pedro is a man. Therefore, Pedro is rational.
3. Polysyllogism – is a series of syllogism presented as one.
Ex. All men are rational. But all lawyers are men. Therefore, all lawyers
are rational. But some politicians are lawyers. Therefore, some
politicians are rational. But some corrupt persons are politicians.
Therefore, some corrupt persons are rational.
4. Expository Syllogism – it is a statement of facts of experience.
Ex. This is a candy. But this is not sweet. Therefore, some candies are
not sweet.

Fallacies
It is an error in argumentation. The word comes from the Latin “fallo” which
means “I deceive”. A fallacy is a deceptive argument which appears valid but is not.
Types of Fallacy
Aristotle classifies fallacies under two general headings: the fallacy of
language and the fallacy of confusion.
Fallacy of Language:
1. Equivocation
2. Composition
3. Division
4. Accent
5. Figure
Fallacy of Confusion
1. Fallacy of Accident
2. Fallacy of “Ignoratio Elenchi”