BRAIN-NEUROANATOMY

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BRAIN- NEUROANATOMY TABLE OF INDEX

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1 INTRODUCTION 3
2 DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 3
3 CELLULAR ORGANISATION OF NS 4
4 NEUROGLIAL CELLS 4
5 NEURONS 5
6 SYNAPSE 7
7 NEUROTRANSMITTER 7
8 NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION 7
9 CLINICAL ANATOMY 7
10 RECEPTORS 8
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INTRODUCTION
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Nervous system
 Chief controlling and co-ordinating system of the body.
 Responsible for judgement, intelligence and memory.
 Highly evolved at cost of regeneration.
 Most complex system of the body.
 Regulates body activities both voluntarily and involuntarily.
 Average adult brain in air- 1.5- kg and in CSF it weighs 50 gms.
 There are about 180-200 billion neurons in adult brain.
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
ANATOMICAL
1) Central nervous system: - consists of brain and spinal cord.
2) Peripheral nervous system: - includes 12 cranial and 31 spinal nerves.
FUNCTIONAL
1) Afferent: - provides sensory information to CNS.
2) Efferent: - carries motor information to organs via somatic and autonomic nervous system. Somatic
nervous system is for control of skeletal muscles. Autonomic nervous system controls smooth muscles
and other viscera’s, it is subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

Flow chart 4.1 Divisions of nervous system

Flow chart 4.2 Mechanism of working of nervous system.

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 CELLULAR ORGANISATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous tissue is made up of Nerve cells or neurons and Neuroglial cells (forming supportive
function of CNS).
NEUROGLIAL CELLS
are supportive cells that support the neurons both structurally and functionally. Neuroglia are five times
more abundant than the neurons and account for more than half of the weight of the brain.
Table – Types of neuroglial cells in CNS
Protoplasmic Fibrous astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia
astrocytes
Cell size Large Large Medium Small, elongated
Shape of nucleus Oval, light stained Oval, light stained Small, spherical, Small, elongated,
dark stained dark stained
Cytoplasmic Many, short and Many, long Few, short, Short, thin,
processes thick slender beaded spinous
Cytoplasm Granular fibrillar - -
Situation Grey matter White matter White matter Grey and White
matter
Function Blood brain Blood brain Myelination Phagocytosis
barrier (BBB) barrier (BBB)
Embryological Neural crest Neural crest Neural crest Mesoderm
origin

(A) Four types of neuroglia found in the CNS

(B) The perivascular feet of astrocytes.

Neuroglial cells in PNS

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  Satellite cells: - surrounds the nerve cell bodies in peripheral ganglia and provide support and
nourishment to them.
 Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes: - forms myelin sheath around axons in PNS. Whether
neuron in ONS is myelinated or non- myelinated these cells forms neurilemma around all axons.
NEURONS
Each neuron is made up of the following: -
1) A cell body: - it collectively forms grey matter, Nuclei in CNS and Ganglia in PNS.
2) Cell processes: - these are of two varieties
a. Dendrites: - are many, short, branched and often varicose.
b. Axon: - single elongated process. Collectively forms Tracts in CNS and Nerves in PNS.
Functionally each neuron
 Is specialised for sensitivity and conductivity
 Impulse can flow with great speeds
 Show dynamic polarity in its process
 Impulse flow towards cell body in dendrites and away from cyton in axon.
CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
According to the number of their processes
1) Multipolar e.g., all motor and internuncial neurons.
2) Bipolar e.g., first neurons of retina, ganglia of 8th cranial nerve, olfactory mucosa
3) Pseudo-unipolar e.g., dorsal nerve root ganglion, sensory ganglia of cranial nerves
4) Unipolar e.g., mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve, foetal life, lower vertebrates.
According to length of neuron
1) Golgi type 1 Long axons, numerous short dendrites. e.g., purkinje cells of cerebellum
anterior horn cells of spinal cord.
2) Golgi type 2 Short axons, e.g., cerebellar and cerebral cortices
3) Amacrine Only dendrite, e.g., retina of eye ball.
Functional classification
Sensory neurons
1) Primary or 1st order Present in spinal or sensory neurons in dorsal root ganglion of spinal nerves.
2) Secondary or 2 order Present in grey matter of spinal cord and in brain stem.
nd

3) Tertiary or 3rd order Present in thalamus.

Motor neurons
1) Upper motor Situated in motor area of brain, synapse with cranial nerve nuclei and anterior
horn of spinal cord.
2) Lower motor Locates in cranial nerve nuclei and anterior horn of spinal cord, supply various
skeletal muscles.
Parasympathetic neurons (autonomic) – parasympathetic outflow is known as craniosacral outflow.
1) Pre-ganglionic Located in cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X also in sacral 2-4 segments of spinal
cord.
2) Post-ganglionic Located close to or within the walls of viscera.
Sympathetic neurons (autonomic)- sympathetic outflow is knows is thoracolumbar outflow.
1) Pre-ganglionic Located in lateral horns if T1 to L2 segments of spinal cord.
2) Post-ganglionic Located in ganglia of sympathetic trunk away from viscera.
According to shape According to size
 Stellate  Macro neurons: - >7µm in size. e.g., Betz
 Basket cells.
 Fusiform  Micro neurons: -<7µm in size. e.g., Granular
 Pyramidal cells

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 Connective tissue supporting nerve fibres of a peripheral nerve
Structural features of neuron as seen by electron microscope

Figures shows process of formation of myelin sheath aka

myelination.

SYNAPSES
transmits an impulse only in one direction.
two elements taking part in a synapse can, therefore, be spoken of as presynaptic and postsynaptic.
several neurons may take part in forming complex synapses encapsulated by neuroglial cells to form
synaptic glomeruli.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYNAPSES: -

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 1) Morphological: -
 Axo-dendritic
 Axo-somatic
 Axo-axonal
2) Functional: -
 Excitatory
 Inhibitory
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
transmission of impulses through synapses involves the release of chemical substances called neurotransmitters
into the synaptic cleft. Depending on the neurotransmitter (Excitatory of inhibitory), the postsynaptic neuron
becomes depolarized or hyperpolarized.
When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, there is an influx of calcium ions leading
to changes in the synaptic vesicles which pour the neurotransmitter stored in them into the synaptic cleft. The
neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft acts only for a very short duration. It is either destroyed (By
enzymes) or is withdrawn into the terminal bouton. Important neurotransmitters are acetylcholine,
noradrenaline, adrenaline, dopamine, histamine, serotonin, gamma amino butyric acid, glutamate, glycine, and
aspartate. Some chemical substances do not influence synaptic transmission directly, but influence the effects of
neurotransmitters. Such chemical substances are referred to as neuromodulators, e.g., substance P, vasoactive
intestinal polypeptide (VIP), and somatostatin.

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
Each skeletal muscle fibre receives its own direct innervation. The site where the nerve ending comes into
intimate contact with the muscle fibre is a neuromuscular junction. In this junction, axon terminals are lodged
in grooves in the sarcolemma covering the sole plate. Acetylcholine is released when nerve impulses reach the
neuromuscular junction. It initiates a wave of depolarization in the sarcolemma resulting in contraction of the
entire muscle fibre.

CLINICAL ANATOMY
1) Role of Axoplasmic Transport in Spread of Disease
Some infections, which affect the nervous system travel along nerves.
 Rabies virus, from the site of bite, travels along nerves by reverse axoplasmic flow.
 Polio virus is also transported from the gastrointestinal tract through reverse axoplasmic flow.
 Tetanus bacteria, in contrast, travels from the site of infection to the brain along the
endoneurium of nerve fibres.
2) The epineurium contains fat that cushions nerve fibres. Loss of this fat in bedridden patients can lead to
pressure on nerve fibres and paralysis.
3) Severe reduction in blood supply to the nerves can lead to ischaemic neuritis and pain.
4) In multiple sclerosis myelin sheath formed by oligodendrocytes undergoes degeneration but that derived
from schwann cells is spared.
5) Neurapraxia is a disorder due to pressure on a nerve. There is a temporary loss of function due to
damage to myelin sheath.
6) Axonotmesis is injury due to stretch of a nerve. But nerve recovers completely due to intact
neurilemma.
7) Neurotmesis is injury due to division of a nerve. Both nerve fibre and sheath are disrupted.
8) Neurobiotaxis is process in which Neuronal cell body migrates towards the greatest density of stimuli,
e.g., facial nerve nuclei migrate towards trigeminal nucleus to complete the reflex arc.
9) Neuronal cell body has a tendency for centralization and encephalization, e.g., an evolutionary process.
10) Myasthenia gravis: This is a disease marked by great weakness of skeletal muscle. The body produces
antibodies against acetylcholine receptors. As a result, many of these are destroyed. Transmission at the
myoneural junction is much reduced resulting in weakness of muscles. Some improvement is obtained
by administration of anticholinesterase drugs like neostigmine.

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 11) Neuromuscular block during administration of general anaesthesia: Whenever a patient is administered
general anaesthesia for surgery, to relax the skeletal muscle, a neuromuscular blocking agent is given.
Therefore, the patient cannot breathe on his/her own.

RECEPTORS
An individual receives information from outside and from within the body by special sensory nerve
endings called receptors. The receptor receives stimulus and converts it into a nerve impulse. The
receptors thus act as transducers, * converting mechanical and other stimuli into electrical impulses. Thus,
receptors are sensory nerve endings specialized for reception of stimuli and transmitting them in the form of
nerve impulses.

TYPES OF RECEPTORS
FUNCTIONAL TYPES
On the basis of kind of information, they provide.
 Exteroceptors Provide information such as touch, pain, temperature and pressure. They
are located superficially and are also known as cutaneous receptors.
 Proprioceptors provide information about state of contraction of muscles and of joint
movement and position.
 Interoceptors provide information from viscera and blood vessels.
On the basis of the manner in which they are stimulated.
 Mechanoreceptors stimulated by mechanical deformation.
 Chemoreceptors stimulated by chemical influences.
 Thermoreceptors respond to alternation in temperature, e.g., cold and heat.
 Nociceptors respond to any stimuli that bring about damage to the tissue. Damage to
tissue is perceived as pain, discomfort or irritation.
 Photoreceptors stimulated by light, e.g., rods and cones of retina.
 Osmoreceptors respond to changes in the osmotic pressure.
ANATOMICALLY- non encapsulated and encapsulated
Non encapsulated receptors
 Free nerve endings Most of these endings carry pain sensations (pain fibres), but they are
also sensitive to temperature, touch, pressure and tickle sensations. They
are widely distributed in the body tissues such as skin, cornea,
periosteum, dental pulp, etc.
 Peritrichial It is a network of dendritic branches that surrounds the outer root sheath
of hair follicles and is stimulated by light touch causing movement of
hair.
 Tactile discs They are expanded disc-like nerve endings in the germinative epidermal
layer of hairless skin. They make close contact with Merkel cells, which
are specialized epithelial cells in the deeper part of the epidermis. The
tactile discs are slowly adapting touch receptors that transmit
information about the degree of pressure exerted on skin,

Encapsulated receptors
 Tactile corpuscles found in the dermal papillae of the skin in those areas where tactile
sensitivities are extremely well developed, viz. eyelids, lips, fingertips,
nipples and external genitalia. The corpuscle consists of a capsule and a
central core. The central core contains epithelioid cells (modified
Schwann cells) and is supplied by several myelinated nerve fibres.
 Pacinian corpuscles They are the largest and most numerous encapsulated receptors. Each
corpuscle is ovoid in shape. Pacinian corpuscles are rapidly adapting
mechanoreceptors that are particularly sensitive to firm pressure
(pushing) and vibration. These are scattered throughout the integument
of the body notably in the subcutaneous tissue of palm, sole, fingers and
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 breasts.
 End bulbs -Bulbous corpuscles (of Krause) are spherical and found mainly at the
mucocutaneous junctions.
– Genital corpuscles (or Golgi-Mazzone) are slightly different from
bulbous corpuscles (of Krause)
and occur in the genital skin.
 Raffini’s corpuscles They are spindle-shaped structures located into the dermis of hairy skin.
They are slowly adapting mechanoreceptors which respond when skin is
stretched causing stresses in dermal collagen. Hence, these are stretch
receptors like Golgi tendon organs.

CUTANEOUS RECEPTORS
Sensory modalities Type of receptors
Pain, touch and temperature  Free nerve endings
 Merkel’s discs
 Root hair plexus (Peritrichial)
Pressure and vibration  Meissner’s corpuscle
 Lamellated (Pacinian corpuscles)
Depp pressure  Ruffini’s corpuscle

MUSCULAR RECEPTORS
Types of intrafusal fibres
1 nuclear chain fibres
2 nuclear bag fibres
Types of sensory nerve ending
Supplying muscle spindle
1 annulo-spiral endings
2 flower spray endings
The neuromuscular spindles
maintain muscle tone by
functioning as sensory receptor
for stretch reflex and has
significant role in controlling motor activity for being a component of gamma reflex loop.

TENDON RECEPTORS
It comprises Golgi tendon organs. Aka neurotendinous spindle. The opposing functions of the neuromuscular
spindles (excitatory) and neurotendinous spindles (inhibitory) are in balance during stretch reflex activity.
Unlike the neuro-muscular spindles which are sensitive to changes in the muscle length, the neurotendinous
organs detect changes in the muscle tension.

JOINT RECEPTORS
They are of following types: -
 Free nerve endings – profusely present in synovial membrane and articular capsule.
 Ruffini’s corpuscles – in joint capsules and respond to movements and pressure.
 Neurotendinous spindle in articular ligament prevent excessive stretch of capsular ligament.

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