Lasers Unit 2

Lasers

Introduction
LASER is an acronym for light ampli cation by stimulated emission of radiation. The light emitted from a laser often possesses
some very special characteristics. Some of these are

1. (Highly collimated or less divergent) Directionality: The divergence of the laser beam is usually limited by di raction ,
and the actual divergence can be less than 10–5 rad; this leads to the application of the laser in surveying, remote sensing,
etc.

2. High intensity/power: Continuous wave lasers having power levels of and pulsed lasers having a total energy of ~50,000
J can have applications in welding, cutting, laser fusion, star wars, etc.

3. Tight focusing: Because of highly directional properties of the laser beams, they can be focused to areas of approximately
few micrometers squared—this leads to very high intensities and therefore leads to applications in surgery, material
processing, compact discs, etc. Laser pulses having very small cross-sectional area (and high energy) can be guided
through special bers leading to very interesting nonlinear e ects.

4. Extraordinary monochromaticity and high degree of coherence (Spectral purity): Laser beams can have an extremely
small spectral width Δλ ~ 10–6 Å. Because of high spectral purity, lasers nd applications in holography, optical
communications, spectroscopy, etc.

Interaction of radiation with matter

Atoms are characterized by discrete energy states. According to Einstein, there are three
di erent ways in which an atom can interact with electromagnetic radiation: spontaneous
emission, stimulated emission and stimulated absorption.When matter is exposed to
radiation Photon can be absorbed and an atom can jump to upper level or photon can be
created and atom jump to lower level where energy of photon absorbed and emitted should
be equal to the di erence in energy of the two states (levels) ie h ν = E2 − E1

Emissions

Spontaneous emission. Atoms in the energy state E2 can make a (spontaneous) transition to the energy state E1 with the
emission of radiation of frequency

E2 − E1
ν=

h
and h ( 6.626 x10−34 J s) is known as Planck’s constant. Since this process can occur even in the absence of any radiation,
this is called spontaneous emission [see Fig. (a)]. The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to the number of atoms in
the excited state.Stimulated emission

Stimulated emission. As put forward by Einstein, when an atom is in the excited state, it can also make a transition to a
lower energy state through what is known as stimulated emission, in which an incident signal of appropriate frequency triggers
an atom in an excited state to emit radiation—this results in the ampli cation of the incident beam and the emitted photon has

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 Lasers Unit 2

same wavelength, phase and direction of the incident photon [see Fig.(b)]. The rate of stimulated emission depends on both
the intensity of the external eld and the number of atoms in the excited state.

Coherence in lasers
Coherence is a unique property of laser light. It arises from stimulated emission process which provides the ampli cation .
Since a common stimulus triggers the emission events which provide the ampli ed light, all emitted photons have a constant
phase relationship with each other in both time and space. The light is said to be in both temporal and spatial coherence.

Monochromaticity in lasers
Light from lasers typically comes from one atomic transition with single precise wavelength. So the laser light has a single
spectral colour and is almost the purest monochromatic light.

Collimated beam
The light from a typical lasers emerges in an extremely thin beam, with very little divergence or the laser beam is highly
collimated. The high degree of collimating arises from the fact that the cavity of the laser has very nearly pleases parallel front
and back mirrors which constraints the nal laser beam to a path which is perpendicular to the mirrors.

Stimulated absorption
Stimulated absorption (or simply absorption) is the process in which the electromagnetic radiation of an appropriate frequency
(corresponding to the energy di erence of the two atomic levels) can pump the atom to its excited state [see Fig.(c)]. The rate
of stimulated absorption depends both on the intensity of the external eld and on the number of atoms in the lower energy
state.

Test your understanding

Q. Differentiate between spontaneous and stimulated emission.

Einstein’s coefficients
The consideration which led Einstein to the prediction of stimulated emission
was the description of thermodynamic equilibrium between atoms and the
radiation eld. Consider an atom having two states. Let N1 and N2 be the
number of atoms (per unit volume) in states 1 and 2, respectively; the levels
correspond to energies E1 and E2 . As mentioned earlier, an atom in the lower
energy level can absorb radiation and get excited to level E2.

This excitation process can occur only in the presence of radiation. The rate of
absorption depends on the density of radiation at the particular frequency
corresponding to the energy separation of the two levels ie,

The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit volume =the number of photons per second per unit volume.

The rate of absorption transition is given by

Rab = B12 ρ(ν)N1.............(1)

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Where N1 is population of atoms (per unit volume ) in state with energy E1, ρ(ν) energy density of incident beam and B12 is the
constant of proportionality known as the Einstein coe cient for induced absorption. Equation (1) indicated the probability of
occurrence of an induced transition from level 1 to 2.

The rate of spontaneous emission is given by

Rsp = A21N2...............(2)

A21 is the proportionality constant called the Einstein coe cient for spontaneous emission. A21 Represent the probability of a
spontaneous transition from level 2 to 1.

The rate of stimulated emission of photon is

Rst = B21 ρ(ν)N2............(3)

B21 is the Einstein coe cient for stimulated emission and represents the probability for induced transition from level 2 to 1

At thermal equilibrium, the number of upward transitions must be equal to the number of downward transitions. Thus, we may
write (at thermal equilibrium)

Rab = Rst + Rsp

B12 ρ(ν)N1 = B21 ρ(ν)N2 + A21N2

ρ(ν)(B12 N1 − B21N2) = A21N2

A21 N2
ρ(ν) = B12 N1 − B21 N2

By dividing both the numerator and denominator by B12 N2

A21 /B12
ρ(ν) = ..............(4)

N1 /N2 − B21 /B12

At thermal equilibrium, the population at the energy levels with the help of Boltzmann law

N1 = Noe −E1/kT and N2 = Noe −E 2 /kT

N1
= e (−E1+E 2 )/kT

N2

But E2 − E1 = h ν

N1
= e (hν)/kT

N2

B21 [ e hν/kT − B21 /B12 ]

A21 1
∴ ρ(ν) = ............(4)

. Now at thermal equilibrium, the radiation energy density is given by Planck’s law:

[ e hν/kT − 1 ]
8πhμ 3ν 3 1
ρ(ν) = ...........(5)

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Energy density ρ(ν)given by equation (5) will be consistent with planks law only if

A21 8πh ν 3μ 3
= .............(6)

B12 c3
B21
and = 1 or B12 = B21............(7)

B12

Equations (7) and (8) are known as Einstein’s relations. Since B12 = B21

A21 A 8πh ν 3μ 3
= 21 =

B12 B21 c3

ie the ratio of spontaneous versus stimulated emission is proportional to the third power of frequency of the radiation. This is
why it is di cult to achieve laser action in higher frequency ranges such as x rays.

Condition for stimulated emission to dominate absorption

The presence of a large number of photons will lead to more absorption rather than stimulated emission.

Three conditions to be satis ed to make stimulated emission exceeds absorption. They are

• The number of atoms in the excited state should be greater than that at the lower energy level.

• The ratio B21 /A21 should be large, and

• A very high radiation density should be present in the medium.

A medium ampli es light only when these three conditions are ful lled. So, to achieve high percentage of stimulated emissions.

• An arti cial situation known as population inversion is to be create in active medium.

• A larger value of B21 /A21 is achieved by choosing a metastable energy level as the higher level.

• ρ(ν) is made larger by enclosing the emitted radiation in an optical resonant cavity formed by two parallel mirrors.

Population inversion

When the material is in thermal equilibrium the population ratio is governed by the Boltzmann distribution law, according to
which,

N2
= e −(E 2−E1)/kt....(1)

N1

It means that the population N2at the excited level E2 will be far smaller than the population N1 at the level E1 this condition is
called normal condition or thermal equilibrium.

To achieve a high percentage of stimulated emission, a majority of atom should be at the higher energy level than at the lower
level. ie the population ratio N2 /N1 should increase momentarily without change in temperature, population inversion.

Population inversion is the non equilibrium condition of the material in which population of upper level exceeds that of the
lower level

ie, N2 > > N1

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According to equation (1) N2 can exceed N1 only when the temperature were negative. So, the state of population inversion os
also refers to as a negative temperature state. However, it doesn’t mean that we can achieve a temperature below absolute
zero temperature. It is only a non equilibrium condition and population inversion is attained at normal temperature.

Active medium

A medium consisting of di erent species of atoms, only a small fraction of atoms of a particular type has energy level system
suitable for achieving population inversion. Those atoms which cause laser action are called active centres. The rest of the
medium act as a host and support active centres and are called active medium.

An active medium is a medium which when excited reaches the state of population inversion and promotes stimulated
emissions leading to light ampli cation. The procedure to achieve population inversion is called pumping.

Pumping

For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion, the atoms in the lower energy level have to raise
continuously to upper energy level.

A large amount of input energy has to be supplied to the system to momentarily increase N2 to a value comparable to N1.
Pumping is the process of supplying energy to the laser medium.

There are a number of techniques for pumping a collection of atoms to an inverted state.

• Optical pumping - used in solid state lasers

• Electrical discharge - used in gas lasers

• Direct conversion - used in semiconductor lasers

• Chemical reactions - used in CO2 lasers

Metastable state

Normally, excited atoms have short lifetimes and release their energy in a matter of nanoseconds through spontaneous
emission. Therefore population inversion can not be established under such circumstances. In order to achieve population
inversion, the excited atoms are required to wait at the upper energy level till a large number of atoms accumulate at that level.

Metastable state is such a state where single photon emission is impossible and has an unusually long time. Atoms excited to
metastable state remain excited for an appreciable time, which is of order of 10−6 to 10−3 s. This is 10 3 to 106 times the life
times of the ordinary energy levels.

Optical resonator

It is essentially consists of two mirrors facing each other. The active

medium is enclosed by this cavity. One of the mirrors is fully re ective
while other mirror is partially transparent. The optical cavity is used to
make stimulated emission possible in more number of atoms in the active
medium. This naturally increases the intensity of the laser beam.

Test your understanding

Q. Why two level laser is not possible? Give reasons Tom support your answer.

A. No, two level leader is not possible because it is difficult to achieve population inversion. According to Einstein’s relation, the
probability for stimulated absorption and stimulated emissions is exactly the same . The lifetime of an excited state is about

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 Lasers Unit 2

10−8 s and the atoms drop back down to the ground state as fast as they are pumped to the higher energy level. Thus, the
upward transition would be accomplished by premature downward stimulated transitions and the population in higher level
would not accumulate to the required extent. Thus with two level system, population inversion cannot be achieved.

Q. What are the essential conditions for laser action ?

A. Laser is produced by stimulated emission of radiation. To start the laser action the probability of stimulated emission should
be more compared to spontaneous emission. To achieve higher probability of stimulated emission. The following conditions
must be satisfied:

• The higher energy state should have a longer mean life ie it should be a metastable.
• The number of atoms in the higher energy state must be greater than that in the lower energy state.
• The rate of stimulated emission is greater than the rate of stimulated absorption.

Laser and it’s principle

Let us consider an assembly of atoms of same kind that have a metastable states of excitation energy h ν. The important
requirements to the laser action is that there should be more atoms in metastable state than ground state. If this condition is
achieved, there will be more stimulated emissions from atoms in the metastable state than induced absorption by the atoms in
ground state.

The step by step process that takes place in laser action is as follows:

Step 1: atoms in the ground state are pumped to excited state E2 by incoming photons of energy h ν′ = E2 − Eo where ν′ is
the frequency of incident radiation and E2 and Eo are the energy of excited state and ground state respectively.

Step 2: Rapid transition of metastable state E1 by spontaneous emission of photons of energy h ν′′ = E2 − E1 where ν′′ is the
frequency of emitted radiation and E1 is the energy of metastable state.

Step 3: by this way metastable state is occupied by many atoms

Step 4: induced emission occurs when photon of energy h ν = E1 − Eo are incident with secondary photons themselves
stimulating further transitions to produce an avalanche of coherent beam.

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 Lasers Unit 2

He-Ne laser
He - Ne laser is the rst gas laser in 1961 by Ali Japan and W. Bennett.

• It consists of a long and narrow discharge tube lled with a mixture of He and
Ne gasses in the ratio of 10.1 and pressure 0.1mm of Hg.

• The length of the tube is approximately 0.5 m and diameter 1.5 cm.

• Optical pumping is carried out using electrical discharge. The tube is tted
with two electrodes across which high voltage dc is applied.

• The two mirrors are tted at the ends of the silvered and other is partially
silvered and this combination acts as a resonant cavity.

Working:

• when a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture, electrons are

accelerated down the tube.

• These accelerated electrons collide with He atoms and excited them to

higher energy levels E1 and E2 ( metastable states) and He atoms stays there
for a relatively long time.

• Due to collision between He and Ne atoms, the excited He atoms transfer

energy to Ne atoms , as Ne have two identical energy state as that of He atom.

• Ne atoms get accumulated in these two excited states and causes population inversion.

• Once the population inversion is established, three laser transmission take place.

1. 3s to 2p: laser beam of red colour wavelength (632.8nm) is produced

2. 3s to 3p : laser beam of wavelength 3391.2nm in Infrared region produced.

3. 2s to 2p: Infrared laser beam of wavelength 1150nm is produced.

• from 3p and 2p levels, Ne atoms undergo downward transition to 1s level. 1s level is metastable state and Ne atoms may
accumulate at this level once again; however they return to the ground state by colliding with the walls of the tube.

Test your understanding

Q.what is the role of helium in He- Ne laser?

A. Helium helps in excitation of neon atoms. The metastable states of helium atom are almost identical with two energy states of
neon atom. He absorbs energy from the electrons generated by electric discharge and than that energy is transferred to neon
atoms.

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Previous year question

Q. Explain the principle and working of He-Ne laser along with relevant diagram.(5marks)

Q. Derive a relation between Einstein coe cient .(5marks)

Q. De ne the following terms

(1) population inversion

(2) Pumping(2marks)

Q. Show that fraction of atoms in the excited state i is much smaller than that in ground state at a temperature of
3000 K and energy gap of 2eV.(2.5 marks)

Q. State the characteristics of the spontaneous emission using the concept of Einstein A and B coe cients, further
derive that probability of radiation educed transmissions per unit equals the probability of stimulated emissions per
unit time.(4)

Q. Explain the statement ampli cation of the incident light were required that the stimulated emission is dominated
compared to absorption. (2.5)

Q. Explain the construction and working of He_Ne laser what are the merits of lasers(4)

Q. Di erentiate between spontaneous and stimulated emission in laser beams.(2)

Q. Discuss the Einstein’s coe cients. Derive relation between them.(5)

Q. Give energy level diagram for He-Ne laser showing transitions(3)

Q. What are the conditions for laser action.(2)

Q. What are Einstein’s coe cient A and B ? Describe relation between them.(4)

Q. Explain principle of laser action.(4)

Q. What is the role of He-Ne laser?(2.5)

Q. Explain with suitable diagram the principle, construction and working of He-Ne laser.(6.5)

Q. What is population inversion?how it is achieved?(2.5)

Q. Discuss with suitable diagram the principle , construction and working of He-Ne laser. Explain the role of He
atoms in it.(6)

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