Industrial perspective of the cokemaking technologies 223

1.23%e1.15% for reducing the push force (Agarwal et al., 2011a; Chatterjee et al.,
2001; Haldar and Tiwari, 2016; Tiwari, 2014).
As BF operation demands lower ash coke, the proportion of low-ash imported coals
were increased in the blend to achieved targeted coke ash and CSR and the resultant
blend rank was automatically reduced from 1.15% to 1.09% in 1995. The quest for the
reduction of coke cost continued, and this is achieved by the incorporation of
noncoking coal (Agarwal et al., 2011a; Prasad et al., 1995). Furthermore, the blend
rank was reduced from 1.09% to 1.03% during 1994e96. These findings confirmed
that stamp charging is a versatile cokemaking technology, and it provides considerable
flexibility in using cheaper coal in the blend (Agarwal et al., 2011a; Prasad et al.,
1995).

8.9.3 Operating parameters

Coal GranulometrydThe stability of coal cake depends on the crushing fineness of
the coal blend. The higher level of coal fines is detrimental to the batteries as it leads
to roof carbon formation, and lower level of coal fines leads to the larger proportion
of þ0.5 mm coal fraction. In the course of crushing (þ0.5 mm), ash material that is
not embedded in the coal matrix is concentrated in the coarser fractions and is distrib-
uted in finer fractions to a significant extent. They would remain coarser fractions, and
when such coal particles are carbonized, the coke shows dots of inerts, which are
distributed in the coke like “resins” in the cake. These coarse inert particles from
“nuclei” breakage fissures traverse the coke, thus leading the deterioration in the phys-
ical properties of coke. For smooth operation, the coal blend crushing fineness,
viz., 3.2 and 0.5 mm maintain in the ranges of 88%e90% and 48%e50%, respec-
tively (Agarwal et al., 2011a; Yadav et al., 2004a,b).
Zero fines (below 0.2 mm)dCoal is composed of vitrinite, liptinite, and inertinite
macerals. Vitrinite is the principal coking constituent in coal, which is easily grindable,
whereas inertinites, present in considerable amounts in Indian coals, are hard and diffi-
cult to grind. During the pulverization of the coke oven charge to a size of 80% below
3 mm in hammer mills, the vitrinite component, which is more friable than durain, un-
dergoes an enormous overgrinding, resulting in the production of a considerable
amount of fines. The fines increase the total surface area of crushed product, and
the resulting increase in the volume of intergranular spaces produces a reduction of
the BD of the charge. It was reported that after 20% addition of zero fines, the BD
decreases markedly. It is well known that a minimum increase in the specific surface
with finer particles filling up the interstices of the coal particles gives a higher BD of
the coal charge. Every 5% increase in zero fines in the blends brings down the BD by
about 0.8%. Therefore, a decrease in BD has a deleterious influence on the coke quality
because the fines present increase shrinkage, which results in coke fissuration and car-
bon deposition and reduces the oven throughput. With every 5% increase in zero fines
in the blends, the total yield comes down by about 1.5%. The presence of zero fines
also adversely affects the yield of BF coke, particularly over 10% (Prasad et al., 1978).
Bulk densitydAs mentioned earlier, the oven throughput and coke quality are
significantly dependent on the BD of the charge. It depends on moisture content
224 New Trends in Coal Conversion

Bulk density (kg/m3)

Bulk density (kg/m3)

1220 1220

1190 1190

1160 1160

1130 1130

1100 1100
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94
–0.5 mm fraction (%) –3.15 mm fraction (%)

Figure 8.17 Relationship between crushing fineness and bulk density of coal cake.

and crushing fineness of the coal blend (Fig. 8.17). It also affects the local heat require-
ment throughout the coke bed and coke quality. Increasing the BD of charged coal
blend resulted in the decreased porosity of coke and increased apparent density of
coke (Agarwal et al., 2011a; Graham and Wilkinson, 1978; Saxena and Tiwari,
2015; van Niekerk and Dippenaar, 1991; Vogt et al., 1998).
Other factors to be considered are those affecting the thermal cycle of coking, i.e.,
heating rate vertical shrinkage, vertical temperature gradient, cross wall, flue and coke
end temperatures, and CT. The impact of such parameters on coke quality is also
discussed.
Heating rate or coking ratedThe heating rate is strongly associated with the crush-
ing fines, moisture content (Vander et al., 1996), stamping time, BD, wall temperature,
and pattern of heat supply throughout the coking process. The impact of moisture con-
tent on heating rate is quite significant (Fig. 8.18). Therefore, an adequate heat require-
ment should be decided based on the moisture content of the coal blend. The heating
rate also has a significant impact on the CSR and M40 indices of the coke. It was
reported that the CSR increases with an increase in the heating rate during coking
while decreasing the M40 index (Haldar and Tiwari, 2016; Karmarkar et al., 1997;
Loison et al., 1989; Tiwari et al., 2012, 2015e; 2017b; van Niekerk and Dippenaar,

3.5

3.3 T1 T2
Heating rate (°C/min)

3.0

2.8

2.5
9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5
Coal blend moisture (%)
Figure 8.18 Relationship between coal blend moisture and heating rate at two different flue
temperatures.
Industrial perspective of the cokemaking technologies 225

1991). Therefore, the heating of the coal cake should be uniform over the total length
and height of the coal cake to maintain desired coke quality.
The rate of coking of top charged coal is higher than that of denser stamped coal
cake because evolved gas not only create hindrance to escape the gases and enhance
the plastic properties but also increase the pressure by 4e5 times. High resistance time
for the gas to escape improves the quality of coke. As an example, a coking rate of
21 mm/h produces superior quality of coke (M10 and CSR) as compared with values
of 20 and 22 mm/h. The 21 mm/h coking rate results in a reduction of þ80 mm frac-
tion of coke, the proportion of which on stabilization gets reduced from 56.2% to 3.6%
of gross coke, indicating possible elimination of the cutter for stamp charged coke pro-
duced at coking rate of 21 mm/h (Prasad and Karmakar, 1992).
Vertical shrinkage of cokedVertical shrinkage of coke mass is an indicator of a
reasonable push force. The vertical shrinkage is the most common variable being
traced apart from the push force curve to evaluate the nature of coke pushing
(Fig. 8.19). The coke mass is pressed against the wall based on generated pressure dur-
ing the coking, which causes an upward frictional force against the vertically shrinking
coke mass. The coke mass starts to shrink vertically when the amount of net force
downward exceeds the frictional resistance offered by the coke oven wall. A value
of 3.5% indicated a good and reasonable pushing and observed that any value lower
than that might be considered to be generating higher push force. It has been reported
that less vertical shrinkage correlates directly with the observed push force (Haldar and
Tiwari, 2016).
Vertical temperature gradientdThe vertical temperature gradient is the tempera-
ture difference between upper and lower zones of the charge. The higher the lower
zone temperature, the more excessive the coking in this oven zone, which could bring
about substantial pushing damaging walls and a coking reduction in the upper part,
with the consequent excess of fines. The opposite situation brings a high temperature
in the free space above the charge, high deposition of graphite in the wall and roof,
increased pushing force, and then damage to the walls. Therefore, the vertical temper-
ature gradient across the charge is essential for smooth oven operation. For maintain-
ing the desired vertical temperature, parameters such as mix gas calorific value, oxygen
content in waste gas, waste gas temperature, suction at chimney base, waste heat box,

2.00
Swelling/shrinkage (%)

0.25

–1.50

–3.25

–5.00
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Coking time (h)
Figure 8.19 Relation between swelling/shrinkage and coking time.
226 New Trends in Coal Conversion

gas collecting main pressure, pushing regularity, and flow of liquor in the elbow should
be in the optimum operating range (Haldar and Tiwari, 2016; Tiwari et al., 2014c).
Cross wall temperaturedCross wall temperature is the temperature of the flues of a
given wall measured at the end of coking. This temperature is used to assess the ther-
mal homogeneity of the oven. The temperature of the wall of one series should be
measured daily at the end of coking to evaluate the deviation in the oven wall temper-
ature. If more significant variations are detected, corrective actions must be prioritized.
Therefore, with the help of cross wall temperature, battery temperature management
can easily be controlled (Kazuma, 1997; Haldar and Tiwari, 2016; Tiwari et al.,
2014c).
Flue temperaturedThe FT and CT in normal operation are not independent param-
eters because an increase in CT increases the CET and also affects the coke quality.
The FT, oven width, and CET are the three factors which affect the thermal conditions.
Among these factors, the temperature of the heating wall and the coke at the end of the
process are two factors which influence the coke properties. Reduction in the CT and
increment in the output are done with the increase in higher FT. The high rate of
carbonization of poorly coking coal is being claimed by optimal FT, along with the
best quality of coke from coal/blends.
The literature reported that the application of high temperature to carbonization
sometimes results in a decrease in the cold strength of coke on account of increased
fissuring, while the actual material strength improves. It has also been described that
as the FT increases, the carbonization time is decreased. Fig. 8.20 shows the relation-
ship between FT in the center of coke mass temperature. It is observed that the porosity
of the coke and size of BF coke decreases to a small extent with increasing FT (Haldar
and Tiwari, 2016; Prasad et al., 1979).
The FT is not recommended beyond 1350
C in concern to Indian coals due to the
limitation of ash fusion temperature. If reactivity is not the deciding factor, it would be
advisable to aim for the highest FT and lowest carbonization time within the limitation
of both from coke quality and productivity.
Coke end temperature and coking timedCET is the temperature of coke as it rea-
ches the quenching station and is measured by the infrared pyrometer. Higher battery
temperature leads to higher CET, and apart from posing a danger to silica bricks and

1350
Center coke temperature

R2 = 0.996
1250
(°C)

1150

1050

950
1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350
Flue temperature (°C)
Figure 8.20 Effect of flue temperature on center coke mass temperature.