Earth’s History

How did scientists trace the history of Earth?

Relative Dating

Relative dating requires one to know the basic principles such as law of superposition, principle of original
horizontality, principle of cross-cutting relationships, and unconformities.

Law of Superposition

The law of superposition is the most basic principle in relative dating. It states that in an unreformed sequence of
sedimentary rock, the layer found at the top are the youngest rocks and the layers at the bottom are the oldest. It
may seem too obvious, but this principle has only been clearly stated in 1996 by the Danish anatomist, geologist, and
priest, Nicolaus Steno.

Principle of the Original Horizontality

Along with the law of superposition, Steno stated that an unreformed sequence is the one where the layers are still
in a horizontal position. This follows the principle of original horizontality, which states that sediments are deposited
horizontally.

Principle of Cross –Cutting Relationships

The principle of cross-cutting relationships determines which events happened first depending on which rocks are
affected. The geologic layer that cuts another is younger than the layer it cuts across.

Unconformities

Conformable- Rocks layers that have not been interrupted

Unconformities- breaks in the record the rock strata

There are three basic types of unconformities:

1. Angular unconformity is characterized by having tilted or folded sedimentary rocks below youngers, horizontal
layers of rock.

2. Disconformity is determined where there are missing parallel rock layers. Erosion takes place and removes the
younger top layers and then deposition would once again happen.

3. Nonconformity- characterized by an igneous or metamorphic rock found below a sedimentary rock.

Absolute Dating

Absolute dating is a method that uses unstable elements to determine the exact age of rocks.

Isotopes are elements that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. Most isotopes are
stable but some may be unstable.

The unstable isotopes are called radioactive isotopes or parent isotopes. When these parent isotopes undergo
radioactive decay, new isotopes, known as daughter products are formed. The time it takes for one-half of the
nuclei.
Uranium-Lead decay series (U-Pb series)

Unlike carbon-14 dating, uranium dating cannot be used to date formerly living things; however, it is the most
commonly used method in igneous rock dating because of the abundance of zircon minerals. The subscripts of 235
and 238 are the atomic mass numbers of the element. Though each isotope has 92 protons in its nucleus, U-235 has
143 neutrons and U-238 has 146 neutrons. Igneous rocks, or the magma from which it was formed, often intrudes
overlying sedimentary rocks. By dating the magma, one can get at least a minimum age for the sedimentary rock.

Radiometric dating a method using the concept of half-life and parent-daughter ratio, geologist can determine the
age of the sample.

Radiocarbon dating is a method used to count the number of carbon-14 left from a small piece of a fossil.

Fossils

Aside from rocks, geologists also use the remains of living organisms in understanding Earth’s history. Some fossils
are formed from parts of an organism (body fossils); some provide signs or clues which life forms were present at the
time (trace fossils).

Fossils contain a lot of information about the past-the kind of organisms that have lived, the environment changed.
But not all organisms turned into the fossils, therefore, scientists cannot learn everything about the past using fossils
alone.

There are also fossils that are used to determine the age of the rock. These are index fossils and these are only found
in rocks of a particular age. The organisms that turned into index fossils have a relatively short life- spanning from a
few million years to a few hundred million years. Index fossils are also found in most of the common rocks around
the world, which makes them easier to identify.

Figure: Index fossils found in different time periods and eras help in determining the age of rocks.
The methods used for dating the age of rocks are also used for fossils. Absolute dating is more commonly used since
it can give exact numerical dates for the age but relative dating can also used to determine which fossils are older

Geologist

One of the many careers in earth science is being a geologist. Geologist are focused on understanding the history of
Earth. Along with it, they study all the processes involved in structuring the face of the earth. They make use of
relative and absolute dating to specifically identify the events that happened in the past through rocks.

Geological Time Scale

How did life evolve through the course of Earth’s history?

The use of relative dating became the first tool for creating a geologic time scale. Then, upon the discovery of
radiometric dating, numerical dates of the rocks were determined.

The geologic column has subdivisions assigned, namely eon, era, period, and epoch.

The Geologic Time Scale is divided by the following divisions: Recognize the relationship among the units—era,
epoch, and period—into which the geologic time scale is divided. Eons: Longest subdivision; based on the abundance
of certain fossils Eras: Next to longest subdivision; marked by major changes in the fossil record Periods: Based on
types of life existing at the time Epochs: Shortest subdivision; marked by differences in life forms and can vary from
continent to continent.

Eon represents the longest amount of time.

Three are two main eons in the history of earth: Phanerozoic eon and Precambrian eon.

The Precambrian can be divide can be further divided into three eons: Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eons.

Eons are followed by eras.

The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

The end of an era is marked by a change in life forms. And finally, periods are made up of few epochs, the smallest
unit in the geologic time scale. The change in life form between two separate divisions is usually associated with
mass extinctions. These mass extinctions can happen when there are changes in the global climate or ocean
currents, or when m there are sudden events such as a large volcanic eruption or meteorite impact. When there is a
mass extinction, a lot of species die at one time.
 Figure: Geologic time scale

Due to the fact that early geologists had no way of knowing how the discoveries of the Earth were going to
develop, geologist over time have put the time scale together piece by piece. Units were named as they were
discovered. Sometimes unit names were borrowed from local geography, from a person, or from the type of rock
that dominated the unit.

Examples

Cambrian: From the Latin name for Wales. Named for exposures of strata found in a type-section in Wales by British
geologist Adam Sedgwick.

Devonian: Named after significant outcrops first discovered near Devonshire, England

Jurassic: Named for representative strata first seen in the Jura Mountains by German geologist Humboldt in 1795)
Cretaceous: From the Latin “creta” meaning chalk by a Belgian geologist

The earliest time of the Earth is called the Hadean and refers to a period of time for which we have no rock
record, and the Archean followed, which corresponds to the ages of the oldest known rocks on earth. These, with
the Proterozoic Eon are called the Precambrian Eon. The remainder of geologic time, including present day, belongs
to the Phanerozoic Eon.

While the units making up the time scale are called geochronological units, the actual rocks formed during
those specific time intervals are called chronostratigraphic units. The actual rock record of a period is called a
system, so rocks from the Cambrian Period are of the Cambrian system.

The earliest evidence of life on Earth was the cyanobacteria that have been present during Archean era. It then
evolved to multicellular organisms during the Proterozoic eon. During the Paleozoic era, the organism were
invertebrates, fishes, insects, amphibians and other reptiles. Birds and dinosaurs dominated the Mesozoic era, and
mammals dominated the Cenozoic era.

Palaeozoic Era: Era of Old Life

• The Cambrian period is the 1st period of the Paleozoic Era. “Age of the Trilobites”
• Explosion of life in the oceans began during this era.
• Most of the continents were covered in warm, shallow seas.
– Invertebrates were dominating - Trilobites
– Fish emerged during this time
– Fish led to the arrival of amphibians
• The end of the Paleozoic era is called the “Age of Amphibians”
– Early land plants including mosses, ferns and cone-bearing plants.
– The early coal forming forests were also formed during this time.
• Much of the limestone quarried for building and industrial purposes, as well as the coal deposits of western
Europe and the eastern United States, were formed during the Paleozoic.

• The Cambrian (beginning) opened with the breakup of the world-continent Rodinia and closed with the
formation of Pangaea, as the Earth's continents came together once again.
– This event is thought to have caused the climate changes that led to mass extinction event.
• The Appalachian Mountains were formed during this time.
• At the end of the Paleozoic, the largest mass extinction in history wiped out approximately 90% of all
marine animal species and 70% of land animals.
– Possible causes of this Mass Extinction Event
 • Lowering of sea levels when the continents were rejoined as Pangaea (convergent
boundary)
• Increased volcanic activity (ash and dust)
• Climate changes – cooler climate

Mesozoic Era: The Age of Reptiles

• At the beginning of this era the continents were joined as Pangaea.
• Pangaea broke up around the middle of this era.
• Reptiles became the most abundant animals because of their ability to adapt to the drier climate of the
Mesozoic Era.
– Skin maintains body fluids
– Embryos live in shells
• At the beginning of this era Pangaea formed and during the Triassic Period, Pangaea began to break up
(Pangaea split into 2)
• Ended when most of the land and ocean species became extinct when an asteroid collided with Earth
• Known as the Age of Dinosaurs or the Age of Reptiles
•  Dinosaurs lived during this era. Throughout this era, some dinosaurs became extinct as others adapted. 
• Reptiles became the most abundant animals in this era
• During the Triassic Period, a tiny, mouse like animal was the first mammal to appear (Small mammals and
birds appeared during this era)
• During the Triassic Period, a tiny, mouse like animal was the first mammal to appear (Small mammals and
birds appeared during this era)
• life diversified rapidly and giant reptiles and dinosaurs roamed the Earth.
• Modern bird appeared
• Gymnosperms dominated the land.
• Gymnosperms are plants that produce seeds in cones like pine cones
• Angiosperms are flowering plants which first appeared during at the end of this era
• Time marked by rapid movements of plates
• Scientists hypothesize that possibly a large asteroids or comets impacted with Earth.
• Dinosaurs were also very active in this era.
– First small dinosaurs appeared in the Triassic Period.
– Larger and more abundant dinosaurs appeared in the Jurassic Period.
• Small mammals and birds also appeared during this era.
– The mammals were small, warm-blooded animals. Hair covering their bodies.
These characteristics help them survive in changing environments
• The main plant life of this time were Gymnosperms or plants that produce seeds, but no flowers.
– Pine Trees
Angiosperms are Flowering plants that during the END of this era.
• This era ended with a mass extinction event about 65 million years ago.
– Many groups of animals, including the dinosaurs disappeared suddenly at this time.
• Many scientists believe that this event was caused by a comet or asteroid colliding with the Earth.
Mesozoic Era – Mass Extinction Event
• Asteroid or Comet collides with Earth.
– Huge cloud of smoke and dust fills the air
– Blocks out sunlight
– Plants die
– Animals that eat plants die
– Animals that eat plant-eaters die.
However, not all forms of life died during this event. Many animals that you see today are descendants from the
survivors of this extinction event.
Cenozoic era: The Era of Recent Life
• Began about 65 million years ago and continues today!!!!!
– Climate was warm and mild.
– Marine animals such as whales and dolphins evolved.
– Mammals began to increase and evolve adaptations that allowed them to live in many different
environments – land, air and the sea.
 – Grasses increased and provided a food source for grazing animals
• Many mountain ranges formed during the Cenozoic Era
– Alps in Europe and Himalayas in India; Rocky Mountains in the USA

• Growth of these mountains may have helped to cool down the climate
– Ice Ages occurred late in the Cenozoic Era (Quaternary Period).
• As the climate changed, the animals had to adapt to the rise and fall of the oceans caused by melting
glaciers.
• This era is sometimes called the “Age of Mammals”
• Marine animal examples:
– Algae, Mollusks, Fish and Mammals
Land animal examples:
– Bats, Cats, Dogs, Cattle and Humans
– Humans are thought to have appeared around 3.5 million years ago (during the most recent period
– Quaternary).
– Flowering plants were now the most common plant life.