STM 006

MODULE 7
Solution

- is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances.

Solvent

– is the component that is usually present in greater quantity, it also determines the state of matter in
which the solution exists

Solute

– is usually the component in lesser quantity

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLUTION

Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be categorized into:

– supersaturated solution

– unsaturated

– saturated solutions

● A supersaturated solution

– comprises a large amount of solute at a temperature wherein it will be reduced, as a result the extra
solute will crystallize quickly.

● An unsaturated solution

– is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving any more solute at a given temperature.

● A saturated solution

– can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not capable of dissolving any more solute at a given
temperature

● Aqueous solution

– When a solute is dissolved in water the solution is called an aqueous solution. Eg, salt in water, sugar
in water and copper sulfate in water.

● Non-aqueous solution

– When a solute is dissolved in a solvent other than water, it is called a nonaqueous solution. Eg, iodine
in carbon tetrachloride, sulphur in carbon disulfide, phosphorus in ethyl alcohol

● A dilute solution

– contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of solvent.

● A concentrated solution

– contains a large amount of solute dissolved in a small amount of solvent

● Mixtures

– A mixture is composed of two or more substances, but they are not chemically combined. – In
contrast, the compound contains various elements that are bonded to each other

● Homogeneous solutions

– are solutions with uniform composition and properties throughout the solution.

-For example a cup of coffee, perfume, cough syrup, a solution of salt or sugar in water, etc.

● Heterogeneous solutions

– are solutions with non-uniform composition and properties throughout the solution.

- A solution of oil and wateer and chalk powder and solution of water and sand, etc
MODULE 8
Exothermic- the word describes a process that releases energy in the form of heat.

Forming a chemical bond releases energy and therefore is an exothermic process.

Exothermic reactions usually feel hot because it is giving heat to you

Endothermic - a process or reaction that absorbs energy in the form of heat.

Breaking a chemical bond requires energy and therefore is Endothermic.

Endothermic reactions usually feel cold because it is taking heat away from you

1st Law of Thermodynamics

- The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be converted from one form to another with
the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, but it cannot be created nor destroyed, under any
circumstances.

● Mathematically, this is represented as ΔU=q+w

ΔU is the total change in internal energy of a system,

q is the heat exchanged between a system and its surroundings, and

w is the work done by or on the system.

W is the contribution from work.

W is positive when work is done on the system (ie. compression).

W is negative when work is done by the system (ie. expansion)

Q = Inlet energy to the body

W = Outlet energy in the form of work

E1 = Total energy that boy is having during initial state

E2 = Total energy that boy is having during the final state

Here, the body gains Q amount of energy as shown in the above image. And after sometime the body is
spending some W amount of energy in doing work.

Hence the net change in total energy of the body is given by Q – W.

I told you guys that the boys total energy was E1 and then it became E2. Thus, this change in total
energy is nothing but E2 – E1.

Above statement can be mathematically written as

E2 – E1 = Q – W

Therefore, ∆E = Q – W

What is heat (Q) in the equation of first law of thermodynamics?

- It’s a flow of heat energy from the higher temperature body to a lower temperature body

Heat is defined as a flow of thermal energy due to differences in temperatures

Heat is simply thermal energy in transit.

“First law of thermodynamics: The net change in the total energy of a system (∆E) is equal to the heat
added to the system (Q) minus work done by the system (W).”

In the above equation, the total energy ∆E is nothing but a sum of kinetic energy, potential energy and
other energies present in the molecules of the body, which is also known as internal energy ∆U

When the heat is lost from the system, then we have to take Q as -ve. (Remember, if heat is
going then minus sign)

When the heat is supplied to the system, then we have to take Q as + ve. (Remember, if heat is
coming then plus sign).
What is work (W) in the equation of first law of thermodynamics?

- During the thermodynamic process, the volume of the system may increase or decrease.

- Due to this increase or decrease in the volume, the thermodynamic work appears here.

Let;V1 = initial volume of the system

V2 = final volume of the system

P = constant pressure of the system

See, here the pressure of the system remains constant because, as heat is supplied, the volume
increases and thus the pressure remains constant or maintained inside the system.

The work done by the system can be obtained from following formula; W = P (V2 – V1)
=P∆

Sign convention of work (W) in the equation of first law of thermodynamics

- When the volume of the system increases, then we have to take sign of work Was +ve. This is a
work done by the system. (Remember: Volume increases then plus sign for work)
- When the volume of the system decreases, then we have to take sign of work W as -ve. This is a
work done on the system. (Remember: Volume decreases then minus sign for work)

What is Internal energy in first law of thermodynamics equation?

- here are small atoms in all the substances which possess various types of motion.

As these molecules are in motion inside the substance, the energy possessed by them is called kinetic
energy.

The molecules also possess attractive and repulsive forces. These forces indicate the potential energy
between them.

Examples problems on first law of thermodynamics

Example 1: A system receives 224 Joule heat and does work of 156 joule. Calculate the change in the
internal energy.

● System receives heat

● So, Q = 224 joulE

● Work is done by the system

● So, W = 156 joule

● Now according to first law of thermodynamics;

● ∆U = Q – W

● = 224 – 156

● = 68 joules
Example 2: At one bar pressure, the volume of gas is 0.6 litre. If the gas receives 122 Joules of heat at
one atmosphere pressure, the volume becomes 2 litres, then calculate it’s internal energy. (1 litre bar =
101.32 Joule).

● Solution:

● Pressure P = 1 bar

● Initial volume of gas V1 = 0.6 litre

● Final volume of gas V2 = 2 litre

● ∆V = V2 – V1

● = 2 – 0.6

● = 1.4 litre

● Now, W = P ∆V

● W = 1 × 1.4 = 1.4 litre bar

● But 1 litre bar = 101.32 joule

● So, W = 1.4 × 101.32

● = 141.85 joule Here, the work is done by the system

● So, W = +141.85 joule

● The heat obtained by the system

● Q = 122 Joule

● According to thermodynamics first law;

● ∆U = Q – W

= 122 – 141.85

= -19.85 joule

“First Law of Thermodynamics”. Study the sample below.

A gas in a system has constant pressure. The surroundings around the system lose 62 J of heat and does
474 J of work onto the system. What is the internal energy of the system?

– Solution:

– To find internal energy, ΔU, we must consider the relationship between the system and the
surroundings. Since the First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy is not created nor destroyed we
know that anything lost by the surroundings is gained by the system. The surrounding area loses heat
and does work onto the system. Therefore, q and w are positive in the equation ΔU=q+w because the
system gains heat and gets work done on itself.
● ΔU = (62J) + (474J); ΔU = 536J

MODULE 9
Calorimetry

- Measurement of heat flow

- the process of measuring the amount of heat released or absorbed during a chemical reaction.

Formula for Calorimetry

● Q=mC△T

● Where,

● Q = heat evolved ( heat absorbed − heat released) in joules (J)

● m = mass in kilograms (kg)

● c = specific heat capacity in J/kg °C (or J/kg K) ⋅ ⋅

● ∆T = temperature change in °C (or K

● Solved Example

● Example 1: One gram of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is dissolved in 40 mL of water at 30 °C. Let the heat
capacity of water at this temperature is 4.184 J/kg °C and 40mL water has a mass of 40 grams or 0.04kg.
If the ⋅ temperature of the solution increases to 35.32 °C. How much heat is gained by the calorimeter?

● You have Q = mc∆T = (0.04 )(4.184 )(35.32 − 30 °C)

● = 0.890 kJ
Reaction kinetics is the study of the rate of chemical reactions, and reaction rates can vary greatly over
a large range of time scales. Some reactions can proceed at explosively fast rates like the detonation of
fireworks (Figure 1 "Fireworks at Night Over River"), while others can occur at a sluggish rate over many
years like the rusting of barbed wire exposed to the elements (Figure 17.2 "Rusted Barbed Wire")

Collision theory- To understand the kinetics of chemical reactions, and the factors that affect kinetics,
we should first examine what happens during a reaction on the molecular level. According to the
collision theory of reactivity, reactions occur when reactant molecules "effectively collide." For an
"effective collision" to occur, the reactant molecules must be oriented in space correctly to facilitate the
breaking and forming of bonds and the rearrangement of atoms that result in the formation of product
molecules (Figure 3. "Collision Visualizations*)

During a molecular collision, molecules must also possess a minimum amount of kinetic energy for an
effective collision to occur. This energy varies for each reaction, and is known as the activation energy
(Ea) (Figure 4 "Potential Energy and Activation Energy"). The rate of reaction therefore depends on the
activation energy; a higher activation energy means that fewer molecules will have sufficient energy to
undergo an effective collision.

Factors That Affect Rate

1. Reactant concentration.

Increasing the concentration of one or more reactants will often increase the rate of reaction. This
occurs because a higher concentration of a reactant will lead to more collisions of that reactant in a
specific time period.

2. Physical state of the reactants and surface area.

If reactant molecules exist in different phases, as in a heterogeneous mixture, the rate of reaction will be
limited by the surface area of the phases that are in contact. For example, if a solid metal reactant and
gas reactant are mixed, only the molecules present on the surface of the metal are able to collide with
the gas molecules. Therefore, increasing the surface area of the metal by pounding it flat or cutting it
into many pieces will increase its reaction rate.

3. Temperature.

An increase in temperature typically increases the rate of reaction. An increase in temperature will raise
the average kinetic energy of the reactant molecules. Therefore, a greater proportion of molecules will
have the minimum energy necessary for an effective collision (Figure. 5 "Temperature and Reaction
Rate").

4. Presence of a catalyst.

A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a reaction by participating in it without being consumed.

Catalysts provide an alternate reaction pathway to obtain products. They are critical to many
biochemical reactions. They will be examined further in the section "Catalysis."

Figure 1. Fireworks at Night Over River The chemical reaction in fireworks happens at an explosive rate.
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Figure 2. Rusted Barbed Wire The rusting of barbed wire occurs over many years. You sent

Figure 3. Collision Visualizations This visualization shows an ineffective and effective collision based on
molecular orientation. You sent ~

Figure 4. Potential Energy and Activation Energy This potential energy diagram shows the activation
energy of a hypothetical reaction.

Figure. 5 Temperature and Reaction Rate Effect of temperature on the kinetic energy distribution of
molecules in a samp