The Magnetic Materials and Products

Lesson #7: THE MAGNETIC MATERIALS and PRODUCTS

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
Explain the Fundamental Concepts of Magnetism, Diamagnetism, Paramagnetism, and
Ferromagnetism.
Distinguish the Classification of Magnetic Materials, Explain the Magnetic Behavior and
Storage of different devices and its applications.
Illustrate the Structure, Classes, and Properties of Ferrites, and describe the process by
which it is manufactured as well as its applications.
Discuss the Basic Principles of Inductors by highlighting the parameters as well as the
factors being considered in its selection.
Differentiate the Classifications of Inductors.
Describe the use of Transformers’ Codes, the colors as well as number and letter
combinations indicated in the packaging.
Describe the Magnetic Material Products Manufacturing & Operation such as Magnetic
Levitation Train Systems, Magnetic Credit Cards, Magnetite, Hard Disks Drive, Magnetic
Reel Tapes, Compact Disks, Neodymium Magnet, Earth’s Magnetic Field, Magnets and
Permanent Magnet, Magnetic Sand (Black Sand), Magnet in Loudspeakers, and
conceptualize new products by defining the properties, design and process of its creation.

Course Materials:
Etymology and Definition
The magnetism of solid is originated from the electrons of atoms. Electrons are making orbital
motions and spin rotations. Since an electron has a charge, magnetic moment appears just like
magnetic field is generated when current flows in solenoid coils. The magnetic moment appears
even from the spin orientation of electrons. The magnetic moment generated from the orbital or
spin motion of a single electron is called Bohr magnetron, which is the smallest unit of magnetic
moment of solids.

The word magnet came from Middle English magnete, via Old French magnete, Latin magnetum
(“lodestone”), from Ancient Greek μαγνῆτις [λίθος] (magnêtis [líthos], “Magnesian [stone]”), either
after the Lydian city Magnesia ad Sipylum (modern-day Manisa, Turkey), or after the Greek region
of Μαγνησία (Magnēsía) (whence came the colonist who founded the city in Lydia), which means
a piece of material that attracts some metals by magnetism.

Watch: Inductors and Inductance in YouTube, Inductors Explained - The basics how inductors
work working principle in YouTube, Transformers - Electric Power transmission in YouTube, How
does a Transformer work - Working Principle electrical engineering in YouTube,
Electromagnetism 101 | National Geographic shown in YouTube, How Inductors Work Within a
Circuit – Inductance shown in YouTube, Capacitor and Inductor Specification and Color Coding
Tagalog Version in YouTube, Solenoid Basics Explained - Working Principle in YouTube, How
Relays Work - Basic working principle electronics engineering electrician amp in YouTube

Important Terms
Ferrite - refers to a ceramic oxide materials composed of both divalent and trivalent cations (e.g.,
Fe2+ and Fe3+), some of which are ferrimagnetic.
Bohr magneton (μB) - is the most fundamental magnetic moment, of magnitude 9.27 x 10-24 A·m2.
Magnetic field strength (H) - refers to the intensity of an externally applied magnetic field.
COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 1
 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Magnetic flux density (B) - refers to the magnetic field produced in a substance by an external
magnetic field, otherwise called magnetic induction (B).
Coercivity (or coercive field, Hc) - refers to the applied magnetic field necessary to reduce to
zero the magnetic flux density of a magnetized ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material.
Magnetic susceptibility (ꭓm) - refers to the proportionality constant between the magnetization
M and the magnetic field strength H.
Magnetization (M) - refers to the total magnetic moment per unit volume of material. Also, a
measure of the contribution to the magnetic flux by some material within an H field.
Saturation magnetization (Ms) - refers to the maximum magnetization (or flux density) for a
ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material, otherwise called flux density (Bs)
Permeability - refers to the proportionality constant between B and H fields. The value of the
permeability of a vacuum (μO) is 1.257 x 10-6 H/m.
Remanence (remanent induction, Br) - is the magnitude of residual flux density that remains
when a magnetic field is removed, for a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material.
Diamagnetism - is a weak form of induced or nonpermanent magnetism for which the magnetic
susceptibility is negative.
Paramagnetism - is a relatively weak form of magnetism that results from the independent
alignment of atomic dipoles (magnetic) with an applied magnetic field.
Ferrimagnetism - is a permanent and large magnetizations found in some ceramic materials. It
results from antiparallel spin coupling and incomplete magnetic moment cancellation.
Ferromagnetism - is a permanent and large magnetizations found in some metals (e.g., Fe, Ni,
and Co) that result from the parallel alignment of neighboring magnetic moments.
Antiferromagnetism - is a phenomenon observed in some materials (e.g., MnO): complete
magnetic moment cancellation occurs as a result of antiparallel coupling of adjacent atoms or
ions. The macroscopic solid possesses no net magnetic moment.
Domain - refers to a volume region of a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material in which all atomic
or ionic magnetic moments are aligned in the same direction.
Curie temperature (Tc) - refers to the temperature above which a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic.
Soft magnetic material - refers to a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material having a small B
versus H hysteresis loop, which may be magnetized and demagnetized with relative ease.
Hard magnetic material - refers to a ferrimagnetic or ferromagnetic material that has large
coercive field and remanence values, normally used in permanent magnet applications.
Hysteresis - is the irreversible magnetic flux density-versus-magnetic field strength (B-versus-H)
behavior found for ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials; a closed B-H loop is formed upon
field reversal.
Superconductivity - is a phenomenon observed in some materials: the disappearance of the
electrical resistivity at temperatures approaching 0 K.

A glance at the world of Magnetic Materials

Magnetic field - is a force which is generated due to energy change in a volume of space.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 2

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

- is produced by an electrical charge in motion e.g. current flowing in a conductor, orbital

movement and spin of electrons.
- can be described by imaginary lines as shown in the figure below for a magnet and a
current loop.

Magnetic field Strength (H) - is also called magnetic intensity or magnetic field intensity, the part
of the magnetic field in a material that arises from an external current and is not intrinsic to the
material itself. It is expressed as the vector H and is measured in units of amperes per meter.
If a magnetic field, H, is generated by a cylindrical coil (solenoid) of n turns and length l,
n·I where: I is the current in ampere (A)
H = ——— (A/m) l is the length of the wire measured in meter (m)
l H is the magnetic field strength measured in ampere per meter

Magnetic flux density (B) - is the magnitude of the field strength within a
substance subjected to a field H. It is the amount of magnetic flux in an
area taken perpendicular to the magnetic flux's direction.

where: H is the magnetic field strength measured in ampere per meter

B = μ · H (W/m or T)
2
μ is the permeability measured in henry per meter
B is the magnetic flux density measured in Weber/m2 or Tesla
Permeability (μ) - is the measure of the degree to which a material can be magnetized. Magnetic
permeability relative increase or decrease in the resultant magnetic field inside a material
compared with the magnetizing field in which the given material is located. In electromagnetism,
permeability is the measure of the resistance of a material against the formation of a magnetic
field, otherwise known as distributed inductance in transmission line theory. Hence, it is the
degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field.
In vacuum B = μO · H. where μO is the permeability of vacuum and is a universal constant.
μO = 4 x 10-7 (H/m)
Relative Permeability (μr) - is defined as the ratio of the material permeability to the permeability
of free space (or vacuum), where:
μ μ is the permeability of a material
μr = ——— μr is the relative permeability.
μO μO is the permeability of free space (vacuum)
Note:
In SI units, permeability is measured in henry per meter (H/m), or equivalent to
newtons per ampere squared (N/A2).
Magnetic flux can be measured with a magnetometer
Magnetic moment - is a determination of its tendency to get arranged through a magnetic field.
Since, a magnet has two poles, i.e., North and South. The magnetic moment (µ) is a vector
COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 3
 The Magnetic Materials and Products

quantity used to measure the tendency of an object to interact with an external magnetic field. It
is the magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet or other object that produces
a magnetic field.

Being a moving charge, electrons produce a

small magnetic field having a magnetic moment
along the axis of rotation.
The spin of electrons also produces a magnetic
moment along the spin axis.
Magnetism in a material arises due to
alignment of magnetic moments.
Magnetic Dipole and Monopole
Analogous to electric dipole, a magnetic dipole can be defined as two monopoles of opposite
and equal strength separated by a certain distance.
A magnetic monopole, however, is not observed in nature. If there are N monopoles each
located at a point given by a vector ā, then the magnetic dipole moment can be defined as a
vector, ū. N
ū =  mi āi
i=1
Two monopoles of strength +m and –m separated by distance l, will give a dipole
ū = mā1 – mā2 = m(ā1 – ā2) = mĺ
A bar magnet can be thought of consisting of two opposite and equal poles at its two ends.
Magnetization - in classical electromagnetism, otherwise termed as magnetic polarization is
the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments in
a magnetic material. With the application of a magnetic field, magnetic moments in a material
tend to align and thus increase the magnitude of the field strength. Such increase is given by the
parameter called magnetization, M,
Such that B = μO H + μO M,
where M = m H and m is called magnetic susceptibility, thus m = μr - 1
Physicists and engineers usually define magnetization as the quantity of magnetic moment per
unit volume.
Magnetism - is the force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other. It is caused
by the motion of electric charges. Every substance is made up of tiny units called atoms. Each
atom has electrons, particles that carry electric charges. Spinning like tops, the electrons circle
the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Their movement generates an electric current and causes each
electron to act like a microscopic magnet.

Magnetic Sand
Black sand on the beaches of La Ventanilla, Mexico, is
magnetized. The iron oxide in the sand is attracted to the
strong magnetic field produced by the magnet the man is
holding.

Photograph by: Marylou Naccarato, MYSHOT

Source: National Geographic

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 4

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Depending on the existence and alignment of magnetic moments with or without application of
magnetic field, three types of
magnetism can be defined.

Diamagnetism - is a weak form of magnetism which arises only when an external field is applied.
- It is a magnetism characteristic of materials that line up at right angles to a nonuniform
magnetic field and that partly expel from their interior the magnetic field in which they are
placed. First observed by S.J. Brugmans (1778) in bismuth and antimony, diamagnetism
was named and studied by Michael Faraday (beginning in 1845). He and subsequent
experimenters found that some elements and most compounds exhibit this “negative”
magnetism. Indeed, all substances are diamagnetic: the strong external magnetic field
speeds up or slows down the electrons orbiting in atoms in such a way as to oppose the
action of the external field in accordance with Lenz’s law.
- It arises due to change in the orbital motion of electrons on application of a magnetic field.
- There are no magnetic dipoles in the absence of a magnetic field and when a magnetic
field is applied the dipole moments are aligned opposite to field direction.
- The magnetic susceptibility, m = μr - 1 is negative i.e. B in a diamagnetic material is less
than that of vacuum.

Diamagnetic materials: Al2O3, Cu, Au, Si, Zn, Bismuth,

Silver, Antimony, Marble, Water, Glass, NACL

Paramagnetism - is a form of magnetism whereby some materials are weakly attracted by an

externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the
applied magnetic field.
- kind of magnetism characteristic of materials weakly attracted by a strong magnet, named
and extensively investigated by the British scientist Michael Faraday beginning in 1845.
Most elements and some compounds are paramagnetic. Strong paramagnetism (not to
be confused with the ferromagnetism of the elements iron, cobalt, nickel, and other alloys)
is exhibited by compounds containing iron, palladium, platinum, and the rare-earth
elements. In such compounds atoms of these elements have some inner electron shells
that are incomplete, causing their unpaired electrons to spin like tops and orbit like
satellites, thus making the atoms a permanent magnet tending to align with and hence
strengthen an applied magnetic field.
- In a paramagnetic material the cancellation of magnetic moments between electron pairs
is incomplete and hence magnetic moments exist without any external magnetic field.
However, the magnetic moments are randomly aligned and hence no net magnetization
without any external field. When a magnetic field is applied all the dipole moments are
aligned in the direction of the field.
- The magnetic susceptibility is small but positive. i.e. B in a paramagnetic material is slightly
greater than that of vacuum.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 5

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Paramagnetic materials: Al, Cr, Mo, Ti, Zr, Oxygen, , and

iron oxide (FeO)

Ferromagnetism - is a physical phenomenon in which certain electrically uncharged materials

strongly attract others. Two materials found in nature, lodestone (or magnetite, an oxide of iron,
Fe3O4) and iron, have the ability to acquire such attractive powers, and they are often called
natural ferromagnets. They were discovered more than 2,000 years ago, and all early scientific
studies of magnetism were conducted on these materials.
- is a magnetism present in certain materials that possess permanent magnetic moments
in the absence of an external magnetic field.
- Permanent magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials arise due to uncancelled
electron spins by virtue of their electron structure.
- The coupling interactions of electron spins of adjacent atoms cause alignment of moments
with one another.
- The origin of this coupling is attributed to the electron structure. Ferromagnetic materials
like Fe (26 – [Ar] 4s23d6) have incompletely filled d orbitals and hence unpaired electron
spins.
- Today, ferromagnetic materials iron, cobalt, nickel, and some alloys or compounds
containing one or more of these elements are used in a wide variety of devices essential
to everyday life.
e.g. electric motors and generators, transformers, telephones, and loudspeakers
Curie temperature is the temperature that is above which (curie point) certain materials lose
their magnetic properties permanently and hence they are replaced by the induced magnetism.
Below the Curie temperature, the substance exhibits a spontaneous magnetization M in the
absence of an external field, the essential property of a ferromagnet. Here are Curie temperature
values for some ferromagnetic substances: iron (Fe) 1,043 K, cobalt (Co) 1,394 K, nickel (Ni)
631 K, gadolinium (Gd) 293 K, manganese arsenide (MnAs) 318 K.

Antiferromagnetism - is a magnetism that exist if the coupling of electron spins results in anti-
parallel alignment then spins will cancel each other and no net magnetic moment will arise. In
materials that exhibit antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments of atoms or molecules, usually
related to the spins of electrons, align in a regular pattern with neighboring spins (on different
sublattices) pointing in opposite directions.
- In substances known as antiferromagnets, the mutual forces between pairs
of adjacent atomic dipoles are caused by exchange interactions, but the forces between
adjacent atomic dipoles have signs opposite those in ferromagnets. As a result, adjacent
dipoles tend to line up antiparallel to each other instead of parallel. At high temperatures
the material is paramagnetic, but below a certain characteristic temperature the dipoles
are aligned in an ordered and antiparallel manner. The transition temperature Tn is known
as the Néel temperature, after the French physicist Louis-Eugène-Félix Néel, who
proposed this explanation of the magnetic behaviour of such materials in 1936.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 6

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

- Here are the Néel temperature for some typical

antiferromagnetic substances: chromium 311 K,
manganese fluoride 67 K, nickel fluoride 73 K,
manganese oxide 116 K, ferrous oxide 198 K.
- In MnO, O2- ions have no net magnetic moments and the
spin moments of Mn2+ ions are aligned anti parallel to
each other in adjacent atoms.
Ferrimagnetism - a phenomenon exhibited by certain substances, such as ferrites, in which the
magnetic moments of neighboring ions are antiparallel and unequal in magnitude. The
substances behave like ferromagnetic materials.
- Permanent magnetism exhibited by certain ionic solids having a general formula MFe2O4,
where M is any metal, due to partial cancellation of spin moments.
- It is a term that was originally proposed by Néel to describe the magnetic ordering
phenomena in ferrites (see Transition Metal Oxides: Magnetism), in which Fe ions appear
in two different ionic states and hence bear different magnetic moments with mutual
antiferromagnetic coupling. The ferrimagnet can be considered in a loose analogy as a
two-sublattice antiferromagnet with |MA| ≠ |MB|. In this context ferrimagnets appear
sometimes in literature under the name “uncompensated antiferromagnet”. As a
consequence, a net spontaneous magnetization Ms (=MA−MB) is observed at
temperatures below the ordering temperature TC. Various types of Ms(T) curves are found
for ferrimagnets depending on the temperature variation of sublattice magnetizations.
- Lodestone, or magnetite (Fe3O4), belongs to a class of substances known as ferrites.
Ferrites and some other classes of magnetic substances discovered more recently
possess many of the properties of ferromagnetic materials, including spontaneous
magnetization and remanence. Unlike the ferromagnetic metals, they have low electric
conductivity, however. In alternating magnetic fields, this greatly reduces the energy loss
resulting from eddy currents. Since these losses rise with the frequency of the
alternating field, such substances are of much importance in the electronics industry.
- In Fe3O4, Fe ions can exist in both 2+ and 3+ states as Fe2+O2– (Fe3+)2(O2-)3 in 1:2 ratio.
The antiparallel coupling between Fe3+ (Half in A sites and half in B) moments cancels
each other. Fe2+ moments are aligned in same direction and result in a net magnetic
moment.

A notable property of ferrites and associated materials is that the bulk spontaneous
magnetization, even at complete magnetic saturation, does not correspond to the value expected
if all the atomic dipoles are aligned parallel to each other. The explanation was put forward in
1948 by Néel, who suggested that the exchange forces responsible for the spontaneous
magnetization were basically antiferromagnetic in nature and that in the ordered state they
contained two (or more) sublattices spontaneously magnetized in opposite directions. In contrast
to the simple antiferromagnetic substances considered above, however, the sizes of
the magnetization on the two sublattices are unequal, giving a resultant net magnetization parallel

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 7

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

to that of the sublattice with the larger moment. For this phenomenon Néel coined the name
ferrimagnetism, and substances that exhibit it are called ferrimagnetic materials.
Superparamagnetism - is a form of magnetism which appears in small ferromagnetic or
ferrimagnetic nanoparticles. Magnetization can randomly flip direction under the influence of
temperature in sufficiently small nanoparticles. The typical time between two flips is called the
Néel relaxation time. When the time used to measure the magnetization of the nanoparticles is
much longer than the Néel relaxation time, their magnetization appears to be in average zero, in
the absence of an external magnetic field; thus, the material is in superparamagnetic state. A
state where an external magnetic field is able to magnetize the nanoparticles, similar to a
paramagnet. But its magnetic susceptibility is much larger than that of paramagnets.

Domains - small-volume regions in ferromagnetic materials which exhibit magnetic moments

aligned in the same directions.
Adjacent domains are separated by domain
boundaries. The direction of magnetization
changes across the boundaries.
The magnitude of magnetization in the
material is vector sum of magnetization of all
the domains.

Magnetization and Saturation

When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic

material, domains tend to align in the direction of the field by
domain boundary movement and hence, the flux density or
magnetization increases.
As the field strength increases domains which are favorably
oriented to field direction grow at the expense of the
unfavorably oriented ones. All the domains are aligned to the
field direction at high field strengths and the material reaches
the saturation magnetization, Ms.
The initial slope of the B-H curve at H =0 is called initial permeability, i, which is a material
property.
Hysteresis - is the dependence of the state of a system on
its history. For example, a magnet may have more than one
possible magnetic moment in a given magnetic field,
depending on how the field changed in the past.
If the field is reduced from saturation by magnetic
reversal, a hysteresis develops.
As the field is reversed the favorably oriented domains
tend to align in the new direction. When H reaches
zero some of the domains still remain aligned in the
previous direction giving rise to a residual
magnetization called remanence, Mr.
Hc, the reverse filed strength at which magnetization is zero, is called Coercivity
Remanence or remanent magnetization or residual magnetism - is the magnetization
left behind in a ferromagnetic material (such as iron) after an external magnetic field is
removed. Colloquially, when a magnet is "magnetized" it has remanence.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 8

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Coercivity - the resistance of a magnetic material to changes in magnetization, equivalent

to the field intensity necessary to demagnetize the fully magnetized material

Hard and Soft magnets

Based on their hysteresis
characteristics ferro and
ferrimagnetic materials can be
classified as hard and soft
magnets.
Soft magnets have a narrow
hysteresis curve and high initial
permeability and hence easy to
magnetize and demagnetize. It is
just opposite for the Hard magnets.
Soft Magnets or Soft magnetic materials - are those materials that are easily magnetized
and demagnetized. They typically have intrinsic coercivity less than 1000 Am-1. They are
used primarily to enhance and/or channel the flux produced by an electric current.
Hard magnets or permanent magnets - are magnetic materials that retain
their magnetism after being magnetized, which practically refers to materials that have an
intrinsic coercivity of greater than ~10kA/m. It is believed that permanent magnets have been
used for compasses by the Chinese since ~2500BC.
The magnetic hardness is expresses by a term called energy product which is the area
of the largest rectangle that can be drawn in the second quadrant (red-hatched).
Conventional hard magnetic materials like steel, Cunife(CuNi-Fe) alloys, Alnico (Al-Ni-
Co) alloy have BHmax values in the range of 2 to 80 kJ/m3 . High-energy hard magnetic
materials like Nd2Fe14B, SmCo5 exhibit BHmax  80 kJ/m3.
Hard magnets are used in all permanent magnets in applications such as power drills,
motors, speakers.
Soft magnets like Fe, Fe-Si are useful when rapid magnetization and demagnetization is
required as in transformer cores.
Impurity and other defects should be low for this purpose as they may hinder the domain
wall movement through which domains align.

Magnetic anisotropy - is the directional dependence of a material's magnetic properties. In the

absence of an applied magnetic field, a magnetically isotropic material has no preferential
direction for its magnetic moment, while a magnetically anisotropic material will align its
moment with one of the easy axes.
The magnetic properties of a crystalline material are not isotropic i.e. properties are not
the same in all crystallographic direction.
There always happens to be a preferred direction in which magnetization is easier. For
example, [0001] direction is the preferred magnetization direction in Co. For Fe it is [100]
as shown in the diagrams below.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 9

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Effect of Temperature
As demonstrated by the figure, the atomic vibration
increases with increasing temperature which leads
to misalignment of magnetic moments. Above Curie
temperature TC, all the moments are misaligned and
the magnetism is lost.

Ferro and ferrimagnetic materials turn paramagnetic above curie point.

For: Fe TC = 768 C, Co TC = 1120 C, Ni TC = 335 C.

Superconductivity - is a phenomenon whereby a charge moves

through a material without resistance. In theory this allows
electrical energy to be transferred between two points with
perfect efficiency, losing nothing to heat.
- It is the disappearance of electrical resistance below a
critical temperature, TC., thus, superconducting
behavior occur that favors the speedy flow of current.
Superconductors - are materials that offer no resistance to electrical current:
Conventional Superconductors: aluminium Al (TC = 1.18 K), niobium Nb (TC = 9.3 K), Niobium–
titanium Nb-Ti alloy (TC = 10.2 K), Niobium aluminide Nb3Al (TC = 18.9 K), Niobium-germanium
Nb3Ge (TC = 23 K), iron pnictides (TC = 26 K), magnesium diboride MgB2 (TC = 39 K).
High Temperature Superconductors: cuprates such as yttrium barium copper oxide YBa2Cu3O7
(TC = 92 K) a ceramic recently discovered superconductor, and Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 (TC = 125 K)

Bardeen-Cooper-Schreiffer (BCS) Theory - is the first microscopic theory of superconductivity

since Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's 1911 discovery. The theory describes superconductivity as a
microscopic effect caused by a condensation of Cooper pairs. Such John Bardeen, Leon Cooper
and John Schreiffer - BCS theory was a recipient of Noble prize for Physics in 1972. The
temperature dependence of metals arises out of scattering of electrons due to atomic vibrations
which increase with temperature. Thus, with Cooper pair, below TC two electrons can pair

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 10

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

through the lattice phonon which causes a slight increase in the positive charge around an
electron and since thermal energy to scatter is low, this pair can move through the lattice.
Phonon is the quantum mechanical description of an elementary vibrational motion in
which a lattice of atoms or molecules uniformly oscillates at a single frequency. In classical
mechanics this designates a normal mode of vibration.
Superconductivity and Magnetism
Meissner effect - the expulsion of magnetic flux when
a material becomes superconducting in a magnetic field.
If the magnetic field is applied after the material has
become superconducting, the flux cannot penetrate it.
A material in its superconducting state will expel all of applied magnetic field.
A magnet placed over a superconductor will then float, a phenomenon known as
magnetic levitation.
Magnetic levitation (maglev) or magnetic suspension - is a method by which an object is
suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic force is used to counteract the
effects of the gravitational acceleration and any other accelerations.

Types of Superconductors
Type I superconductors - characterized by a situation where
some superconducting materials come back to normal
conducting state above a critical magnetic field HC when the
field is increased.
superconductivity is abruptly destroyed via a first
order phase transition when the strength of the applied
field rises above a critical value HC, a
type of superconductivity exhibited by pure metals,
e.g. aluminium, lead, and mercury.
includes 13 types of compounds, namely: organic superconductors, A-15 compounds,
magnetic superconductors (Chevrel Phases), heavy fermions, oxides without copper,
pyrochlore oxides, rutheno-cuprates, high-temperature superconductors, rare-earth
borocarbides, silicon superconductors, chalcogens, carbon superconductors, MgB2
and Related Superconductors.
Type II superconductors - characterized by a
situation where the field gradually begins to intrude
above a critical value of the applied field (HC1) and at
a higher field (HC2) it turns into a normal conductor.
superconductor which exhibits an
intermediate phase of mixed ordinary
and superconducting properties at
intermediate temperature and fields above
the superconducting phases.
Nb3Sn and YBa2Cu3O7 are examples of such type
Applications of Superconductors
1. Magnetic Levitation (Maglev) Trains which can reach very high velocity
2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (MRI scan machines for Medical science, Brain imaging)
3. Transmission and Distribution Electrical Systems
4. Energy storage
5. Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 11

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

6. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) for generating high velocity particles travelling at speed
of light
7. High efficiency electric generators, motors and transformers

An Inductor and Inductance

Inductor - is a component in an electric or electronic circuit which possesses inductance.
- is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in its magnetic field as
electric current flow through it.
- A substance that promotes an
equilibrium reaction by reacting with
one of the substances produced.
- Is commonly called coil, choke, or
reactor, which typically consists of an
insulated wire wound into a coil, that
are classified according to the core
use as shown.
Photo credit: softwareforeducation.com
Common applications are for Tuning circuits, Sensors, Store energy in a device, Induction
motors, Transformers, Filters, Chokes, Ferrite beads, and Inductors used as relays
Common inductors are consist of a specific number of turns of enameled copper wire,
wound around a former such as air, iron, laminated steel, ferrite, Teflon etc.
Inductance (L)- is a property in an electronic circuit where a change in current in a circuit creates
a voltage in the circuit itself and the nearby circuits. A steady flow of current in a conductor creates
a magnetic field around the conductor. A varying magnetic field in a circuit induces a voltage in
an adjacent conductor.
According to physical construction, it depends on how a coil is wound, with the following
factors being considered.
1. A higher number of turns N increases L where more voltage can be induced, thus L
increases with N 2, and twice the number of turns in the same area and length increases
the inductance four times.
2. More area A enclosed by each turn increases L, thus, a coil with larger turns has more
inductance. The L increases in direct proportion to A and as the square of the diameter of
each turn.
3. The L increases with the permeability of the core. For an air core, μr is 1. With a magnetic
core, L is increased by the μr factor because the magnetic flux is concentrated in the coil.
4. The L decreases with more length for the same number of turns because the magnetic
field is less concentrated.

N2·A where: N is the number of coil-turns

L = μr ---------------- x (1.26 microhenry) A is the cross-sectional area of the core (m2)
l l is the length of the coiled wire (m)
μr is the relative permeability of the wire (m)
L is the inductance of the inductor (Henry)
μO = 1.26 microhenry
(permeability of vacuum or free space)

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 12

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Therefore, the Factors Affecting Inductance are:

The number of loops of the coil. The larger the number of turns the greater is the
inductance.
The size of each loop. The greater the size of the loop, the greater is the inductance.
The permeability of the material used as the former to wind the coil. The magnetic flux can
be increased by coiling the conductor around a material with high permeability. Materials
with high permeability includes soft iron, ferrite, etc.
Cross section of the core. The larger the cross section of the core, the higher the
inductance.
Spacing of the turns. The smaller the spacing between the turns of the coil the greater is
the inductance.

Photo credit:
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu

Self-Inductance - is the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire when the current in the
wire itself is changing. Due to self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a changing current
in the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit, thus, self-induced voltage VL is produced.
Such voltage tends to oppose the change and will try to decrease the current if it is increasing or
increase the current if it is decreasing, such opposing flow of electric current is known as self-
induction.
di where: L is the inductance of the coil, (henry)
VL = L ------- di/dt is the change in current with respect to time, (ampere per second)
dt VL is the induced voltage, (volts)

Lenz’s law - is named after the physicist Emil Lenz who formulated it in 1834, which states that
the induced voltage VL must produce current with a magnetic field that opposes the change of
current that induces VL. The polarity of VL, therefore, depends on the direction of the current
variation di. When di increases, VL has polarity that opposes the increase in current; when di
decreases, VL has opposite polarity to oppose the decrease in current. In both cases, the change
in current is opposed by the induced voltage. Otherwise, VL could increase to an unlimited amount
without the need to add any work. Thus, Inductance is the characteristic that opposes any change
in current, that is why an induced voltage is often called a counter emf or back emf.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 13

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Mutual Inductance (LM) - is a phenomenon exhibited

when unconnected coils are kept near so that the
magnetic flux from coil L1 cross to the other coil L2,
due to the varying current across L1 supplied by the
generator, thereby producing an induced voltage in
both inductors L1 and L2. Mutual inductance between
coils depends upon their coefficient of coupling, which
can vary from 0 to 1.

e.g.
A transformer consists of two electrically
isolated coils and operates on Faraday's
principal of “mutual induction”, in which an
EMF is induced in the transformers
secondary coil by the magnetic flux
generated by the voltages and currents
flowing in the primary coil winding.

Coefficient of coupling (k) - is the fraction of total flux from one coil linking another coil.
flux linkages between L1 and L2
k = ---------------------------------------------- thus LM = k √ L1 x L2
flux produced by L1

Types of Inductors
Fixed Inductors - an inductor whose coils are
wound in such a manner that the turns remain
fixed in position with respect to each other, and
which either has no magnetic core or has a core
whose air gap and position within the coil are
fixed. Belonging to this group are air core
inductor, radio frequency inductor,
ferromagnetic core inductor, laminated core
inductor, ferrite-core inductor, and toroidal core
inductor.

Variable inductor - are coil products that allow the inductance to be easily varied by changing
the position of the ferrite core in a threaded structure. The interior is covered by a metal case that
is magnetically shielded, while a resin molded structure protects the windings with a high degree
of reliability. Inductors of this type are widely used in radio applications to set a definite oscillating
frequency and to tune the resonant circuits. These may include many different types of slug tuned
inductors. Slug tuned inductors are widely used in RF and IF stages of super heterodyne radio
receivers. Tuned inductors are also used as the tank coil in the final RF power amplifiers.

Typical Coil Inductance Values

Air-core coils for radio frequency (rf) applications (called choke) have L
values in millihenrys (mH) and microhenrys (μH). Air core inductor is used for
low frequency application i.e. 20 Hz to 1 MHz. Also, in high frequency
applications including TV and radio receivers, for inter stage coupling, and for

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 14

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

construction of IF and RF tuning coils. e.g. is an rf coil for the radio broadcast band of 535 KHz to
1605 kHz may have an inductance L of 250 H, or 0.250 mH.
Iron-core inductors for the 60-Hz power line and for audio frequencies
have inductance values of about 1 to 25 H. Iron-core inductors are
commonly used for low frequency applications including Audio
equipment, Industrial power supplies, Power conditioning, Inverter
systems, and Rapid transit.

Parameters of an Inductor and the factors being considered in its selection

Nominal Inductance - is the value of inductance measured in microhenry, millihenry, or Henry
(H) that the inductor is supposed to offer at a particular frequency and voltage. Value of which are
normally given in the datasheet when using IC or analog circuit or may need to be
derived/calculated depending on its use in the circuit (e.g. filter circuit). The inductance of an
inductor depends upon the material used as the core, shape of the core, number of turns of coil,
shape, and size of the inductor.
Tolerance - since inductance is a dynamic property, it varies with the frequency of the signal,
temperature, and current, thus, inductive tolerance must be considered. Tolerance is the
maximum variation in the value of inductance under all possible test conditions, beyond it
damaged may occur due to inappropriate use or application. The inductors can have +/-1% or F,
+/-2% or G, +/-3% or H, +/-5% or J, +/-10% or K, +/-15% or L, or +/-20% or (L or M) tolerance.
Saturation Current - is the critical current level which show a drop in inductance using inductors
with ferromagnetic cores. An inductance drop of up to 10% for ferrite cores inductors and up to
20% for powered iron core inductors are possible, thus, it limits the core material to store
maximum amount of magnetic flux. The thickness of the coil dictates the current-carrying ability
of an inductor, and any coil may allow current beyond the saturation level, but, beyond saturation
damage or fracture of inductor’s core occur. Selected inductor has at least 1.5 times the maximum
current as saturation. Also, any pulsating currents must be observed when choosing a saturation
current level as to examine how inductance is varying with the current to ensure efficient and
expected operation of the inductor in a circuit.
Curie Temperature - is the temperature of the core beyond which the inductor loses its magnetic
properties, thus, as the current increases beyond the saturation level, the core of the inductors
heats up, that can damage or fracture inductors, leading to loss of its magnetic properties when
it gets hot enough, thereby, it remains nothing more than a connecting wire.
Ambient Temperature Range - is the temperature range of the environment within which the
inductor can operate without being damaged.
Operating Temperature Range - is temperature range that inductors can withstand without
losing its magnetic properties or damaging itself, which is always wider than the ambient
temperature range, such that when current flow through an inductor it is supposed to heat up.
Saturation Magnetic Flux Density (BSat) - is the maximum flux density of the core of the inductor,
which is important in determining the maximum magnetic energy that an inductor can store at any
time.
Maximum DC Current - is the maximum level of direct current that can pass through the inductor
without any damage, considering the Curie temperature. Thus, for low-frequency signals, it is
directly comparable to maximum RMS current of the signal, while for high-frequency signals,
saturation current is a better benchmark.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 15

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Incremental Current - is the DC current through the inductor that causes a drop in inductance
by 5% as compared to inductance at the initial zero DC bias, beyond it, inductance starts dropping
significantly at a rate depending upon the ferromagnetic material of the core and the shape of the
inductor core, but for powdered iron cores the drop remains linear and non-linear for ferrite cores.
Maximum DC Resistance - is the maximum resistance offered by the coil of the inductor with
DC current, considered as unwanted resistance of the inductor needed to be minimized for energy
efficiency of an inductor in a given circuit.
Quality Factor (Q Factor) - is the ratio of inductive reactance to the effective resistance that
depicts operating loss of the inductor, which is always indicated in datasheets for a given test
frequency. The higher the quality factor, the more energy-efficient is the inductor.
Self-Resonant Frequency (SFR) - is a certain frequency where the inductor does not show any
effect of inductance; instead, behaves like high impedance pure resistance, and some distributed
capacitance is created due to the number of coil’s turn in inductors, thus the capacitance and
inductance of an inductor become equal, and they cancel each other. At SFR, the quality factor
of the inductor drops to zero. The distributed capacitance is modeled as a parallel capacitance to
the pure inductance of the inductor.
Temperature Coefficient of Inductance - indicates the rate of change in the inductance of the
inductor per unit centigrade, expressed in “Parts Per Million” change per Centigrade (PPM/°C).
The rate is generally positive until the inductor gets hot enough at saturation current and turn
negative beyond it. The rate remains linear for powdered iron cores, while generally non-linear
with significant changes for ferrite cores. Inductance is shown in datasheets in reference to current
rather than temperature, therefore, the graphical curve of “typical inductance versus current
characteristics” should be examined in a datasheet for any effects of temperature on the
inductance.
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance - indicates the rate of change of DC resistance of the
inductor, expressed in PPM/°C, which is always positive. The DC resistance of the inductor also
changes with temperature but never exceed the maximum DC resistance specified for the
inductor until the inductor gets damaged.
Electromagnetic Interference - refers to the magnetic field radiated out from the inductor which
can produce additive or subtractive mutual inductance with other inductors in the vicinity or may
lead to unwanted interference to other magnetically sensitive components of the circuit like the
Integrated Circuits.
Impedance - Impedance is the effective resistance of inductor to alternating current which is the
combination of DC resistance and the reactance (inductive reactance and distributed capacitive
reactance) of the inductor.

Uses and Effects of Inductance

Inductance are widely used in radio circuits, other analog circuits, and signal processing.
Inductance provide frequency selection in a tuned circuit of the radio.
Large inductors are used in power supplies to filter out mains hum, power supply noises, and
fluctuations in the DC.
Inductors are used in filter circuits to filter out waveforms or in energy storage systems.
Audio chokes have many turns of wire on iron core, which has inductances of 1 to 100 henrys.
Radio frequency chokes have inductances of a few turns of wire wound on a nonmagnetic
core.
Power transformers are used in power supplies for most electronic equipment.

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 16

 The Magnetic Materials and Products

Coupled magnetic fluxes between a stationary and a rotating inductor coil is used to produce
mechanical torque in induction motors.
Inductors are used as an energy storage device in switch-mode power supplies.
Variable inductors use an adjustable core, which is usually a ferrite core or powdered iron core,
that can change the inductance.
Inductance are found in transmission cables that determine the characteristic impedance in a
cable.
Inductance are also seen in microphone and computer network cables that use special cables
to reduce it.
Long power transmission lines also show inductance which limits the AC power that can be
sent through them.

Activities/Assessment to work at home:

1. Research and discuss the Advantages and Disadvantages of Advancements in Magnetic
Materials and Products.
2. Explain the Hazards and Risks of using Magnetic Materials and Products.
3. Research and discuss about Troubles that maybe encountered with Coils and how they
are resolved.
4. Analyze the schematic diagram or the equivalent circuit of an antenna as presented in
electromagnetic books and explain the four general parameters involved.
5. Research and describe the situations of mining black sand or magnetic sand in the
Philippines compared to other countries.

Reading and Viewing Materials:

1. Grob’s Basic Electronics by Mitchel E. Schultz
2. Engineering Electromagnetics by William H. Hayt Jr. and John A. Buck
3. Magnetism: Crash Course Physics #32 shown in YouTube
4. Magnets and Magnetic Fields shown in YouTube
5. Electromagnetism 101 | National Geographic shown in YouTube
6. How Inductors Work Within a Circuit – Inductance shown in YouTube
7. Induction - An Introduction: Crash Course Physics #34 shown in YouTube
8. Understanding Electromagnetic Radiation! | ICT #5 shown in YouTube
9. Fourier Transform, Fourier Series, and frequency spectrum shown in YouTube
10. http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Magnetism/magnetismintro.htm
11. https://www.engineersgarage.com/tutorials/articles-basic-electronics-properties-of-
inductors/ by Nikhil Agnihotri
12. http://www.ee.ucla.edu/~jjudy/classes/magnetics/
13. http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/22/07803103/0780310322.pdf
14. http://phy.ntnu.edu.tw/~changmc/Teach/SS/SS_note/chap11.pdf
15. http://teachers.web.cern.ch/teachers/archiv/HST2001/accelerators/superconductivity/sup
erconductivity.htm
16. http://katzgraber.org/teaching/SS07/files/burgener.pdf
17. http://chabanoiscedric.tripod.com/NSCHSS.PDF

COMPILATION OF READING AND VIEWING MATERIALS BY: MPGALLEGOJR 17