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Thermodynamics 2 - 2
Thermodynamics 2 - 2
Thermodynamics 2 - 2
ME 325
CHAPTERS
1. POWER FROM TWO PHASE SYSTEMS
2. INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
3. GAS COMPRESSORS
4. STEAM ENGINES
5. STEAM TURBINES
6. HEAT TRANSFER
7. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
8. STEAM GENERATING UNITS
Chapter 1: POWER FROM TWO PHASE SYSTEM
TURBINE WT
BOILER 2
QA
wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
3
B3 PUMP
WP
1
T
T1
evaporation
B3 S1=S2
WP
P2=P3
condensation 2 X2
3
b) T – S diagram S
Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
CYCLE ANALYSIS
1 – 2 : Isentropic expansion
2 – 3 : Constant pressure heat rejection
3 – B3 : Adiabatic pumping
B3 – 1 :Constant pressure addition of heat
A) BOILER
h1
QA + hB3 = h1
QA = h1 - hB3 , kJ/kg
QA = ms , kg/s (h1 - hB3) kJ/kg , kW
QA boiler Where:
h1 = h at P1, T1 (Table 3)
QA = Heat added, kJ/kg
hB3
B) TURBINE
h1
W T + h 2 = h1
turbine WT = h1 - h2 , kJ/kg
WT
WT = ms, kg/s (h1 - h2) kJ/kg , kW
h2
C) CONDENSER Q R + h3 = h 2
QR = h2 - h3 , kJ/kg
h2 QR = ms , kg/s (h2 - h3 ) kJ/kg , kW
wo QW = mWCPWΔTW
QR QW = [mCP (TWi n – TWout)]
wi By heat balance : QR = QW
mWCPWΔTW = ms (h2 - h3 )
h3 ms (h2 − h3 )
mw =
CP ∆T
Where:
QR = heat rejected in the condenser
h2 = h at P2 and S1 = S2 , kJ/kg
h3 = hf at P2 = P3 , kJ/kg
mS = mass flow of steam , kg/s
mW = mass flow of cooling water , kg/s
TW = temperature of cooling water in
and out the condenser 0C
D) PUMP
WP + h3 = hB3
WP = hB3 - h3 , kJ/kg
hB3 WP = ms , kg/s (hB3 - h3) kJ/kg , kW
h3 WP = Vf3, m3/kg (PB3 - P3)kPa, kJ/kg
Where:
WP WP = pump work
hB3 = enthalpy of feed water , kJ/kg
h3 = hf at P2 = P3 , kJ/kg (table 2)
Vf3 = specific volume of water entering
the pump , m3/kg
Vf3 = Vf at P3 (table 2)
EFFICIENCIES WITH STEAM RATES
For cycle:
Wnet WT − WP
eC = = x 100%
QA QA
For engine:
WT WT
eT = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2
Where:
EC = energy chargeable to the engine
EC = h1 – hf2 , (hf2 = last saturated enthalpy)
3600 kJ/kW − Hr kg
WT = , (For engine)
WT , kJ/kg kW − Hr
3600 kJ/kW − Hr , kg
WC = kW − Hr (For cycle)
WC , kJ/kg
3600 kJ/kW − Hr
𝑒= 𝑥100%
WS , kg/kW – Hr h1 − hf2 , kJ/kg
Ideal and Actual cycle
W’ = actual work = WB
T 1
T1 W’ = h1 – h2’ , kJ/kg
S
T – S diagram WB
nb ng
TURBINE Gen WK
QA 2
BOILER wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B3 PUMP
3
where:
WP nb = break efficiency
Schematic diagram ng = generator efficiency
WB = break work
Wi = indicated work
Efficiencies
Wk = combined work
WB ek = combined efficiency
nb = x 100%
WI Wk = combined steam rate
Wk
ng = x 100% Mean Effective Pressure (Pm)
WB
Wk Wk WI , kJ/kg
ek = = x 100% Pm = , kPa
Ec h1 − hf2 VD , m3 /kg
where:
kJ
3600 VD = V2 = volume displacement
kW −Hr
ek = kg kJ x 100% V2 = Vf2 + X2Vfg2
Wk kW −Hr
h1 − hf2 ,
kg
PROBLEMS:
Given:
QA = 4220 kJ/min
WP = 2 kW 1
WT = 22.4 kW
WT =22.4 kW
TURBINE
Required:
a) Wnet
QA =4220 kJ/min
b) QR BOILER 2
c) ec wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B3 3
PUMP
Solution:
For a) WP=2 kW
Wnet = WT - WP
Wnet = 22.4 kW – 2 kW
Wnet = 20.4 kW
For c)
For b) Wnet
eC = x 100%
By the first law of thermodynamics: QA
Ein = Eout 1224 kJ/min
eC = x 100%
4220 kJ/min
For the cycle:
eC = 29%
QA = Wnet + QR
QR = QA - Wnet
QR = 4220 kJ/min – 20.4 kW
QR = 4220 kJ/min – 1224 kJ/min
QR = 2996 kJ/min
2. The condensing pressure for a Rankine engine is 1 bar ( h f = 417.4
kJ/kg). Calculate the net work for 1 kg/s steam at the beginning of the
expansion is at 50 bar and (a) saturated, (b) 350 0C, (c) 640 0C. note
the variation of efficiency and of the quality at the end of the
expansion.
T P1 = 50 bars
Given: 1
P2 = 1 bar = 0.1 MPa
B3
Required:
Wnet P2 = 1 bar 2
ec
3
for a: 50 bar and saturated
for b: 50 bar and 350 0C
for b: 50 bar and 640 0C TS diagram for a) S
For Wnet
WT = (h1 – h2)ms
For a) WT = (2794.3 – 2158.97)ms
From steam tables WT = 635.33 kJ/kg (1 kg/s)
At P1 = 5 MPa and saturated (table 2) WT = 635.33 kW
h1 = hg at 5.0 MPa
h1 = 2794.3 kJ/kg For ec
S1 = Sg at 5.0 MPa WT h1 − h2
S1 = 5.974 kJ/kg – K eC = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2
2794.3 − 2158.3
eC = x 100%
2794.3 − 417.36
eC = 26.73%
For c)
For b)
From steam tables
From steam tables
At P1 = 5 MPa and 640 0C (table 3)
At P1 = 5 MPa and 350 0C (table 3)
h1 = 3759.6 kJ/kg
h1 = 3068.4 kJ/kg
S1 = 7.3632 kJ/kg – K
S1 = 6.4493 kJ/kg – K
For h2 For h2
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2 S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
6.4493 = 1.3026 + X2(6.0568) 7.3632 = 1.3026 + X2(6.0568)
X2 = 0.8497 = 84.97% X2 = 1.00 = 100%
T P1 = 50 bars 1 T P1 = 50 bars
B3 B3
P2 = 1 bar P2 = 1 bar
2 2
3 3
S S
TS diagram for b)
For Wnet
For Wnet
Wnet = WT assuming that WP = 0
Wnet = WT assuming that WP = 0 WT = (h1 – h2)ms
WT = (h1 – h2)ms WT = (3759.6 – 2676.78)ms
WT = (3068.4 – 2336.0709)ms WT = 1082.82 kJ/kg (1 kg/s)
WT = 732.329 kJ/kg (1 kg/s) WT = 1082.82 kW
WT = 732.329 kW
For ec For ec
WT h1 − h2 WT h1 − h2
eC = = x 100% eC = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2 EC h1 − hf2
732.329 kJ/kg 1082.82 kJ/kg
eC = x 100% eC = x 100%
(3068.4 − 417.36)kJ/kg (3759.6 − 417.36)kJ/kg
eC = 32.4%
eC = 27.62%
3. A steam is generated at 4.0 MPa at 440 0C, condensation occurs at
0.105 MPa.
a) For the rankine engine operating on the same limits, compute the
efficiency and heat rate.
b) For the rankine cycle occurs between the same limits, determine
QA, QR, W net and ec.
c) What mass flow rates is required for a net output of 30 MW.
Given:
P1 = 4.0 MPa T1 = 440 0C 1
P2 = 0.105 MPa
TURBINE WT
Solution:
QA BOILER 2
wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B3 3
T P1 = 4.0 MPa 1 PUMP
T1 = 440 0C
B3 WP
P2 = 0.105 MPa
2
3
mS = 136,774.2181 kg/Hr
Q R = h2 – h3
QR = (2513.412185 - 423.24) kJ/kg
QR = 2090.1721 kJ/kg
4. Steam at 100 bar, 600 0C is received by a Rankine engine and
exhaust at 2 bar; ∆P and ∆K are negligible. (a) for the ideal engine,
find W, W, e, and Pm. (b) for the actual engine nb = 84 %, ng = 93 %
and the driven generator produces 30 MW. Find W k, ek, total throttle
flow, and estimate the exhaust enthalpy h2’.
Given:
WB nb = 84 % ng = 93 %
0 P1 = 10 MPa T1 = 600 0C
P1 = 10 MPa T1 = 600 C
P2 = 0.2 MPa 1
nb = 84 %
ng = 93 % WK
QA P2 = 0.2 MPa 2
wO
Required: QR
wi
For a: (for ideal engine)
Wi, W, e, and Pm B3
3
For b: (for actual engine)
Wk, ek, total throttle WP
flow, h2’.
Solution:
h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2
For a) h2 = 504.70 + (0.95994)( 2201.9)
From steam tables h2 = 2618.39811 kJ/kg
At P1 = 10 MPa and T1 = 600 0C (table 3)
h1 = 3625.3 kJ/kg For Wi
S1 = 6.9029 kJ/kg – K
Wi = (h1 – h2)kJ/kg
At P2 = 0.2 MPa (table 2) Wi = (3625.3 - 2618.39811) kJ/kg
Wi = 1006.90189 kJ/kg
hf2 = 504.70 kJ/kg S f2 = 1.5301 kJ/kg – K
hfg2 = 2201.9 kJ/kg S fg2 = 5.5970 kJ/kg – K For W
Vf2 = 0.0010605 m3/kg 3600 kJ/kW – Hr
W=
For Vfg2 Wi , kJ/kg
Vfg2 = Vg2 – Vf2 3600 kJ/kW – Hr
W=
Vfg2 = 0.8846395 m3/kg 1006.90189kJ/kg
kg
W = 3.5753
For h2 kW – Hr
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
6.9029 = 1.5301 + X2(5.5970)
X2 = 0.95994 = 95.994 %
For e
WT h1 − h2
e = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf2 For h2’
1006.90189kJ/kg
e = x 100% h2’ = h1 – WB
(3625.3 − 504.70 )
h2’ = 3625.3 kJ/kg – 845.7975876 kJ/kg
e = 32.266 % h2’ = 2779.502412 kJ/kg
For Pm
V2 = Vf2 + X2Vfg2
V2 = [0.0010605 + 0.95994 (0.8846395)] m 3/kg
V2 = 0.85026 m3/kg = V2
1006.90189kJ/kg
Pm = , kPa
0.85026 m3/kg
Pm = 1184.266 , kPa
For ms
For b) kg kJ
H. R.k = Wk , (h1 − h2 )
kW – Hr kg
For Wk 3600 kg kJ
WB = nbWi H. R.k = (3625.3 − 504.70)
786.59176kW – Hr kg
WB = (0.84)(1006.90189 kJ/kg) kJ
WB = 845.7975876 kJ/kg H. R.k = 14,282.07187
kW – Hr
Wk = ngWB
Wk = (0.93)( 845.7975876 kJ/kg) ms = (Pout)(Wk )
Wk = 786.5917565 kJ/kg ms = (30000 kW)(4.57671kg/kW - Hr)
ms = 137,301.5167 kg/Hr
For ek
Wk Wk
ek = = x 100%
Ec h1 − hf2
786.5917565kJ/kg
ek = x 100%
(3625.3 − 504.70) kJ/kg
ek = 25.20642%
The Regenerative Cycle
mT
TURBINE
1
WT
5
BOILER 2 3
QA m1 4
m2 QR
CONDENSER
m3
B9 B8 B7 B6 6
9 O.H. 8 O.H. 7 O.H.
3 2 1 ( mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
S
T – S diagram
By heat balance E in = Eout
A) BOILER
h1
QA + hB9 = h1
QA = h1 - hB9 , kJ/kg
QA = mT, kg/s (h1 - hB9) kJ/kg , kW
QA boiler Where:
h1 = h at P1, T1 (Table 3)
QA = Heat added, kJ/kg
hB9
B) TURBINE
h1 m WT = mTh1 – m1h2 – m2 h3 – m3 h4 – h5 (mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
T
Where:
WT mT = total mass of steam ,kg/Hr
m1, m2, m3, = masses of extracted steam
h5
h2 h3 h4
D) CONDENSER
h5 (mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
Q R + h6 = h5
QR = h5 – h6 , kJ/kg
QR = (mT – m1 – m2 – m3), kg/s (h5 – h6 ) kJ/kg , kW
QR
(mT – m1 – m2 – m3)
h6
C) PUMP
WP4 + h9 = hB9
hB9
WP = hB9 – h9 , kJ/kg
h9
WP = mT, kg/s (hB9 – h9) kJ/kg , kW
WP = Vf9, m3/kg (PB9 – P9)kPa, kJ/kg
WP4
E) OPEN FEED WATER HEATER
PROBLEMS:
S
Solution:
For h4
Solving for h1, h2, h3, h4 S1 = S2 = S3 = S4 = Sf4 + X4Sfg4
6.7179 = 0.5210+ X2(7.8094)
From steam tables X4 = 0.793518068 = 79.3518068 %
At P1 = 6.0 MPa and T1 = 455 0C (table 3) h4 = hf4 + X4hfg4
h1 = 3311.1 kJ/kg h4 = 151.53 + (0.793518068)( 2415.9)
S1 = 6.7179 kJ/kg – K h4 = 2068.5903 kJ/kg
h2 m1
For h3
S1 = S2 = S3 = S4 = Sf3 + X3Sfg3
6.7179 = 2.2166 + X2(4.3067)
h6
X3 = 1.045185409 = 104.5185409 %
h7 O.H.
h3 = hf3 + X3hfg3 (mT – m1)
2
h3 = 798.65 + (1.045185409)( 1968.2)
h3 = 2874.5973 kJ/kg mT
m1 h2 + h6(mT – m1) = h7mT
h3 m2
h5
h6 O.H. (mT – m1 – m2)
1
(mT – m1)
h1 m T
WT
(mT – m1 – m2)
h4
m1 m2
h2 h3
WT = mTh1 – m1h2 – m2 h3 – h4 (mT – m1 – m2)
For c) For eC
Wnet WT − WP
For eT eC = = x 100%
EC h1 − hf
kJ
WT WT 983.1871723 − 6.0323616kJ/kg
kg
eT = = x 100% eC = kJ kJ x 100%
EC h1 − hf 3311.1 − 990.59
kJ kg kg
983.1871723 eC = 42.109485%
kg
eT = kJ kJ x 100%
3311.1 − 990.59
kg kg For QA
QA = h1 – hB7 = h1 – (h7 + WP3)
eT = 42.36944345% QA = 3311.1 – (990.59 + 3.8688)
QA = 2316.6412 kJ/kg
The Reheat Cycle
QRH
Reheater
2
3
1
TURBINE WT
QB 4
BOILER wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
5
B5
PUMP
WP
1
T1
T 3
S1=S2
P1
evaporation
B5 2
P2 – P3
WP
P4 4 S3=S4
condensation
5
S
b) T – S diagram
Cycle Analysis
5) e = thermal efficiency
H. R. rankine − H. R. reheater
% improvement= X 100%
H. R. rankine
PROBLEMS:
1) Steam at 10 MPa, 500 0C enters an ideal engine that has one stage
of reheat: exhaust is at 0.05 MPa and 85% quality. The work
produced by the engine is 800 kJ/kg of steam. Determine the
thermal efficiency of the engine.
Given: T1 =5000C
1
T 3
P1 = 10 MPa
T1 = 500 0C P1 = 10 MPa
P4 = 0.05 MPa B5 2
WT = 800 kJ/kg
X4 = 85 %
WP
P4 = 0.05 MPa
Required: 5 X4 = 85 % 4
QRH
a) eT
Reheater
P1 = 10 MPa 3
T1 =500 C 0 2
1
WT = 800 kJ/kg
TURBINE
QB
BOILER P4 = 0.05 MPa 4
wO
CONDENSER QR
wi
B5 PUMP 5 Q A = WT + Q R
WP
For QR:
Q R = h 4 – h5
Solution:
From steam tables But:
At P4 = 0.05 MPa (table 2) h4 – h5 = X4hfg4
h4 – h5 = (o.85 %)(2305.4 kJ/kg)
hf4 = 340.49 kJ/kg h4 – h5 = 1959.59 kJ/kg = Q R
hfg4 = 2305.4 kJ/kg
QA = 800 kJ/kg + 1959.59 kJ/kg
for eT QA = 2759.59 kJ/kg
WT 800 kJ/kg
eT = X 100% eT = X 100%
QA 2759.59 kJ/kg
e T = 28.9898 %
Chapter 2: INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Internal combustion engine is a heat engine deriving its energy by the heat
liberated by the mixture of some hydrocarbons with the atmospheric air.
CYLINDER
CYLINDER
PISTON
PISTON
PISTON ROD
P T
3
3
S=C V=C
4 2
2 4
S=C
1 1 V=C
1 – 2: isentropic compression, S = C
2 – 3: constant volume addition of heat, V = C
3 – 4: isentropic expansion, S = C
4 – 1: constant volume rejection of heat, V = C
Point 1 – 2: S = C
k−1
T2 V1
=
T1 V2
T2
= rkk−1
T1
Computing for the size
of the engine
Efficiencies and
Mean effective pressure
WB = Pmb LANc , kW
eb = brake thermal efficiency WB = 2πTN , kW
kJ Where: Pmb = brake mean effective
3600
kW −Hr
eb = kg kJ
X 100% pressure, kPa
mfb HHV A= πD2/4
kW −Hr kg
WI = PmI LANc , kW
ei = indicated thermal efficiency
kJ PS = shaft power
3600
kW −Hr
ei = kg kJ
X 100% 2π T, ft − lb N, rpm
mfi HHV Bhp =
kW −Hr kg ft −lb
33000
hp −min
nm = mechanical efficiency
lb π
WB eb P, L, ft D2 , in2 N, rpm c
nm = = X 100% Ihp = in 2 4
WI ei ft −lb
33000
hp −min
ni = indicated engine efficiency
ei 1
ni = X 100% where: e = e = 1 − k−1 X 100%
e rk
nb = brake engine efficiency
nb = ni X nm
PROBLEMS:
P1 = 1 atm 3
T1 = 15.6 0C
LHV= 37252 kJ/m3 S=C
rk = 6 4 P1 = 1 atm
k = 1.33
nm = 81 % 2 S=C
heat rate = 14142 kJ/kW – Hr
WB = 29.85 kW 1
T1 = 15.6 0C
N = 200 rpm
V
Dimensions : 23.5 X 23.5 cm
For e
1
Required: e = 1− X 100%
a) eb , ei rkk−1
1
b) nb, ni e = 1 − (1.33 −1) X 100%
c) mep 6
e = 44.6382 %
Solution: 31.42
ni = X 100%
44.6382
For a) ni = 70.388 %
kJ nb = ni X nm
3600 nb = 0.70388 X 0.81
kW −Hr
eb = kJ
X 100%
14142 nb = 57 %
kW −Hr
eb = 25.456 %
For c)
ei = eb /nm WB 29.85 kW
ei = 25.456/81 mep = = m3
= 878.561 kPa
VD 0.033975997
ei = 31.42 % s
π 200rpm
For b) VD = (.235m2 )(.235cm)
4 60
ni = ei X 100%
e m3
VD = 0.033975997
s
The Diesel Cycle
P 3 3
2 T
S=C
P=C
4 2
S=C
4
1 1 V=C
V S
PV diagram of a four stroke TS diagram of a four stroke
diesel engine diesel engine
Cycle Analysis
1 – 2: isentropic compression, S = C
2 – 3: constant pressure addition of heat, P = C
3 – 4: isentropic expansion, S = C
4 – 1: constant volume rejection of heat, V = C
PROBLEMS:
0.214251m3
rk =
0.015329m3
rk = 13.977
For b)
1+c
rk =
c
1
c=
rk − 1
1
c=
13.977− 1
c = 7.705941%
For c)
Q A = mCP T3 − T2
T2 = T1 rkk−1
T2 = 321.9 K 13.977.4
T2 = 924.4566753K
kJ kJ
317 = .227 kg 1.0062 T3 − 924.4567 K
cycle kg − k
T3 = 2312.327671K
T3 = 321.9 K 13.977.4 rc
2312.327671K
rc =
321.9 K 13.977.4
rc = 2.50128289
For d)
W = QA − QR
W = Q A − mCV T4 − T1
kJ kJ
W = 317 − .227 kg 0.7186 (T4 − T1 )
cycle kg − k
T4 = T1 rkc
T4 = 321.9 K 2.501282891.4
T4 = 1161.846928K
kJ kJ
W = 317 − .227 kg 0.7186 1161.846928K − 321.9 K
cycle kg − k
kJ
W = 179.986
cycle
For e)
kJ
137.013991
cycle
e = 1− kJ X 100%
317
cycle
e = 56.777921%
For f)
W
Pm =
VD
V2 = cVD
0.015329m3 = 0.0705941%VD
VD = 0.19892444m3
kJ
179.986
cycle
Pm =
0.19892444m3
Pm = 904.7958109kPa
Chapter 3: GAS COMPRESSORS
Operation of compressors
Discharge valve
Inlet valve
P 3 discharge 2
compression
suction
4 1
V1 = VD
V
Conventional diagram without clearance
P 3 2
compression
expansion
4 1
V1
VD
V
Conventional diagram with clearance
V1, = V1 − V4
Volume of gas drawn into the cylinder
where:
m1 = m1’ + m2
m1 = total mass after admission
m1’ = mass of gas drawn in and delivered
mc = clearance of residual gas
V1’ = volume of gas drawn in corresponding to mass m1’
P1 = pressure at the start of compression
T1 = temperature of start of compression
V1 = total volume at end of admission corresponding to mass m1
Work of Compression
Q = ∆P + ∆K + ∆H + W
Q = ∆H + W ∆P = 0 , ∆K = 0
W = Q − ∆H
1. Adiabatic Compression (Q = 0) (S = 0)
W = −∆H = −m′ CP T2 − T1
k −1
kR T2 P2 k
CP = , =
k−1 T1 P1
k −1
m′ kRT1 P2 k
W= −1
1−k P1
k −1
kP1 V1 ′ P2 k kJ
W= −1 , kW
1−k P1 min
2. Polytropic Work
W = Q n − ∆H = m′ Cn T2 − T1 − m′ CP T2 − T1
Cv k − n
W = m′ Cn − CP T2 − T1 but Cn =
1−n
Cv k − n
W = m′ − CP T2 − T1
1−n
Cv k − n − CP (1 − n)
W = m′ T2 − T1
1−n
Cv k − Cv n − CP − CP n
W = m′ T2 − T1
1−n
where: CP = Cv k CP − Cv = R
m′
W= n CP − Cv T2 − T1
1−n n −1
nm′RT1 T2 nm′ RT1 P2 n
W= −1 = −1
1 − n T1 1 − n P1
n −1
nm′ RT1 P2 n
W= − 1 , kW
1−n P1
3. Isothermal work ∆H = 0
2
W = Q − ∆H = Q = pdv
1
2
dv V2
W= c = c lnV 12 = c lnV2 − lnV1 = cln
1 v V1
V2 V2
W = P1 V1 ′ ln = m′ RT1 ln , kW
V1 V1
Volumetric efficiency(n V)
1 1
P3 n P2 n V1
V4 = V3 = cVD = cVD
P4 P1 V2
Since V1 = VD + cVD we have
1
P3 n
V1 − V4 VD + cVD − cVD P4
nV = VD
=
VD
1
P2 n V1
= 1+c −c = 1+c−c
nV P1 V2
PROBLEMS:
Given:
P2 = 630 kPaa W= − 1 , kW
1−n P1
R = 410 J/kg – k .4
For b)
n −1
nP1 V1 ′ P2 n
W= − 1 , kW
1−n P1
2) There are compressed 0.142 kg/s of oxygen by a 35.56 cm X
35.56 cm double acting motor driven compressor operating at 100
rpm. P1 = 101.35 kPa, T1 = 27 0C and P2 = 310.131 kPaa.
Compression and reexpansion are polytropic with n = 1.31.
Determine a) n V, b) heat rejected c) work and d) power input by the
driving motorfor an overall adiabatic efficiency of 70 %
Given:
P 3 2 P2 = 310.131 kPaa
m1’ = 0.142 kg/s
kPa
P1 = 101.35 kPa
T1 = 27 0C = 300 K
P2 = 310.131 kPaa
nc= adiabatic efficiency of 70 % P1 = 101.325 kPa
35.56 cm X 35.56 cm double acting kPa
4 1
n = 1.31 V1
VD T1 = 300 K
N = 100 rpm
kPa
V
Required: For b)
a) nV QR = heat rejected
b) QR QR = mCn (T2 – T1)
c) W P1 V1
d) Pi n m= but V1 = VD + cVD
RT 1 1
P2 n
Solution: nV = 1 + c − c
For a) P1
1
V1 ′ 310.131 kPaa 1.31
nV = 0.92798 = 1 + c − c
VD 101.35 kPa
′ m′ RT1 c = 5.3409813%
V1 = m3
P1 V1 = 0.117721 1 + 0.05341
kg
0.142 0.2599
kJ
(300K) s
′ s kg −k m3
V1 = V1 = 0.117721 1 + 0.05341
101.35 kPa s
′ m3 m3
V1 = 0.109242624 V1 = 0.124008
s s
πD2
VD = LN m3
4 101.35 kPa 0.124008
π . 3556m 2 2 m= s
VD = (.3556 m)(100rpm) kJ
4 60 0.2599 300K
3 kg −k
m kg
VD = 0.117720984 m = 0.1611929
s s
m3
0.10924262
nV = s
m3
X 100% = 92.798 %
0.11772098
s
Cv k − n
Cn =
1−n
kJ
0.6595 1.395− 1.31
kg −k
Cn =
1 − 1.31
kJ
Cn = −0.180830645
kg − k
n −1
T2 P2 n
=
T1 P1
1.31−1
310.131 kPaa 1.31
T2 = 300K
101.35 kPa
T2 = 390.8975661K
Q R = mCn T2 − T1
kg kJ
Q R = 0.1611929 −0.180831 90.8976 K
s kg − k
Q R = −2.649543458kW
For c)
nP1 V1 ′ T2
W= −1
1 − n T1
1.31(101.35 kPa)1 V1 ′ T2
W= −1
1−n T1
m3
1.31 101.35 kPa 0.109242624 390.8976 K
s
W= −1
−0.31 300 K
W = 14.17609582kW
For d)
Wisen
Pin =
nc
k −1
′
kP1 V1 P2 k
W= −1
1−k P1
m3 .395
1.395 101.35 kPa 0.109242624 310.131 kPaa 1.395
s
W= −1
−0.395 101.35 kPa
W = 14.56797232kW
14.56797232kW
Pin =
. 70
Pin = 20.81138904kW
MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION
Multistaging is the compression of the gas in two or more cylinders in place
of a single cylinder compressor. It is used in reciprocating compressor. In
order to 1) save power, 2) limit the gas discharge temperature, and 3) limit
the pressure differential per cylinder.
P M 4 P M 4
PVn = C PVn = C
B 2
B 3 2 PX
N N 3
1
A 1
V V
Two stage compression no pressure Two stage compression with pressure
drop without intercooling drop with intercooling
PX P4
= ; PX 2 = P1 P4 ; PX = P1 P4
P1 PX
PD PD
P2 = PX + ; P3 = PX −
2 2
Where:
PX = intermediate pressure
PD = pressure drop
Wout
Wi n
m’ 2 3 m’
1 4
Intercooler
LP cylinder HP cylinder
PROBLEMS:
1) There are compressed 11.83 m 3/min of air from 103.42 kPaa, 26.7 oC to
827.36 kPaa. All clearances are 8 % a) find the isentropic power and
piston displacement required for a single stage compression, b) using the
same data, find the minimum ideal power for two stage compression when
the intercooler cools the air to the initial temperature, c) find the
displacement of each cylinder for conditions of part (b), d) how much heat
is exchanged in the intercooler? e) for compressor efficiency of 78 % what
driving motor output is required?
Given:
P 3 2 P2 = 827.36 kPaa
V1’ 3
= 11.33 m /min kPaa
P1 = 103.42 kPa kPa
T1 = 26.7 0C = 299.7 K
P2 = 827.36 kPaa
P1 = 103.42 kPaa
c=8%
kPa
n C = 78 % 4 1
V1 T1 = 299.7 K
Required: VD
a) Wisen , VD (simgle stage) kPa
V
b) Wi deal(two stage)
For single stage
c) VDHP , VDLP
d) QR
e) Pout
Solution:
PX = P1 P4
For a)
k −1 PX = (103.42 kPaa) 827.36 kPaa
kP1 V1 ′ P2 k
PX = 292.5159 kPaa
Wisen = −1
1−k P1 k −1
2kP1 V1 ′ PX k
m3 0.4 W= −1
1.4 103.42 kPa 11.33 min 827.36 1.4 1−n P1
Wisen = −1
−0.4 103.42 m3 0.4
= 55.4640.49 kW W =
min
Wisen = −3327.842949 −1
min −0.4 103.42
W = 47.285935 kW
V1 ′
nV =
VD For c)
1
n V = 1 + c − c P2
n
V1 ′
P1 nV =
1 VDLP
827.36 kPaa 1.4 1
n V = 1 + 0.08 − 0.08 P2 n
103.42 kPaa nV = 1 + c − c
n V = 72.6691 % P1
1
m3 292.52 kPaa 1.4
11.33 n V = 1 + 0.08 − 0.08
min
VD = 103.42 kPaa
. 726691
m3 n V = 91.187895%
VD = 15.591221
min m3
11.33
min
For b) VDLP =
0.91187895
m3
P 4 P4 = 827.36 kPaa VDLP = 12.425
min
kPaa
kPa P1 V1 ′ = m′ RT1
P1 V1 ′
2 m =
′
RT1
3 P1 = 103.42 kPaa m3
103.42 kPaa 11.33
min
kPa m′ = kJ
1 T1 = 299.7 K 0.28708 (299.7 K)
kg −K
VkPa kg
m′ = 13.61898567
Wi n Wout min
3 4
m’ 1 2 P3 V3 = m′ RT3
m’ m′ RT3
V3 =
P3
kg
QR 13.61898567 (0.28708)299.7 K
min
V3 =
292.5159 kPaa
m3
V3 = 4.00576
min
V3
nV =
VDHP
m3
4.00576
min
VDHP =
0.91187895
m3
VDHP = 4.392864
min
For d)
Q R = m′ CP (T3 − T2 )
k−1
T2 P2 k
=
T1 P1
0.4
292.5159 kPaa 1.4
T2 = 299.7 K
103.42 kPaa
T2 = 403.362 K
kg
Q R = 13.61898567 (1.0062)(299.7 K − 403.362 K)
min
kJ
Q R = −1420.524275
kg
For e)
WO
nC =
Win
47.285935kW
Win =
0.78
Win = 60.622993kW
Chapter 4: STEAM ENGINE
1. Ideal PV diagram
P 2 3
V
2. VD = piston displacement
πD2
VD = LN 2 , piston rod neglected
4
πD2 π(D2 − d2 )
VD = LN + LN , piston rod considered
4 4
Steam
Steam engines are
double acting h1 ms = kg/s
engines 1
Head end Crank end crosshead
d Brake power
h2 2
Indicated power
condenser
h3
3. Indicated power
IP = Pmi VD
where:
Pmi = indicated mean effective pressure
area of card
Pmi = X spring scale
length of card
Pmi
length
4. Brake Power
BP = 2πTN
Where:
T = torque kN – m
T=FXL
N = speed rps
WB = Pmb VD
Where:
Pmb = brake mean effective pressure
6. Mechanical Efficiency
Brake Power
nm =
Indicated Power
7. Efficiencies
a) ei = indicated thermal efficiency
Indicated Power, kW
ei = kg kJ
ms , h1 − hf2
s kg
b) eb = brake thermal efficiency
Brake Power, kW
eb = kg kJ
ms , h1 − hf2
s kg
c) ni = indicated engine efficiency
Indicated Power, kW
ei = kg kJ
ms , h1 − h2
s kg
d) nb = brake engine efficiency
Brake Power, kW
eb = kg kJ
ms , h1 − h2
s kg
1
Imep = P1 rc 1 + ln − P2
rc
actual mep = f(Imep)
PROBLEMS:
Required:
a) IP
Solution:
πD2
IP = mep LN 2
4
kg π
IP = 40000 2 0.360 m 2 0.45 m (200 rpm) 2
m 4
2.2 lb 3.28 ft
IP = 732870.7342 kg − m
1kg 1m
IP = 5288395.218 ft − lb
IP = 160.2544 Hp
π(D2 − d2 )
IHPCE = actual mep LN
4
2
π[ 0.380 m − 0.06 m 2 ]
IHPCE = 180.9556164kPa 0.405 m 250 rpm
4
IHPCE = 33.76823681kW
π(D2 − d2 )
IHPCE = PmiCE LN
4
2
π[ 0.305 m − 0.063 m 2 ]
IHPCE = 230.2723684kPa 0.380 m 240 rpm
4
IHPCE = 24.48152581kW
BP = 2πTN
T= FXL
T = 356 N X 0.8 m
T = 284.8 J
BP = 2π . 2848 J 240 rpm
BP = 7.157804702kW
FP = 54.18386863 kW − 7.157804702kW
FP = 47.02606393kW
7.157804702kW
nm =
54.18386863kW
nm = 13.21021345%
4) A steam engine with a 305 mm bore by 457 mm stroke controlled
compression horizontal uniflow steam engine having an indicated engine
efficiency of 70 % when operated between 0.862 MPa (gauge) and
atmospheric pressure. Exhaust steam initially dry and saturated. Piston rod
diameter is 44mm. Mechanical efficiency is 90 % when connected to an AC
generator which has an efficiency of 83.5 % when running at 240 rpm.
Given: Required:
d = 44 mm a) kW rating of the generator
N = 240 rpm
ni = 70 % b) combined steam rate consider that at
D = 305 mm
nm = 90 % rated load compression ratio is 4 and f
L = 457 mm
ranges from 0.7 to 0.8
P1 = 862 kPa(gauge) ng = 83.5 %
P2 = 101.325 kPa
Solution:
For a)
1
Imep = P1 rc 1 + ln − P2
rc
P1
Imep = 1 + lnrk − P2
rk
963.325 kPa
Imep = 1 + ln4 − 101.325 kPa
4
Imep = 473.3692539kPa
πD2
IHPHE = actual mep LN,
4
2
π 0.305 m
IHPHE = 355.0269404kPa 0.457 m 240 rpm
4
IHPHE = 47.41622954kW
π(D2 − d2 )
IHPCE = actual mep LN
4
2
π[ 0.305 m − 0.044 m 2 ]
IHPCE = 355.0269404kPa 0.457 m 240 rpm
4
IHPCE = 46.42942624kW
For b)
3600 kJ/kW − Hr
Ws =
Wk Wk , kW
ng = 3600 kJ/kW − Hr
WB Ws =
WB 70.52501032kW
nm = W = 51.049273
WI s
WB = 93.84565578kW 0.9
WB = 84.4610902kW
Wk = 84.4610902kW 0.835
Wk = 70.52501032kW
Chapter 5: STEAM TURBINE
hf2
5. Thermal efficiency
turbine output
a. ntb = brake thermal efficiency =
ms (h1 − hf2 )
gen output
b. ntc = combined or overall thermal efficiency =
ms (h1 − hf2 )
6. Engine efficiency of Turbine
brake power
a. neb = brake engine efficiency =
ms (h1 − h2 )
gen output
b. nec = combined or overall engine efficiency =
ms (h1 − h2 )
7. Willan’s Line
Willan’s line is a straight line which shows the relation between the steam
consumption (ms , kg/Hr) and the load (L, kW) of steam turbine generator unit.
ms kg/Hr
y = bx + a Slope, b
where: msf
msf − msn
b=
FL Y = ms
x = load msf - msn
a = no load steam
consumption a = ms n
no
L Full L kW
load
load
PROBLEMS:
h1 + KE1 = WT + KE2 + Q L + h2
WT = (h1 − h2 ) + (KE1 − KE2 ) + Q L
kJ kJ kJ kJ
WT = 600 − 486 + 16.8 + 2.5
kg kg kg kg
kJ
WT = 133.3
kg
WT = 533.2 kJ
2) A steam turbine with an internal efficiency of 90 % receives steam
at 7 MPa and 550 0C and exhaust of 20 kPa. Determine the ideal
turbine work, exhaust enthalpy and the exit quality of steam
Given: P1 = 7 MPa
T1 = 550 0C
nt= 90 %
P1 = 7 MPa
T1 = 550 0C
P2 = 0.020 MPa nt= 90 % WT
Required:
a) WTi
P2 = 0.020 MPa
b) X2
Solution:
For h2
S1 = S2 = Sf2 + X2Sfg2
6.9486 = 0.8320 + X2(7.0766)
X2 = 0.864341633 = 86.4341633 %
h2 = hf2 + X2hfg2
h2 = 251.40 + (0.864341633) 2358.3
h2 = 2289.776873 kJ/kg
3) A steam turbine generator power plant 6.5 MW capacity has a full
load steam consumption 6.0 kg per kW – Hr. no load steam
consumption is 12 % of the full load consumption.
a) Write the equation of the Willan’s line of this turbine.
b) At 70 % of the rated load, calculate the hourly steam
consumption.
Given:
P = 6500 kW
msf = 6.0 kg/kW – HR
msn = 0.12(ms f)
X = 0.70(6500 kW)
Required:
a) Willan’s line
b) X2
Solution:
y = bx + a
kg kg
y = 5.28 0.70 (6500 kW) + 4680
Hr Hr
y = 28704 kg/Hr
4) Steam with an enthalpy of 800 kcal/kg enters the nozzle at a
velocity of 80 m/s. Find the velocity of the steam at the exit of the
nozzle if its enthalpy is reduced to 750 kcal/lkg. Assuming the
nozzle is horizontal and disregarding heat losses. Take g = 9.81
m/s2 and J constant is 427 kg – m/kcal.
6) The entrance and exit enthalpies of a steam turbine are 4000 and
3000 kJ/kg respectively, what is the mass of steam entering the
turbine if the generator power is 3 MW and the generator efficiency
is 90 %.
Given:
P1 = 2.85 MPa
T1 = 400 0C
P2 = 0.0085 MPa
Required:
Solution:
ms t
ms 2
ms 1
5000 kW 7500 kW
Turbine 1 Turbine 2
10000 kW
From steam tables for b)
At P1 = 2.85 MPa and 400 0C (table 3)
h1 = 3233.4 kJ/kg yT = mst = y1 + y2
for unit 1
From steam tables y1 = b1 x + a1
At P2 = 0.0085 MPa (table 2) kg kg
y1 = 4.16 (5000 kW) + 3200
h3 = hf at 0.0085 MPa kW − Hr Hr
kg
h3 = 178.7 kJ/kg y1 = 24000
Hr
for a)
for unit 2
y2 = b2 x + a2
for unit 1 kg kg
y = bx + a y2 = 4 (5000 kW) + 5000
24000 kg/Hr = b1 (5000 kW) + a1 kW − Hr Hr
kg
50 % load y2 = 25000
Hr
kg kg kg
13600 = b1 2500 kW + a1 yT = 24000 + 25000
Hr Hr Hr
By elimination: kg
kg yT = 49000
b1 = 4.16 Hr
kW − Hr
kg for c)
a1 = 3200
Hr combined Heat rate , kJ/kW – HR
y1 = b1 x + a1 kg kJ
y1 = 4.16x + 3200 mst , h1 − h3
Hr kg
H. R. =
10000 kW
kg kJ
for unit 2 49000 3233.4 − 178.7
Hr kg
y = bx + a H. R. =
35000 kg/Hr = b2 (7500 kW) + a2 10000 kW
kJ
50 % load H. R. = 14968.03
kg kW − Hr
20000 = b2 3750 kW + a2
Hr for d)
By elimination:
kg kJ
b2 = 4 3600
kW − Hr ek = kW −Hr
kg H. R.
a2 = 5000 kJ
Hr 3600
y2 = b2 x + a2 ek = kW −Hr
kJ
y2 = 4x + 5000 14968.03
kW −Hr
ek = 24.05126%
Chapter 6: HEAT TRANSFER
T2 Q Where:
T1 Q = heat transfer, kJ
1 2 kJ
k = thermal conductivity
Hr − m − K
A = cross sectional area, m2
T = time, Hr
X = thickness of the material, m
X
Conduction through composite walls:
k 1 A T1 − T2 RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Q1 = 1
k1 k2 k3 X1 RT =
k 2 A T2 − T3 U
Q2 = Where:
X2 X1 X2 X3
T1 T2 T3 T4 Q k 3 A T3 − T4 RT = + +
Q3 = k1 k2 k3
1 2 3 4 X3 U = overall heat
A T1 − T4 W
Q= X X X
transfer coeff. , 2
1 m −K
+ 2+ 3
k1 k2 k3
X1 X2 X3
Conduction through fluid film:
A Ti − To
hi k1 k2 k3 Q= 1 X1 X2 X3 1
ho + + + +
hi k1 k2 k3 ho
To where:
Ti T1 T2 T3 T4 Q kJ
h0 = outside film coefficient ,
i 1 2 3 4 o Hr − m2 − K
kJ
hi = inside film coefficient ,
Hr − m2 − K
X1 X2 X3
Mean temperature difference
1. Arithmetic mean temperature difference
(AMTD)
2. Logarithmic mean temperature difference
(LMTD)
m2 m2
Heat lost by hot fluid = heat lost by cold fluid
Temperature gradient Temperature gradient
(parallel flow) (parallel flow)
θmax = T1 − t1 θmax = T1 − t 2
θmin = T2 − t2 θmin = T2 − t 1
PROBLEMS:
Solution:
Given:
kA T1 − T2
Q=
X = 15 cm X
T1 = 200 0C = 473 0K Q k T1 − T2
=
T2 = 30 0C = 303 0K A X
W
K = 5 W/m - K Q 5 473 − 303 K
= m−K
A 0.15 m
Required: Q W
= 5666.66667 2
a) Q A m
2) Two walls of cold storage plant are composed of an insulating material
(k = 0.25 kJ/Hr – m – 0C) 100 mm thick at the outer layer and material
(k = 3.5 kJ/Hr – m – 0C) 15 cm thick at inner layer. If the surface
temperature at cold side is 30 0C and hot side is 250 0C, find the heat
transmitted per square meter.
Given:
k1 k2
X1 = 10 cm
X2 = 15 cm Q
T1 = 250 0C = 523 0K T1 T2 T3
T2 = 30 0C = 303 0K 1 2 3
K1 = 0.25 kJ/Hr – m – 0C
k2 = 3.5 kJ/Hr – m – 0C
Required: X1 X2
a) Q/A
Solution:
Q T1 − T3
= X X
A 1
+ 2
k1 k2
Q 523 − 303 K
= 0.10 m 0.15 m
A +
0.25 3.5
Q kJ
= 496.7741935
A Hr − m2
Q T1 − T2
Required: = X1
A
a) Q/A k1
b) T1, T2, T3, T4 W 1471.712494− T2 K
534.4379923 2 = 0.8
c) X2 is doubled m
2.96
Solution: T2 = 1327.269793K
for a) Q T2 − T3
= X2
A
A Ti − To k2
Q= 1 X1 X2 X3 1 W 1327.269793− T3 K
+ + + + 534.4379923 2 = 0 .13
hi k1 k2 k3 ho m
Q 1478− 300 K 0.0692
= 1 0.8 0.13 0.00254 1
T3 = 323.2677844K
A + + + +
85 2.96 0.0692 43 .3 23
Q W Q T3 − T4
= 534.4379923 2 =
A m A X3
k3
for b) W 323.2677844− T2 K
534.4379923 2 = 0.00254
m
43 .3
T4 = 323.2364336K
Q Ti − T1
= 1
A
hi
W 1478− T1 K
534.4379923 2 = 1
m
85
T1 = 1471.712494K
for c)
A Ti − To
Q= 1 X1 2X 2 X3 1
+ + + +
hi k1 k2 k3 ho
Q 1478− 300 K
= 1 0.8 2(0.13 ) 0.00254 1
A + + + +
85 2.96 0.0692 43 .3 23
Q W
= 288.5276698 2 (decreased by 46.01288%)
A m
Q Ti − T1
= 1
A
hi
W 1478− T1 K
288.5276698 2 = 1
m
85
T1 = 1474.605557K (increased)
Solution: seawater
702 mmHg
0
T TC = 40.8512 C condenser
702 mmHg
T2 = 37.5 0C Tm = 37.5 0C
mT = mw + ms
T1 = 29.5 0C
m2
For a) For b)
ms = 32700 kg/Hr
Solution:
hs = 2757 kJ/kg
md = 38750 kg/Hr
hd = 403 kJ/kg
27 0C
82 0C mc =
hci = 113.25 kJ/kg hco = 343.3 kJ/kg
m = 71450 kg/Hr
hm = 355 kJ/kg
For a:
TC = condensing temperature
TC = Ts a t at 355 kJ/kg
TC = 85 0C
For b:
For c:
By heat balance:
mshs + md hd + hci mc = mhm + mchco
32700 kg/Hr (2757 kJ/kg) + 38750 kg/Hr (403 kJ/kg) + 113.25 kJ/kg mc = 71450 kg/Hr (355
kJ/kg) + mc355 kJ/kg
32700 kg/Hr (2757 kJ/kg) + 38750 kg/Hr (403 kJ/kg) + 113.25 kJ/kg mc = 71450 kg/Hr (355
kJ/kg) + mc355 kJ/kg
105770150 kJ/Hr + 113.25 kJ/kg mc = 25364750 kJ/Hr + mc355 kJ/kg
80405400 kJ/Hr = mc355 kJ/kg – 113.25 kJ/kg mc
80405400 kJ/Hr = 241.75mc
mc = 332597.3113 kg/Hr
For d:
Q = mc hco − hci
Q = UALMTD
kJ kJ
Q = 332597.3113 kg/Hr 355 − 113.25
kg kg
kJ kJ
Q = 332597.3113 kg/Hr 355 − 113.25
kg kg
kJ
Q = 80405400.01 = 22334.83334 kW
Hr
kW
22334.83334kW = 3.632 A 18 C
m2 − K
A = 341.6365844m2
For e:
Tave = 54.5 C
𝛒ave = 986 kg/m3
ms 332597.3113 kg/Hr m3
Vf = = = 337.3197883
𝛒ave 986 kg/m3 Hr
Vf = A X V X N
π
Vf = (ID)2 X V X N
4
m3 π 1.8m
337.3197883 = (0.012m)2 X XN
Hr 4 s
N = 460 tubes
A = πODLN
341.6365844m2 = π 0.016m L 460tubes
L = 14.77 m = 15 m
R1
R2
Di Do
2πkL T1 − T2 Where:
Q= R2
ln Q = heat transferred, W
R1
K = thermal conductivity, W/m – K
L = length of pipe
R1 = inside radius
R2 = outside radius
R2
R3 R1
2πk 1 L T1 − T2 2πL T2 − T3
Q1 = R2
Q= R R
ln ln 2 ln 3
R1 R2
R1 +
k1 k2
2πk 2 L T2 − T3
Q2 = R3
ln
R2
hi
ho
Q i = Ai hi Ti − T1
Q i = hi 2πR1 L Ti − T1
Q o = Ao ho T3 − To
Q o = ho 2πR 3 L T3 − To
Ti − T0
Q= R R
1 ln 2 ln 3 1
R1 R2
+ + +
hi A1 2πk 1 L 2π2L h0 A3
PROBLEMS:
Given:
15 cm X 6 m uninsulated B.I. pipe
Ti = 385 0F
To = 85 0F
Required:
a) Annual cost of heat lost
Solution:
From pipe
For 15 cm (5.9055 in) Sch. 80 for steam use
Do = 6.625 in = 16.8275 cm
Di = 5.761 in = 14.639294 cm
Ki ron = 30 BTU/Hr – ft – F
hi = 1000 BTU/Hr – ft2 – F
ho = 2 BTU/Hr – ft2 - F
Ao = 3.171909 m2
Ai = 2.7582442 m2
BTU
hi = 1000
Hr − ft − F
W
hi = 5675.056 2
m −K
BTU
ho = 2
Hr − ft − F
W
ho = 11.35011 2
m −K
Ti − T0
Q= R
1 ln 2 1
R1
+ +
hi A1 2πk 1 L h0 A3
385 − 85 /1.8
Q= 0.168275
1 ln 1
W + 0.14639294
+ W
5675 .056 2 (2.7582442 ) 2π 51.906 6 11.35011 2 (3.171909 )
m −K m −K
385 − 85 /1.8
Q= 0.168275
1 ln 1
W + 0.14639294
+ W
5675 .056 2 (2.7582442 ) 2π 51.906 6 11.35011 2 (3.171909 )
m −K m −K
Q = 5986.588499 W
kJ 31536000s 1000 1BTU
total cost = 5986.588499
s yr 106 BTU 0.75 1055 J
total cost = 238601.0173 pesos
Chapter 7: FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Classifications of fuels
Combustion
Actual air – fuel ratio theoretical air – fuel ratio plus excess air
1. Specific gravity
density
S. G = , for liquids
density of water
density
S. G = , for gases
density of air
2. API and Baume gravity units
141.5
API = − 131.5 , (petroleum products)
SG at 15.6 C
140
Baume = − 130 , brine
SG at 15.6 C
SG at temperature T, applying correction factor:
SGT = SG15 .6 1 − 0.0007 T − 15.6
3. For higher and lower heating value
a. Dulong’s formula, used for solid fuels of known ultimate analysis:
O kJ
Q h = 33,820 C + 144,212 H − + 9,304 S ,
8 kg
b. ASME formula for petroleum products
Q h = 41,130+ 139.6 X API
c. Bureau of standards formula
Q h = 51,716+ 8,793.8 (SG)2
d. Difference between HHV and LHV
Q h − Q L = 9 H2 2442
Where:
H2 = 26 − 15(SG)
4. Combustion of solid fuel with known ultimate analysis:
A O kg air
Theo. = 11.5 C + 34.5 H − + 4.3 S ,
F 8 kg fuel
Molecular weights:
C : 12 N2 : 28
H2 : 2 S : 32
O2 : 32
5. Theoretical and actual air fuel ratio
Cn Hm + aO2 + 3.76 a N2 = bCO2 + cH2 O + 3.76 a N2 , (Theo)
Cn Hm + 1 + e aO2 + 1 + e 3.76 a N2 = bCO2 + cH2 O + deO2 + (1 + e)3.76 a N2 , (actual)
m m m m
Cn Hm + n + O2 + 3.76 n + N2 = nCO2 + H2 + 3.76 n + N , (Theo)
4 4 2 4 2
PROBLEMS:
Required:
a) Heating value
b) A/F
Solution:
For a)
O kJ
Q h = 33,820 C + 144,212 H −+ 9,304 S ,
8 kg
0.035 kJ
Q h = 33,820 0.685 + 144,212 0.025 − + 9,304 (0.015) ,
8 kg
kJ
Q h = 26280.6325
kg
For b)
A O kg air
Theo. = 11.5 C + 34.5 H − + 4.3 S ,
F 8 kg fuel
A 0.035 kg air
Theo. = 11.5 (0.685) + 34.5 0.025 − + 4.3 (0.015) ,
F 8 kg fuel
A kg air
Theo. = 8.6535625
F kg fuel
2. Liquid octane fuel is burned with idel proportions of air calculate.
a) Ideal fuel air ratio
b) Actual fuel air ratio if e = 20 %
Solution:
m m m m
C8 H18 + n + O2 + 3.76 n + N2 = nCO2 + H2 O + +3.76 n + N , Theo
4 4 2 4 2
18 18 18 18
C8 H18 + 8 + O2 + 3.76 8 + N2 = 8CO2 + H2 O + +3.76 8 + N2 , Theo
4 4 2 4
C8 H18 + 12.5 O2 + 3.76 12.5 N2 = 8CO2 + 9H2 O + 3.76 12.5 N2 , (Theo)
A/FA = (1 + e)A/FT
kg air
A/FA = (1 + 0.20)15.05263
kg fuel
kg air
A/FA = 18.0632
kg fuel
3. A steam generator burns fuel oil with 20 % excess air the fuel oil may be
represented as C14H30. The flue gas leaves the preheater at 0.31 MPa.
Find the minimum stack gas temperature to avoid condensation.
Given: Solution:
mol of water vapor
e = 20 % PV = Patm
total mol
C14H30
P = 0.31 MPa
Required:
a) Stack gas temp.
Solution:
Cn Hm + 1 + e aO2 + 1 + e 3.76 a N2 = bCO2 + cH2 O + deO2 + (1 + e)3.76 a N2 , actual
C14 H30 + 1.2 21.5 O2 + 4.512 21.5 N2 = 14CO2 + 15H2 O + 4.3O2 + 4.512 21.5 N2 , actual
15
PV = 310 kPa
130.308
PV = 35.68 kPa
From steam table
Tsa t at 0.03568 MPa = 72.685 0C
4. There are 20 kg of fine gas formed per kg of fuel oil burned in the
combustion of a fuel oil C12H26. What is the excess air in percent?
Given:
C12H36
m = 20 kg gas per kg
fuel
Required:
a) e in percent
Solution:
m m m m
C12 H26 + n + O2 + 3.76 n + N2 = nCO2 + H2 O + +3.76 n + N , Theo
4 4 2 4 2
26 26
C12 H26 + 12 + O2 + 3.76 12 + N2
4 4
26 26
= 12CO2 + H2 O + +3.76 12 + N2 , Theo
2 4
C12 H26 + 18.5 O2 + 3.76 18.5 N2 = 12CO2 + 13H2 O + +3.76 18.5 N2 , Theo
A/FA = (1 + e)A/FT
kg air kg air
19 = 1 + e 15.05263
kg fuel kg fuel
e = 27.18 %
5. A fuel oil is burned with 50% excess air. What is the volume rate of flow
in m3/min of the wet products at a pressure of 102 kPa and a temperature
of 305 0C when fuel is burned at a rate of 45 kg/min. assume that
combustion requirement of the fuel oil is similar to those C12H26
Given:
C12H36
P = 102 kPa
mf = 45 kg/ min
T = 305 0C
e = 50 %
Required:
a) Vf
Solution:
C12 H26 + 1 + e aO2 + 1 + e 3.76 a N2
= bCO2 + cH2 O + deO2 + (1 + e)3.76 a N2 , (actual)
C12 H26 + 18.5 O2 + 3.76 18.5 N2
= 12CO2 + 13H2 O + 18.5 O2 + 3.76 18.5 N2 , actual
mfa = A/FA X mf
kg air
mfa = 23.40894118 X 45 kgfuel/min
kg fuel
mfa = 1053.45 kgair/min
Solving for gas constant R
from PV = mRT
kgair kJ
102 kPa V = 1053.45 0.289552216 (578 K)
min kg − K
m3
Vf = 17.28
min
6. A 485 kW diesel engine uses fuel oil of 25 0API gravity. Fuel consumption
is 0.395 kg/kW – Hr. cost of fuel is 35.5 pesos per liter. For continuous
operation, determine the minimum volume of cubical day tank in liter. The
ambient temperature is 42 0C
Given: Solution:
m
ρ=
P = 485 kW V
25 0API Where: m = mass flow
mf = 0.395 kg/ kW – Hr V = volume flow
35.5 pesos per liter 𝛒 = density
T = 42 0C
Solving for m:
Required: m = P X mf
a) volume kg
m = 485 kW X 0.395
kW – Hr
kg
m = 191.575
Hr
141.5 m
SG at 15.6 C = ρ=
131.5 + API V
141.5
SG at 15.6 C = m
131.5 + 25 API V=
SG at 15.6 C = 0.90415 ρ
kg
ρf 191.575
SG = V= Hr
ρw 887.441308
kg
kg m3
ρf15 .6 = 904.15
m3 m3
V = 0.215873431 X 24 Hrs
SGT = SG15 .6 1 − 0.0007 T − 15.6 Hr
SG42 = 0.90415 1 − 0.0007 42− 15.6 V = 5.810962345m3
SG42 = 0.887441308
kg
ρf42 = 887.441308 3
m
Solution:
72
N2 = = 2.571
28
20
CO2 = = 0.4545
44
3.5
O2 = = 0.109375
32
4.5
H2 O = = 0.25
18
Total : 3.38492 kg/mol
0.25
PV = Patm
3.38492
PV = 0.101325 0.073856
PV = 0.0075 MPa
From steam tables T at 0.0075 MPa
T = 40.29 C
8. A diesel electric plant consumed 210 gal. of fuel at 30 0C and produced
4000 kW – Hr fuel used is 30 0API and was purchased at 30 pesos per
liter at 15.6. For continuous operation estimate the cost per kW – Hr of
the fuel used.
Given:
V = 210 gal
30 0API
30 pesos per liter at 15.6
T = 30 0C
Required:
a) Cost per kW – Hr
Solution:
price kg
cost per kW − Hr = X
kg kW − Hr
141.5
SG at 15.6 C =
131.5 + API
141.5
SG at 15.6 C =
131.5 + 30 API
SG at 15.6 C = 0.87616099
ρf
SG =
ρw
ρf30 = SG X ρw
kg kg
ρf30 = 0.867329287X1000 = 3.2832
m3 gal
m
ρ= m = Vρ
V
m = Vρ
kg
m = 210 gal X 3.2832
gal
m = 689.472 kg
price kg
cost per kW − Hr = X
kg kW − Hr
30 peso/lit 689.472 kg
cost per kW − Hr = X
0.87616 kg/lit 4000kW − Hr
cost per kW − Hr = 5.90 peso/kW − Hr
9. Calculate the higher heating value of a certain fuel in a day tank having a
specific gravity 0.918 at a temperature of 38 0C.
Given:
SG30 = 0.918
T = 38 0C
Required:
a) HHV
Solution:
141.5
API = − 131.5
SG at 15.6 C
141.5
API = − 131.5
0.932623
API = 20.2226146
Q h = 41,130+ 139.6 X API
Required:
a) days
Solution:
mf , kg day
no. of days = kg X where: mff = mass flow of fuel
mff , 24 Hrs
Hr
BOILERS
Classifications of boilers:
1. Fire tube boiler
2. Water tube boiler
Boiler rating
H. S. A. m2
Rated boiler horsepower =
k
where:
k = 1.1 m2/Bo – Hp , fire tube
k = 0.91 m2/Bo – Hp , water tube
k = 12 ft2/Bo – Hp
k = 10 ft2/Bo – Hp
boiler efficiency:
kg kJ
mfs hs − hf
Hr kg
nBo = kg kJ
X 100 %
mf X HHV
Hr kg
PROBLEMS:
Required:
a) Volume of air
b) Weight
Solution:
For a:
PV = mRT
A kg air kg fuel
ma = X mf
F kg fuel Hr
kJ
hs − hf
kg
factor of evaporation = kJ
2257 kg
kJ kJ
(1.1)2257 = hs − hf
kg kg
kJ kJ
hs − hf = 2482.7
kg kg
O kJ
Q h = 33,820 C + 144,212 H − + 9,304 S ,
8 kg
0.06 kJ
Q h = 33,820 0.705 + 144,212 0.045− + 9,304 (0.03) ,
8 kg
kJ
Q h = 29530.17
kg
kg kJ
mfs hs − hf
Hr kg
nBo = kg kJ X 100 %
mf X HHV
Hr kg
kg kJ
175000 2482.7
Hr kg
0.70 = kg kJ
X 100 %
mf X 29530.17
Hr kg
kg
mf = 21018.33
Hr
A kg air kg fuel
ma = X mf
F kg fuel Hr
kg air kg
ma = 9.53025 X 21018.33
kg fuel Hr
kg
ma = 200309.9395
Hr
PVa = ma RT
kg kJ
200309.9395 0.28708 15.6 + 273 K
Hr kg −k
Va =
101.325 kPa
m3
Va = 163789.1585
kg
kg 24Hrs 1MT
mf = 21018.33 X X
Hr day 1000 kg
mf = 504.44 MT
mf = 91000 kg
ms 1 = 1591 kg
ms 2 = 1364 kg
nBo1 = 65 %
nBo2 = 60 %
F.E.1 = 1.2
F.E.2 = 1.15
HHV = 7590 kcal/kg
Required:
a) No of hours
Solution:
mF
mf = 91000 kg
F.E.2 = 1.15
HHV = 7590 kcal/kg ms 2 = 1364 kg
nBo2 = 60 %
F.E.1 = 1.2 kg
nBo1 = 65 % Boiler 1 Boiler 2
ms 1 = 1591
kg
mS2
mS1
mF kg
no Hrs = kg
mf
Hr
91000 kg
no Hrs =
mf1 + mf2
For boiler no :
For boiler no 1: kg kJ
kg kJ mfs hs − hf
mfs hs − hf nBo 2 =
Hr kg
Hr kg kg kJ
nBo 1 = kg kJ mf X HHV
mf X HHV Hr kg
Hr kg kg kJ
kg kJ 1364 1.15 (2257)
1591 1.2 (2257) mf2 =
Hr kg
Hr kg kJ
mf1 = kJ 0.6 X 31770.222
0.65 X 31770.222 kg
kg kg
kg mf2 = 185.7258
mf1 = 208.66 Hr
Hr
91000 kg
no Hrs =
mf1 + mf2
91000 kg
no Hrs = kg kg
208.66 + 185.7258
Hr Hr
no Hrs = 230.7385306Hrs