TEXTUAL AND CONTEXTUAL READING APPROACH IN LITERATURE

(Module/Reviewer)

LITERARY DEVICES/TECHNIQUES
Different methods are employed to make a piece of fiction more appealing to the reader, and all these
methods are commonly known as literary devices. These devices are divided into two groups as literary
techniques and literary elements. Literary elements are the basic elements such as plot, setting, and
theme that are essential to a story. They are unavoidable characteristics of a story. On the other
hand, literary techniques are the way language is used in order to add more beauty to the work.
Literary techniques are also added to make the author’s message clear to the reader. Unlike literary
elements, literary techniques are avoidable. That means, if the author chooses, he can avoid using literary
techniques. Examples for literary techniques are metaphor, simile, personification,
onomatopoeia, alliteration, etc.
Cliff-hanger - Cliffhangers are a stylistic plot device in which a plot twist or shocking revelation occurs
right at the end of a chapter or part of a series. This serves to enhance audience engagement by increasing
suspense and curiosity which keeps audiences coming back for more.
Usually, whatever is left unresolved will relate to a character’s future and the overall progression of the
plot. Cliffhangers are often found in television to keep the audience engaged from season to season or
even between weekly airings of an episode. You will often see a cliffhanger immediately followed with
“to be continued” which lets audiences of the show know to come back for the next installment of the
story.

The Purpose of Cliffhangers

There is evidence that cliffhangers psychologically affect the audience in that they tend to remember a
cliffhanger ending better than a perfectly resolved ending. This is a tool used by writers and television
producers to increase audience loyalty and make them want to return to buy further books or watch
further episodes. This happens because cliffhangers are essentially well-times appeals to human curiosity.
In a plot structure, cliffhangers create suspense in order to encourage readers to feel interested in focused
in the remainder of the story.
Catharsis - Catharsis is the process in which a story’s tragic ending allows audiences to experience
profound emotional release. It helps to explain why people will sometimes seek out sad stories, music,
and other forms of art – processing heavy emotions is good for humans to do from time to time.
The 2000 film Requiem for a Dream is a tragedy of tragedies. Widely regarded as one of the saddest
films, the ending shows how things have gone from bad to worse for the main characters. With an ending
that is far from uplifting, many viewers find themselves in intense emotional states. Afterwards, when the
movie is over and the audiences return to normal functioning, they may find that the sadness they felt for
the characters helped them to release some of their own pain or sorrows as well.

Citizen Kane is another film in which audiences tend to experience catharsis. The movie follows the
ambitious and successful Kane rise to fame and glory. Ultimately, his struggle against his own inner
demons causes him to lose everything and he dies alone. The feelings of sorrow and pity has prompted
many audience members to experience catharsis at the end of the movie.
In non-Western literature, catharsis is equally present pointing to the idea that it is, in its most basic form,
a necessary and universal human experience. Consider Chinua Achebe’s classic Things Fall
Apart which tells the story of an African village leader whose pride leads to his ultimate downfall. He
loses everything and eventually kills himself. Nearly everyone can relate to having things go wrong, and
even if it’s not to the same degree, they find that the tragic ending of this story helps to process feelings of
loss, disappointment, and failure.
Stream of consciousness - In literature, stream of consciousness is a method of narration that
describes happenings in the flow of thoughts in the minds of the characters. Another appropriate term
for this device is “interior monologue,” where the individual thought processes of a character, associated
with his or her actions, are portrayed in the form of a monologue that addresses the character itself. Via
stream of consciousness writing, readers are able to track characters’ thoughts in real time, thus enabling
them to understand not only what a character does but why they do it. Stream of consciousness is not just
an attempt to relay a character's thoughts, but to make the reader experience those thoughts in the same
way that the character is thinking them.  

Hamartia/tragic flaw - Tragic flaw is a literary device that represents a flaw or deficiency
in character that results in the downfall of the hero in a tragic literary work. A tragic flaw is the principal
defect in character or judgment that leads to the downfall of the tragic hero. Such a defect can be in the
form of bias, limitation, or imperfection possessed by a character that affects their actions, motives, or
abilities in a hindering or ruinous way. Tragic flaws allow writers to create characters that are complex
and fully human, in addition to providing the reader with a deeper understanding of the impact of these
defects.

In Greek tragedy, the literary device of tragic flaw is essential to the action of the work, its fatal
disclosure, and destructive outcome. One of the most common tragic flaws exhibited by protagonists in
Greek tragedies is Hubris, referring to a hero’s excessive pride or self-confidence. For example,
in Oedipus The King by Sophocles, Oedipus demonstrates his hubris by ignoring several well-intentioned
warnings by Tiresias, Creon, Jocasta, and the Herdsman in his effort to discover who murdered King
Laius.

I thought it wrong, my children, to hear the truth from others, messengers. Here I am myself—you all
know me, the world knows my fame: I am Oedipus.

The excessive self-confidence and pride displayed by Oedipus in terms of his assertions that he is correct
and the “messengers” are wrong, leads him to the truth that he has unknowingly killed his father and
ultimately married his mother. As a result of the tragic flaw of Hubris, this tragic hero is brought to ruin
and exile.

Many characters exhibit tragic flaws in both Greek and modern tragedies, including Hubris. Here are
some common examples of other tragic flaws that a heroic character may possess, leading to their
undoing:

 selfishness
 lack of judgment
 misplaced trust
 greed
 indecision
 self-doubt
  anger
 misplaced loyalty
 extreme curiosity
 defiance of gods, science, or nature

Hubris is character trait that features excessive pride or inflated self-confidence, leading a protagonist to
disregard a divine warning or violate an important moral law. As a literary device, hubris is commonly
exhibited by a tragic hero as their tragic flaw, or hamartia. The extreme pride or arrogance of hubris often
consumes a character, blinding them to reason and resulting in their ultimate downfall. The outcomes
associated with hubristic pride are recklessness, impulsiveness, disregard for the well-being of others, and
heightened attention to the individual’s image or persona.

Poetic Justice - In literature, poetic justice refers to an outcome in which evil characters are punished and
virtuous characters are rewarded. Poetic justice comes from the belief that works of literature should
uphold morals and provide a guide to how and why one should uphold moral behaviors.
In Disney’s The Little Mermaid, poetic justice is seen when the evil witch character, Ursula, is killed as
punishment for trying to appoint herself ruler of the entire ocean through the use of trickery and
manipulation. Ariel is rewarded with her voice and getting to keep her legs so that she can marry Prince
Erik.
Foreshadowing is a hint in a story that points to future events, plot twists, and character issues without
actually revealing them. This helps to engage readers by building suspense and anticipation.
Foreshadowing is a useful tool to advance the plot. Hints are dropped for the reader that suggest that
something specific may be coming up. This is a tool used heavily in mystery and suspense genres, but it
can also be used to suggest upcoming positive and humorous events, as well. Foreshadowing keeps
readers engaged and provides an element of anticipation in a story.

You can also write a scene that has symbolic elements that foreshadow events, like placing a black crow
in a scene that foreshadows a death, as crows are symbolic of this.

Epistrophe is a rhetorical device that allows writers to easily emphasize key ideas by repeating words or
phrases at the end of a series of sentences or clauses. Epistrophe serves the purpose of creating emphasis
and creating rhythm. In this way, epistrophe helps to make words more memorable and artistic. It can aid
in persuading an audience, creating calls to action, building emotional appeals, and fostering connection.

Lyndon B. Johnson’s political speech of 1965, “The American Promise,” uses epistrophe in an aim to
unite the people of the United States of America:

There is no Negro problem. There is no Southern problem. There is no Northern problem. There is only

an American problem. And we are met here tonight as Americans—not as Democrats or Republicans—
we are met here as Americans to solve that problem.

Anaphora is the use of the same words or phrase at the beginning of a sentence or clause.

 Anaphora—A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

 It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was
the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.

Epiphany is when a character has a sudden realization with which they gain insight into the deeper
meaning of something relating to the story. Almost anything could trigger a character’s epiphany
including objects, dialogue, action, etc.

Epiphanies will often change the trajectory of the narrative structure, taking the story either in a slightly
different direction or drastically altering the movement of the plot altogether. Epiphanies serve to bring
the character who experiences it greater clarity or awareness as they start to see a certain issue or event in
a new light. It is common for epiphanies to be thought of as a character’s “ah-ha!” moment.

Epiphanies occur outside of literature and happen in everyday life for people. Here is an example of how
epiphany might occur in normal life:

 Despite all of the indisputable science upholding that smoking cigarettes is bad for health, a
man continues his daily cigarette habit smoking up to a pack a day. When his wife becomes
pregnant and he feels the baby kicking for the first time, he has an epiphany that he needs to
minimize threats to his health such as smoking so that he can be around to watch his child
grow up.

In A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, the unfortunate Ebenezer Scrooge experiences an epiphany
after being visited by the ghosts relating Christmas past, Christmas present, and Christmas future. He
suddenly realizes, after watching his miserable future in this vision, that he needs to turn around his life
and show more kindness to other people.

 “I will honour Christmas in my heart, and try to keep it all the year. I will live in the Past, the
Present, and the Future. The Spirits of all Three shall strive within me. I will not shut out the
lessons that they teach!”

Dichotomy is a literary tool that is used to highlight opposing ideas or things. This helps readers to
further conceptualize ideas by contrasting them against each other. Dichotomies also serve to create
tension in a story. Readers can see the opposing sides with clarity about each side’s significance to the
story.
A lot of dichotomies occur when the narrative deals with themes such as good vs. evil, physical and
metaphysical, health vs. sickness, civilized vs. “uncivilized,” real vs. imaginary, etc.

A common cliché used in literature, film, and television that represents the concept of a dichotomy would
be the angel and devil on someone’s shoulders. When a character is forced with a dilemma, they will
often be depicted as having a visit from both an angel and a devil, with one perched on each shoulder
talking to the character and trying to influence them. This represents the dichotomy within a single
character of the desire to do good vs. the desire to do evil.

An example of dichotomy in film would be Luke Skywalker’s fight against evil in the  Star Wars films.
Luke, who represents “good” fights against Darth Vader and the Imperial Force, which represent “evil” in
order to show two opposing ways of life. This creates the major source of conflict.
Allusion is a casual or indirect reference to a person, place, or thing of significance. Allusion does not
describe or provide any detail to what was referenced, and it is generally assumed that the reader or
audience knows the reference and can understand its importance.
Many every day phrases of speech are actually allusions to literature and popular culture.

Consider the following examples:

 “She opened Pandora’s box with that question.” This refers to the Greek myth, “Pandora’s
Box,” in which Pandora opened a box that released suffering into the world. This allusion is
used to refer to any time someone opens a situation up to trouble.
 “That kid is a regular Einstein.” This refers to famous scientist Albert Einstein. A statement
like this would be used to imply that the kid is incredibly smart by alluding to one of the most
famous scientists.
 “Don’t be such a Scrooge!” This is something you are likely to hear in the holiday season. It
alludes to Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Story. The character Ebenezer Scrooge hated
Christmas and was miserable and spiteful all throughout the season. This kind of statement
would describe someone who is not in the holiday spirit.

Allegory involves extending a metaphor throughout a narrative story in order to explain or describe
abstract concepts. Allegory hints at hidden meanings and moral lessons by treating characters, settings,
and actions as extended metaphors and/or symbols that reveal deeper meaning.
Nearly everyone is familiar with the Lord of the Rings Trilogy author, J.R.R. Tolkien. Since he fought
in WWI, many readers and literary scholars believe that the trilogy is an allegory for the events of WWI.
Although Tolkien has said that the trilogy is not an allegory for the war, there are many undoubtable
parallels and it is entirely possible that an accidental allegory surfaced as a result of war trauma.
Additionally, allegory brings context to ideas that can help readers understand the world in which they
live including aspects like politics, complex realities of being human, and ethical challenges.
The novel Animal Farm by George Orwell is a famous literary work that uses allegory as a key tool.
This novel describes animals living on a farm that overthrow their human oppressors only to struggle to
establish a political dynamic that works for everybody. This allegory is well represented in the quote:

 “all animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”

This allegory represents the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and the subsequent communist
revolution. The inherent struggles of political revolution and turmoil are strongly emphasized throughout
the novel.

Using an allegory is often telling a darker story in a way that’s easier to understand and for readers to
receive.

Situational irony is a literary device that creates a situation or outcome that is drastically different from
what was expected to occur. Situational irony can also be referred to as irony of circumstance.
Kate Chopin’s “Story of the Hour” is a short story that uses situational irony as a major plot device.
The wife of a Mr. Brently discovers that her husband has died in a car accident. Rather than grieving, she
begins to imagine the life that she will have free of restrictions.
At the end of the story, however, her husband comes home, and Mrs. Brently dies from shock when she
sees him. Not only did she not get her life free of restrictions, she did not get any further time alive
whatsoever.

In “The Gift of the Magi” by O. Henry, the wife cuts off her beautiful long hair and sells it so that she
can buy her husband a pocket watch chain. At the same time, he is selling his watch so that he can buy
her a beautiful decorative comb. Both receive useless gifts but their selfless love is highlighted in this
case.
In the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling, there are several instances of situational irony:

 Harry spent countless efforts attempting to kill Lord Voldemort, only to realize that he himself
had to die at the hand of Voldemort in order for anyone to ever have a chance at destroying
the evil figure.
 Neville Longbottom, who Lord Voldemort never considered as a threat despite the prophecy
indicating that he could be, ends up killing the snake, a crucial step towards Voldemort being
destroyed.

Alliteration is a literary device that uses the same letters or sounds at the beginning of words in a
sentence or title. You can also use alliteration when choosing the title of your book, as it makes it easier
to remember, as you can see in the example of alliterative titles below.
Alliterative title samples: Peter Pan, Gone Girl, Angela’s Ashes, Black Beauty, The Two Towers, Wonder
Woman, The Boss Baby, The Great Gatsby, The Haunting of Hill House, Peppa Pig
Symbolism - Every story uses symbolism in some way. This literary device is the use of a situation or
element to represent a larger message, idea, or concept.
Many times, authors use symbolism as a way to convey a broader message that speaks to more readers.
You can also use symbolism to foreshadow what will happen later in the story.

Symbolism Examples
 
 Crows are used to symbolize a bad omen, like death
 The color purple symbolizes royalty
 The color red can symbolize death, struggle, power, passion
 Spiders can symbolize spying, sneaky, or untrustworthiness

The tone of a book is something that conveys the narrator’s opinion, attitude, or feelings about what is
written. This literary device has the power to shape the entire narrative.
For example, if you want to catch a reader off-guard when something traumatic or intense happens,
keeping the tone light and humorous before the event can increase the sensation of shock and tension.

Tone can guide your readers right into the emotion you want them to feel in a particular scene.

The term deus ex machina refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a

divine character is introduced into a storyline, for the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an
interesting outcome. Further, it must be shown that the problem solved by a deus ex machina is one that is
unsolvable or otherwise hopeless.

The Return of the King houses one of the biggest Deus Ex Machina moments in cinema. The eagles are
particularly prominent in their life-saving abilities throughout much of Tolkien's work, after
all. Devoted Lord of the Rings fans will be quick on the draw to attempt to explain why this wasn't
possible, but there is no reason concrete enough as to why the Eagles only show up at the last possible
moment.

Harry Potter is full of magical Deus Ex Machinas that are suddenly introduced exactly when they are
needed for the plot, but none are more glaring than at the end of Chamber of Secrets. When all looks to be
over for Harry and Ginny, Faux the Phoenix flies down into the chamber and gives Harry the sorting hat
with the Sword of Gryffindor allowing him to kill the Basilisk, cries on him so that he doesn't die,
and flies them out of the chamber so they aren't all stuck down there. A triple-threat of Deus Ex Machina
from a very minor, non-human character.