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2 SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

Q1. Who were ‘radicals’?

Ans: Radicals were the one who wanted a nation in which government was based on
the majority of country’s population. They opposed the privileges of great landowners
and wealthy factory owners.

Q2. What were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905?
Ans: The following were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before
1905:
* Social Conditions: The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity- which
had grown out of the Greek Orthodox Church. But the empire also included Catholics,
Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists. The non- Russian nationalists were not treated
equal to that of Russian nationalists. They were not given freedom to follow their
culture and language. Workers were a divided group on the basis of skill and training.
Peasants formed their group called ‘commune.’
* Economic Conditions: Majority of Russians were agriculturists. Grain was the main
item of export from Russia. Industries were few. Most of the craft production was
done by the craftsmen. There were large factories alongside the craft workshops. With
the expansion of Russian rail network, foreign investment in factories grew. There
was huge coal, iron and steel production. There were equal number of factory workers
and craftsmen. The workers were exploited by capitalists who made their life
miserable.
* Political Conditions: Russia was a monarchy. Tsar Nicholas II believed in the divine
rights of kings. They were not responsible to the Parliament. All political parties were
illegal in Russia.

Q3. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries
in Europe, before 1917?
Ans. The working population in Russia was different from other countries in Europe
before 1917. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the vast majority of Russians
were agriculturalists. This proportion was higher than in most European countries. For
instance, in France and Germany the proportion was between 40% and 50%. In the
empire, cultivators produced for the markets as well as for their own needs and Russia
was a major exporter of grain. Workers were a divided social group. They were
divided by skill. Some workers formed associations to help members in times of
unemployment or financial hardship but such associations were few. Workers also did
unite to strike work or stop work when they were dissatisfied with employers about
work conditions or dismissals. Peasants in Russia had no respect for the nobility.
Nobles got their power and position through the Tsar and not through local popularity.
The Russian peasants demanded that the land of the nobles be given to them. They
even murdered landlords and refused to pay rent. The Russian peasants were different
in another way. They pooled their land together periodically and their commune (mir)
divided it according to the needs of individual’s families.

Q4. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?

Ans. *The First World War was a war that was fought outside Europe as well as in
Europe. In Russia, the war was initially popular and people rallied around Tsar
Nicholas II. *As the war continued, the tsar refused to consult the main parties in the
Duma. Support from all sides became thin. Anti-German sentiments became high and
St. Petersburg (which was a German name) was renamed as Petrograd. *The Tsarina
Alexandra’s German origins and poor advisors, especially a monk called Rasputin,
made the autocracy unpopular. *The defeats in the war were shocking and
demoralising. Russian armies lost badly. *There were about 7 million casualties by
1917 and almost 3 million refugees. The situation discredited the government and the
Tsar. *The war also had a severe impact on industry and contributed to the food
shortage in the country. The people were rioting as bread and flour became scarce.
There was resentment all over the country. *The Imperial Russian army was the
largest armed force in the world. It came to be known as the ‘Russian steamroller’.
When this army shifted its loyalty and began supporting the revolutionaries, Tsarist
power collapsed.

Q.5. Make two lists: one with the main events and effects of the February Revolution
and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a
paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what the impact of
each was on Soviet history.
Ans. The February Revolution
Events
* In the winter of 1917, the situation in Petrograd was grim. There was food shortage
in the workers quarters.
* 22 February: a lockout took place at a factory. Workers of 50 other factories joined
in sympathy. Women also led and participated in the strikes. This came to be called
the International Women’s Day.
* The government imposed a curfew as the quarters of the fashionable area and
official buildings were surrounded by workers.
* On the 24th and 25th, the government called out the cavalry and police to keep an
eye on them.
*On the 25th February, the government suspended the Duma and politicians spoke
against this measure. The people were out with force once again.
* On the 27th, the police headquarters were ransacked. Cavalry was called out again.
* An officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and other regiments mutinied,
voting to join the striking workers gathered to form a soviet or council. This was the
Petrograd Soviet. A delegation went to meet the Tsar. The military commanders
advised him to abdicate.
* The Tsar abdicated on 2nd March.
* A provisional government was formed by the Soviet and Duma leaders to run the
country. The people involved were the parliamentarians, workers, women workers,
soldiers and military commanders.
Effects
* Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed.
* Soviets were set up everywhere.
* In individual areas, factory committees were formed which began questioning the
way industrialists ran their factories.
* Soldiers’ committees were formed in the army.
* The provisional government saw its power declining and Bolshevik influence grew.
It decided to take stern measures against the spreading discontent.
* It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and arrested leaders.
* Peasants and the socialist revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land.
Land committees were formed and peasants seized land between July and September
1917.
The October Revolution
Events
* 16th October 1917 — Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and Bolshevik Party to
agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was
appointed by the Soviet to organise seizure.
* Uprising began on 24th October. Prime Minister Kerensky left the city to summon
troops.
* Military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik
newspapers. Pro-government troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph
offices and protect the Winter Palace.
*In response Military Revolutionary Committee ordered to seize government offices
and arrest ministers.
* The ‘Aurora’ ship shelled the Winter Palace. Other ships took over strategic points.
* By night, the city had been taken over and ministers had surrendered.

* All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd approved the Bolshevik action.

* Heavy fighting in Moscow — by December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow -
Petrograd area. The people involved were Lenin, the Bolsheviks, and troops (pro-
government).

Effects
* Most industries and banks were nationalised in November 1917.
* Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of
the nobility. Use of old titles was banned.
* New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.
* Russia became a one-party state.
* Trade unions were kept under party control.
* A process of centralised planning was introduced. This led to economic growth.
* Industrial production increased.
* An extended schooling system developed.
* Collectivisation of farms started.

Q6. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after
the October Revolution?
Ans. *Industries and banks were nationalised in November 1917. This meant that the
government took over ownership and management.* Land was declared social
property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. * In cities,
Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.
*They banned the use of the old titles of aristocracy. * To assert the change, new
uniforms were designed for the army and officials. * The Bolshevik Party was renamed
the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).

Q.7. Write a few lines to show what you know about:

* Kulaks
* The Duma
*Women workers between 1900 and 1930
* The Liberals

Ans. Kulaks — Well-to-do peasants were called kulaks. They were supposed to be
holding stocks in the hope of higher prices. The kulaks were raided as it was thought
that it was necessary to eliminate kulaks in order to develop modern farms.

* The Duma — The Duma was elected as a consultative parliament. Its creation was
allowed by the Tsar during the 1905 Revolution.

* Women workers between 1900 and 1930 — Women made up 31% of the factory
labour force, but they were paid less than men — almost between 1/2 and 3/4 of a
man’s wage. They actively led the strikes in many factories. They even worked in the
collective farms.

* The Liberals — They were a group which looked to change society. Liberals wanted a
nation which tolerated all religions and opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic
rulers. They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject
to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and
officials.

Q8. Differentiate between the ideas of the liberals and radicals in Europe (take the
time period as after the French Revolution).
Ans. The liberals did not believe in universal franchise. In contrast, radicals wanted a
nation in which government was based on the majority of a country’s population.
Liberals felt men of prosperity mainly should have the vote. They did not want the
vote for women. On the other hand, the radicals supported women’s suffragette
movements and opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory

owners. They were not against the existence of private property but disliked
concentration of property in the hands of a few.

Q.9 Describe the incident known as ‘Bloody Sunday’.

Ans. The following events gave way to the incident known as Bloody Sunday.
*The dismissal of four members of the Assembly of Russian workers called for an
industrial action by the workers.
*Over 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike in 1905, demanding a
reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages and improvement in
working conditions.
*When this procession led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace it was attacked
by the police and the Cossacks. Over 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded.
This incident, known as Bloody Sunday. It started a series of events that later resulted
in the 1905 Revolution.

Q.10 Discuss the civil war that took place in Russia after the October Revolution and
its consequences.
Ans. When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army began to
break up. Non- Bolshevik socialists, liberals and supporters or autocracy condemned
the Bolshevik uprising.
They were supported by the French, American, British and Japanese troops. The
Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalised during the civil war. A process of
centralised planning was introduced.
Rapid construction and industrialisation started. An extended schooling system
developed. Stalin introduced collectivisation of the farms so that no shortage of grain
should occur. The Bolsheviks controlled most of the farmer of Russian Empire.

Q.11 What was the basic principle of the Marxist theory?

Ans. Marx believed that the condition of workers could not improve as long as profit
was accumulated by private capitalists. Workers had to overthrow capitalism and the
rule of private property. They must construct a radically socialist society where all
property was socially controlled. This would be a communist society, the natural
society of the future.

Q.12 Explain why did the Bolsheviks consider the Russian revolution as only the “first
stage” of the revolution.
Ans. The Bolsheviks considered the Russian revolution as only the ‘first stage’ of
revolution because merely seizing power was not their ultimate aim. They aimed at an
egalitarian society.
The next stage of the revolution included redistribution of land, nationalisation of
industries and banks, collective farming. The power of the pro-Tsarist aristocracy had
to be crushed. Rich peasants had to be forced to redistribute land. Their ultimate aim
was to establish the rule of the proletariat – the peasants and workers. Loyalty and
began supporting the revolutionaries, Tsarist power collapsed.

Q.13 Explain the important steps taken by Lenin to improve the agriculture and
economy of Russia.
Ans. Lenin nationalised most industries and banks. He ordered land redistribution. He
permitted peasants to cultivate the land that had been socialised centralised planning
was introduced.
Five year plans were made. The government fixed all price during the First two year
"plans". There was increased production of oil, coal and steel. An extended schooling
system developed, factory workers and peasants could go to universities. Communes
were set up, members ate in a communal dining hall and income was divided
according to the principles of "cooperative commission".
Q.14 What was Lenin's April Theses? Why were some members of the Bolshevik Party
surprised by the April Theses? What made them change their attitude?
What were the main objectives of the Russian Revolutionaries?
Ans. The three demands of Vladimir Lenin, after his return to Russia in April 1917'
were:
(i) World War I should be brought to an end.
(ii) Land should be transferred to the peasants.
(iii) The banks should be nationalised.
These three demands were called Lenin's "April Theses".
Most of the members of the Bolshevik were initially surprised as they thought the time
was not yet ripe for a socialist revolution and the Provisional Government needed to
be supported.
The developments of the subsequent months made the party change its attitude .The
workers movement spread, trade divisions grew in number and the power of the
provisional government grew weaker. In the countryside peasants pressed for
redistribution of land and encouraged by socialist revolution's ideas peasants seized
land between July and September 1917. This led to the change of view and the
Bolsheviks decided to seize power.

Q.15 Mention any two changes introduced by Stalin in the Russian economy. How did
Stalin deal with the critics?
Ans. Stalin introduced the collectivisation. All peasants had to cultivate collective
farms (Kolkhoz) from 1929. The profit was shared by the peasants working on the
land.
Before collectivisation, Stalin took steps to eliminate 'Kulaks' – the well to do
peasants. He took away land from them and established large state controlled farms.
Stalin severely punished the critics of his programme. Many were deported and exiled.
He charged his critics with conspiracy against socialism. By 1939, 2 million were put
in prisons or labour camps. A large number were forced to make false statements
under torture and were executed. Several among them were talented professionals.

Q.16 Explain Stalin’s collectivisation programme.

OR What was Collectivisation? How did Stalin use this programme?
Ans. Stalin felt that collectivisation would definitely solve the problem of shortage.
From 1929 the Party forced the peasants to cultivate in collective farms (Kolkhoz).
The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the ownership of collective
farms. Peasants worked on the land and the Kolkhoz profit was shared. Enraged
peasants resisted the authorities and destroyed their livestock. Between 1929 and
1931 the number of cattle fell by 1/3. Those who resisted collectivisation were
severely punished. Many were exiled and deported. The peasants argued that they
were not rich and were not against socialism but they opposed collectivisation for a
variety of reasons. Some independent cultivation was allowed by Stalin’s government
but such cultivators were treated unsympathetically. In spite of all these measures
production did not increase immediately.

Q.17 Discuss the role and importance of Lenin in the history of the USSR.
OR Examine the role of Lenin in Russian Revolution.
Ans. In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from the
exile. He said it was time for the Soviets to take over power. He declared that the war
be brought to a close, land be transferred to peasants, banks be nationalised. These
three demands were Lenin’s ‘April Theses’. He argued that Bolshevik Party be
renamed the Communist Party. In January 1918, Lenin dismissed the Constituent
Assembly. There was only one party — the All Russian Congress of Soviets. It also
became the Parliament of the country. The secret police OGPU and
NKVD punished those who criticised the Bolsheviks. By 1920, the Bolsheviks
controlled most of the former empire. The Bolsheviks created the USSR from the
Russian Empire in December 1922.

Q.18 How did Russia's participation in the First World War cause the fall of the Tsar?
Ans. The war was initially popular and people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II. But as
the war continued, support became thin and Tsar's popularity declined. Anti-German
sentiments became high. The Tsarina Alexandra's German origins and poor advisers,
especially a monk called Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular. Defeats were
shocking and demoralising. Russia's armies lost badly in Germany and Austria
between 1914 and 1916. There were over 7 million casualties by 1917. The
destruction of crops and buildings led to over 3 million refugees in Russia. The
situation discredited the government and the Tsar. The war also had a severe impact
on industry. Many of them producing essential goods were shut down. Able bodied
men were called up to the war. Large supplies of grains were sent to feed the army.
For the people in the cities, bread and flour became scarce. By the winter of
1916, riots at bread shops were common.

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