Meteorology Notes

Fred’s Videos
MET
Marine Barometers ............................................................................................................ 268
The Precision Aneroid Barometer ..................................................................................... 269
Psychrometer (Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer) .............................................................. 271
The Whirling Psychrometer ............................................................................................... 273
Sea or Advection Fog ......................................................................................................... 275
Radiation Fog..................................................................................................................... 276
Formation of Clouds - Look up the cloud type for the day of your exam in NP100 or
Google! ............................................................................................................................... 278
Sources of Weather Information ........................................................................................ 279
Reference Publications for More Info on Met Information ............................................... 279
Tropical Revolving Storms ................................................................................................. 282
Marine Forecasts Glossary ................................................................................................ 284
Passage of a Low ............................................................................................................... 288
Read a Weather Chart ........................................................................................................ 291
Minimum Suggested Flash Card Titles .............................................................................. 293
Marine Barometers
A barometer is a scientific instrument used in meteorology to measure atmospheric
pressure. Pressure tendency can forecast short-term changes in the weather. Numerous
measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find
surface troughs, high-pressure systems and frontal boundaries.
There are two types in general use: the mercury barometer and the aneroid barometer.
The pointer moves over a scale graduated in millibars. A fixed pointer is fitted to the
glass face of the instrument and it can be set by a metal thumbscrew on the outside of
the glass. This pointer can be set to coincide with the moving pointer and will
FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 268

©Fred Wilson Digital ltd 2018
Fred’s Videos
subsequently give an indication whether the barometer is rising or falling. To ensure

accuracy, the glass should be tapped gently with the finger before reading the
instrument.
The Precision Aneroid Barometer
The Met. Office Standard

Reading the Mk. 2 Aneroid Barometer
• Press the black switch button. If the thread of light in the cathode ray indicator
is broken, turn the knob so that the pressure reading decreases until the thread
becomes continuous.
• When the light is continuous turn the knob so that the pressure reading
increases until the thread of light breaks.
At the point where the thread of light breaks, the pressure shown in the window
should read off.
The pressure as read must be corrected to mean sea level.
The Barograph
The barograph is an aneroid barometer provided with a lever and pen, which record
variations of pressure on a chart, attached to a revolving drum. The drum is driven by
clockwork and makes one revolution in seven days. The paper form fitted on the drum
is graduated to show the day and time of day, as well as the atmospheric pressure in
millibars.

Fred’s Videos
The Diurnal Range of the Barometer

This results from atmospheric pressure waves, with a period of nearly 12hrs which
regularly sweep around the earth from east to west. They are at a maximum in the
tropics of about 3mb. In latitude 51 degrees the range is about 0.8mb and is usually
masked by other pressure variations.

Fred’s Videos
Psychrometer (Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer)

Known as a Mason’s Hygrometer (Stevenson Screen).
Temperature is measured with the thermometer. Thermometers are normally used for
measuring the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air, and for measuring the
temperature of the sea. Thermometers used for measuring air temperatures have to be
screened; otherwise they are affected by radiation of heat to and from surrounding
objects. The usual form of screen is a wooden box, painted white; the sides are
louvered so that air can circulate freely round the bulbs of the thermometers. Where
the left-hand thermometer is used to measure the air temperature, that on the right, the
wet-bulb thermometer, is used to obtain the humidity. The wet-bulb thermometer is an
ordinary thermometer with its bulb covered with muslin which is kept continually
moist by means of a strand of cotton wick one end of which is immersed in a reservoir
of distilled water.
The temperature of the air measured by the ordinary thermometer is called as the dry
bulb temperature of air, commonly referred as DBT. When ordinary thermometer is
exposed to the atmosphere, it indicates the dry bulb temperature, which is nothing but
the atmospheric temperature.
Wet Bulb Temperature of Air (WBT)

The wet bulb temperature of air is also measured by the ordinary thermometer, but the
only difference is that the bulb of the thermometer is covered by the wet cloth.
Temperature of the ordinary air measured by the thermometer when it is covered by
wet cloth or wick is called as the wet bulb temperature, commonly referred to as
WBT. When the air comes in contact with the wet cloth it absorbs some moisture and
gives up some heat, sue to which the temperature of the air reduces. This reduced
temperature measured by the thermometer is called as the wet bulb temperature.
If the moisture content of the air is very low, it will give up more heat to the cloth and
the wet bulb temperature of air will also be comparatively lower. On the other hand, if
the moisture content of air is high it will lose lesser heat to the air, and wet bulb

Fred’s Videos
temperature will be higher. The more is the moisture or water vapour content of the
air more is the wet bulb temperature. Thus, the wet bulb temperature indirectly
indicates the moisture content present in the air or we can say that it is affected by the
relative humidity of the air. The wet bulb temperature of the air is always less than the
dry bulb temperature of air. The difference between the DBT and WBT is called as
wet bulb depression.

Fred’s Videos
The Whirling Psychrometer
This is another type of hygrometer that works on exactly the same principle as the
marine screen it comprises of two ordinary thermometers, but one of them is covered
with the wet wick or cloth. The uncovered thermometer measures dry bulb
temperature, while the one covered with wet cloth measures wet bulb temperature.
Since both the thermometers are placed side-by-side, the moisture from wet wick may
affect the readings of dry bulb thermometer, to avoid this the wet bulb thermometer is
placed at the lower level. The wet wick should be clean and free of dirt to avoid the
erroneous readings. Towards one end of this thermometer there is a small handle that
enables the rotation of the thermometers. To measure DBT and WBT, the cloth is
wetted, and the instrument is rotated for about a minute. The process has to be
repeated several times so as to ensure that the lowest possible WBT is obtained.
What Do We Do with This Information?

Fred’s Videos
Warnings of the likely formation of sea fog may be obtained by frequent observations
of air and sea surface temperatures; if the sea surface temperature falls below the
dewpoint, fog is almost certain to form.
The following procedure is recommended whenever the temperature of the air is

higher than, or almost equal to that of the sea, especially at night when approaching
fog cannot be seen until shortly before entering it. Sea and air (both dry and wet bulb)
temperatures should be observed at least every 10 minutes and the sea surface
temperature and dewpoint temperature plotted against time, as in Diagram.
If the curves converge fog may be expected when they coincide. The example shows
that by 2200 there is a probability of running into fog about 2300, assuming that the
sea surface temperature continues to fall at the same rate.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in an air-water
mixture to the saturated vapor pressure of water at a prescribed temperature.
Fog is caused by the cooling of air to a temperature (known as the “dewpoint”) at

which it becomes saturated by the water vapour which is present within it.

Fred’s Videos
Condensation of this water vapour into minute water droplets produces fog; the type
of fog depends on the means by which the air is cooled.
Sea or Advection Fog
When warm moist air flows over a relatively cold sea surface which cools it below its
dewpoint, sea or advection fog is formed. This is the main type of fog experienced at
sea; it may form and persist with moderate or even strong winds. It is often shallow so
that mastheads of ships may protrude above it, and at times its base is a few feet
above sea level with a clear layer below the fog.
In temperate and high latitudes, sea fog is most common in spring and early summer
when sea temperature is at its lowest. It is particularly frequent and prevalent where
the prevailing winds transport warm moist air over areas of cold water or over the
major cold ocean currents.
Parts of the world in which sea fog is prevalent includes the British Isles, especially
the SW approaches to the English Channel in spring and early summer.

Fred’s Videos
Radiation Fog
Over low-lying land on clear nights (conditions for maximum radiation), radiation fog
forms, especially during winter months. This fog is thickest during the latter part of
the night and early part of the day. Occasionally it drifts out to sea but is found no
further than 10–15 miles offshore as the sea surface temperature is relatively high
which causes the water droplets to evaporate.
Frontal Fog
On a warm front or occlusion, fog may occur especially if the temperature of the air in
advance of the front is very low. The fog is due to the mixing of the warm and cold air
on the two sides of the front; rain ahead of the front may help to raise humidity to near
saturation point. The fog is usually confined to a relatively narrow belt near the
frontal boundary, but sea fog may develop in the warm moist air behind the front.
Local Weather
Anabatic
This term refers to the upward movement of air due to convection. An anabatic wind
ascends a hillside or blows up a valley.

Fred’s Videos
Katabatic Wind
This is the name given to a wind produced by a downward current, which is especially
prevalent in high coastal areas. The wind ‘runs’ down the hillside, its velocity
increasing with gravity, and it can expect to meet the sea often with great violence.
Land and Sea Breezes

Evening temperatures over land and sea tend to be reasonably equal, but at night the
temperature over the land falls and the pressure increases, the state of equilibrium is
upset, and a current of air moves towards the sea. The opposite phenomenon takes
place in morning.
Check your local weather via Google!
The mistral is a strong, cold, north-westerly wind that blows from southern France
into the Gulf of Lion in the northern Mediterranean, with sustained winds often
exceeding force 8.
In France, it refers to a violent, cold, north or northwest wind that accelerates when it
passes through the valleys of the Rhone and the Durance Rivers to the coast of the
Mediterranean around the Camargue region. It affects the northeast of the plain of
Languedoc and Provence to the east of Toulon, where it is felt as a strong west wind.
It has a major influence all along the Mediterranean coast of France and often causes
sudden storms in the Mediterranean between Corsica and the Balearic Islands.
The mistral is usually accompanied by clear, fresh weather, and it plays an important
role in creating the climate of Provence. Its average speed during the day can reach
about fifty kilometres an hour, calming noticeably at night. The mistral usually blows
in winter or spring, though it occurs in all seasons. It sometimes lasts only one or two
days, frequently lasts several days, and sometimes lasts more than a week.

Fred’s Videos
The mistral takes place each time there is an anticyclone, or area of high pressure, in
the Bay of Biscay, and an area of low pressure around the Gulf of Genoa. When this
happens, the flow of air between the high and low pressure areas draws in a current of
cold air from the north which accelerates through the lower elevations between the
foothills of the Alps and the Cevennes. The conditions for a mistral are even more
favourable when a cold rainy front has crossed France from the northwest to the
southeast as far as the Mediterranean. This cold, dry wind usually causes a period of
cloudless skies and luminous sunshine, which gives the mistral its reputation for
making the sky especially clear.
Formation of Clouds - Look up the cloud type for the day of

your exam in NP100 or Google!
Clouds consist of innumerable tiny droplets of water, or ice crystals, formed by
condensation of water vapor around microscopic particles in the air. Fog is a cloud in
contact with the surface of the earth.
The shape, size, height, thickness, and nature of a cloud depend upon the conditions
under which it is formed. Therefore, clouds are indicators of various processes occur-
ring in the atmosphere. The ability to recognize different types, and a knowledge of
the conditions associated with them, are useful in predicting future weather.
Although the variety of clouds is virtually endless, they may be classified according to
general type. Clouds are grouped generally into three “families” according to common
characteristics:
• High Clouds
o Cirrus (Ci) are detached high clouds of delicate and fibrous
appearance, without shading, generally white in color, and often of a
silky appearance.
• Middle Clouds
o Altocumulus (Ac) are middle level clouds consisting of a layer of
large, ball-like masses that tend to merge together.
• Low Clouds
o Stratocumulus (Sc) are low clouds appearing as soft, gray, roll-shaped
masses.
Anemometer
Used to determine wind strength and direction. Site it as far forward and out of bad
air, normally the higher the better.
It measures the movement of the air in relation to the ship relative speed it needs to
have speed log to work out true wind.

Fred’s Videos
Sources of Weather Information

• Own Ship
• VHF
• SafetyNET information via Inmarsat and Marine Safety Information via
NAVTEX as part of the GMDSS. This includes meteorological warnings and
forecasts, with virtually worldwide coverage on Inmarsat
• Local or national Forecasts posted in the marina
• Sat C
• Weather Fax
• Internet
Reference Publications for More Info on Met Information
Various published information sources are available to give information about the
weather:
Mariner’s Handbook
This is a book first published by the British Admiralty service in 1967 to draw
together some information about meteorology and oceanography and seamanship in a
form readily accessible to an Officer of the Watch. It contains information about
tropical revolving storms, causes and avoidance, formation of frontal depressions in
temperate latitudes, fog, ice, heavy weather ship handling. It also has information on
the IALA buoyage system, reporting dangers to navigation and hydrographic notes.

Fred’s Videos
Admiralty List of Radio Signals
This is one of the required nautical publications that should be carried on board.
Volume 3 has information about radio weather services and navigation warnings, and
Volume 4 contains a list of met observations stations. From Vol 3, mariners can find
frequencies for weather routing services, weather fax services, broadcast weather
forecasts, etc.
Admiralty Routing Charts
These are published for all major oceans for each month of the year. The advantage of
using a routing chart is that the intended route can be superimposed on to the routing
chart to see very easily the weather and oceanographic conditions prevailing. The
charts display ‘average’ conditions for the time of year. Wind is presented in the form
of ‘wind roses’ which give a graphical representation of strength and frequency (see
picture), currents, sea temperature thermobars, fog and ice frequency, along with
tracks of tropical revolving storms all assist in the planning of a passage.

Fred’s Videos
Admiralty Sailing Directions
These provide detailed information of coastal passages, advice on entering port,

navigation marks available, often with drawing and photographs to assist in
identification. The books draw attention to particular hazards, shipping density, local
magnetic anomalies, facilities in harbours, etc.
Ocean Passages of the World
This book contains a wealth of information on ocean voyage planning. You’ll find
individual chapters on each of the world's oceans, notes on weather, currents, swell
and ice hazards and other factors affecting passage and directions and distances for a
number of commonly used routes for both power and sailboats.

Fred’s Videos
Tropical Revolving Storms

Hurricanes form and intensify over oceanic regions. They require sea-surface
temperatures of at least 26°C (80°F). They tend to form towards the eastern part of an
ocean between latitudes 8°- 15° North or South and are influenced by the surrounding
prevailing winds in their movement thus move westwards and sometimes re-curve
upon reaching about 20° North or South as the prevailing winds become more
westerly.
Hurricanes generally form at the tail of the arrow and typically track following the
arrow to its arrowhead.
In North America, a tropical revolving storm is called a hurricane. In other parts of

the world, it is known by other names, including “typhoon” in the Western North
Pacific and “tropical cyclone” in the Indian Ocean and the Western South Pacific.
Tropical revolving storms occur at the end of local summer, when the sea temperature
has had time to rise to the required level. In the Caribbean, for example the season is
from the end of June to October.
Signs of an Approaching TRS

• Barometer drops 3mb below the mean reading
• Significant change in the direction or strength of the wind
• A long low swell is observed from the approximate centre of the of the storm
• heavy rain oppressive atmosphere
• High cirrus cloud the Altrostrtus followed by broken Cumulus.

Fred’s Videos
Establishing the Vessels Location
Location Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

Put the wind on the Put the wind on the
stud bow and alter port bow and alter
Dangerous Semi Circle course to starboard course to port as the
as the wind veers wind backs
Put the wind on the Put the wind on the

starboard quarter port Quarter and
and alter course to alter course to
Navigable Semi Circle
port as the wind starboard as the wind
backs veers.

Fred’s Videos
Marine Forecasts Glossary

Marine forecasts contain a number of terms which are used to convey specific
meanings. Do you know them?
Forecast Charts
Prognostic or forecast charts attempt to predict the future weather patterns and
conditions – for the short (two day) and medium term (three to seven day) future
period.
The most common prognostic chart used by form of a surface analysis chart.

Fred’s Videos

Fred’s Videos
Verbal Glossary
Gale
Winds of at least Beaufort force 8 (34-40 knots) or gusts reaching 43-51 knots.
Severe Gale
Winds of force 9 (41-47 knots) or gusts reaching 52-60 knots.
Storm
Winds of force 10 (48-55 knots) or gusts reaching 61-68 knots.
Violent Storm
Winds of force 11 (56-63 knots) or gusts of 69 knots or more.
Hurricane Force
Winds of force 12 (64 knots or more).
Imminent
Expected within six hours of time of issue.
Soon
Expected within six to 12 hours of time of issue.
Later
Expected more than 12 hours from time of issue.
Visibility
Very Poor
Visibility less than 1,000 metres.
Poor
Visibility between 1,000 metres and 2 nautical miles.
Moderate
Visibility between 2 and 5 nautical miles.
Good
Visibility more than 5 nautical miles.
Movement of pressure systems

Slowly
Moving at less than 15 knots.
Steadily
Moving at 15 to 25 knots.
Rather Quickly
Rapidly

Fred’s Videos
Very Rapidly
Moving at more than 45 knots.
Wind
Becoming Cyclonic
Indicates that there will be considerable change in wind direction across the path of a
depression within the forecast area.
Veering
The changing of the wind direction clockwise, e.g. SW to W.
Backing
The changing of the wind in the opposite direction to veering (anticlockwise), e.g. SE
to NE.
Sea State
Smooth
Wave height less than 0.5 m.
Slight
Wave height of 0.5 to 1.25 m.
Moderate
Rough
Very Rough
High
Very High
Wave height of 9.0 to 14.0.

Fred’s Videos
Passage of a Low

Fred’s Videos
Passage of a low also referred to as a passage of depression

Approaching warm Warm Sector Approaching cold
At cold front
front (behind warm front) front
Backs to SW or S and Veers and may freshen Backs slightly and Veers Markedly to W
Wind (N Freshens freshens or NW. May be
accompanied by
Hemisphere)
sudden squalls
Thickens and cloud base Medium and high-level Increase in medium and Bank of cloud breaks
lowers. Overcast skies cloud breaks up. Typically high-level cloud. up as front clears to E.
Cloud obscure the sun (Cirrus and lower level cloud remains (sometimes large
Altostratus) (Nimbostratus) Cumulonimbus)
Intermittent light rain Rain eases and may turn to Rain recommences Moderate or heavy
increases to moderate to drizzle. Fog banks may rain followed by
Weather heavy just ahead of the front develop if sea surface temp clearer conditions as
is high compared to dew front clears to east.
point
Change in Barometric Increase rate of fall Rate of fall slows and Fall Sharp rise
becomes steady
pressure
Very slow increase Sharp increase Steady Shard decrease
Change in Temp
Steady reduction in Moderate or poor Moderate Sharp increase
Visibility increasing rain

Fred’s Videos
Create Your Own Four Flash Cards
Ahead of the warm front

• .
• .
• .
• .
• .
In the warm sector

• .
• .
• .
• .
• .
Approaching cold front

• .
• .
• .
• .
• .
At cold front
• .
• .
• .
• .
• .

Fred’s Videos
Read a Weather Chart

Fred’s Videos
Work out the following for the West Coast of Scotland/Northern Ireland
What is the direction of the wind?
……………………………………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………………………………….
Wind strength?
……………………………………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………………………………….
Weather
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..………………………..
Using synoptic charts to forecast may seem daunting, but using a few simple steps can
make the process far more understanding.
Wind Direction
As you can see, there is a low-pressure system located to the North of the United
Kingdom. A low-pressure system in the northern hemisphere rotates in an
anticlockwise direction.
Around Northern Ireland, the isobars are running in West to East. As this is rotating
anticlockwise, it means our wind is coming from the west.
Calculating the Wind Speed

It is important to find out your latitude. As you can see from the two red circles on the
video above we are between 50 degrees and 60 degrees of latitude.
You need to locate the isobars either side of where you’re predicting the wind
speed. Measure the distance between the two isobars dividers or a piece of paper. On
the top left corner of your synoptic chart you will see a graph called the geostrophic
wind scale.
The left axis is your latitude, 50 and 60 degrees. We are looking for about half way
we read in between approximately 55 degrees. On your latitude line you now need to
mark off the distance we took earlier between our two isobars.
It’s about 40 kts reading of the scale. However, this is the geostrophic wind speed
blows about 600m above the surface of the earth.
In reality, wind at sea level is 2/3 or 60 per cent of the geostrophic wind speed.
60 per cent of 40 kts is 24 kts of wind.
Type of Weather
We are in the warm sector so:
• The pressure would stop falling
• Wind force evens out
• Wind begins to veer
• Temperature rises
• Cloud would be nimbostratus, then stratus

Fred’s Videos
• Rain would stop or change to drizzle

• Visibility could be poor.
Minimum Suggested Flash Card Titles

Explain the difference between a barograph and barometer
What’s a Hygrometer and how can you use it to predict fog?
What types of fog are there?
Sea fog
Land fog
Name sources of weather info
Tell me how you would react in a TRS
Which side of the TRS are you?
Describe this weather chart
Passage of a low four cards


Meteorology Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Meteorology Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fred’s Videos

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 268

subsequently give an indication whether the barometer is rising or falling. To ensure

The Precision Aneroid Barometer

The Met. Office Standard

The pressure as read must be corrected to mean sea level.

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 269

The Diurnal Range of the Barometer

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 270

Psychrometer (Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer)

Wet Bulb Temperature of Air (WBT)

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 271

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 272

The Whirling Psychrometer

What Do We Do with This Information?

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 273

The following procedure is recommended whenever the temperature of the air is

Fog is caused by the cooling of air to a temperature (known as the “dewpoint”) at

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 274

Sea or Advection Fog

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 275

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 276

Land and Sea Breezes

Check your local weather via Google!

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 277

Formation of Clouds - Look up the cloud type for the day of

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 278

Sources of Weather Information

Reference Publications for More Info on Met Information

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 279

Admiralty List of Radio Signals

Admiralty Routing Charts

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 280

Admiralty Sailing Directions

These provide detailed information of coastal passages, advice on entering port,

Ocean Passages of the World

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 281

Tropical Revolving Storms

In North America, a tropical revolving storm is called a hurricane. In other parts of

Signs of an Approaching TRS

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 282

Establishing the Vessels Location

Location Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

Put the wind on the Put the wind on the

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 283

Marine Forecasts Glossary

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 284

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 285

Movement of pressure systems

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 286

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 287

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 288

Passage of a low also referred to as a passage of depression

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 289

Create Your Own Four Flash Cards

Ahead of the warm front

In the warm sector

Approaching cold front

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 290

Read a Weather Chart

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 291

Calculating the Wind Speed

FW02 www.fredsoralprep.com 292

• Rain would stop or change to drizzle