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 HANDBOOK OF
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 Nutritional Value of Vegetables
21
C. Alan Titchenal and Joannie Dobbs
Department of Human Nutrition, Food and Animal Sciences, University of Hawaii
CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Nuthents
A. Nutrients
B. Nutrient Profiles
C. Factors Affecting Nutrient Composition of Vegetables
D. Bioavailability
III. Non-Nutritive Phytochemicals
A. Phytochemicals
B. Phytochemical Profiles
C. factors Affecting Phytochemical Composition of Vegetables
IV. Health Benefits Derived from Vegetables
A. Gastrointestinal Tract Health
B. Immune System Health
C. Chronic Disease
V. Summary
Acknowledgment
References
I. INTRODUCTION
Vegetables are considered a significant part of all major
dietary guidance systems. Their many chemical elements
and compounds are known to affect thousands of physio
logical functions and to promote health (1). This chapter
provides an overview of nutrients and non-nutrient phyto
chemicals commonly found in vegetables, along with a
description of the basic nutrient profile for vegetables in
general. Factors affecting nutrient variations, both natu
rally occurring and due to processing, are summarized.
Lastly, this chapter reviews many of the purported health
benefits derived from various vegetable phytochemicals.
II. NUTRIENTS
A. NUTRIENTS
About a century ago, researchers observed that growth
and survival of animals was directly affected by various
individual components in foods. These components were
termed nutrients and were to be considered required for
normal growth and health. In the early 1900s, researchers
began to focus on the disease-preventing properties of
21-1
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vegetables. McCollum and colleagues realized that the
addition of vegetables to a seed diet was necessary to pre
vent deficiency conditions in omnivore species (2).
Researchers then realized that a diet deficient in even a
single essential nutrient (required from food), could result
in a dietary deficiency disease or even death (3).
Strictly speaking, nutrients are compounds that
cannot be synthesized by the human body from other
chemicals or cannot be synthesized rapidly enough to
meet the needs of the body. Thus, by the classical defini
tion of nutrient, the term “essential nutrient” is redundant.
However, the terms “non-essential nutrient” or “dispensa
ble nutrient” are sometimes used to describe chemical
compounds that are contained in foods and have a func
tion in the body, but are typically synthesized by the body
in adequate amounts.
As nutrition science evolved, a third category of nuth
ents has been identified as “conditionally essential.” This
terminology is used to describe substances that may
become essential under specific conditions that reduce the
body’s capability to synthesize adequate amounts of the
compound. This may be caused by changes in physiolog
ical demands due to a genetic defect, a disease condition,
21-1
27-2 Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering, Volume 1
the stress of surgery, or the use of certain drugs such as
statins and Co-enzyme Q10 (4,5).
Presently, there are approximately 50 individual food
elements and chemical compounds identified as essential
nutrients. These nutrients are classified into six broad
chemical categories based on chemical structure and func
tions including water, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vita
mins, and minerals. Table 21.1 lists nutrients by
essentiality category and the basic physiological functions
of providing energy, structure, or regulation of the body’s
thousands of chemical reactions.
Nutrients frequently act in concert to regulate specific
physiological functions. for example, calcium, magne
sium, and potassium regulate muscle contraction and
relaxation (7,8). Vitamins B-6, B-12, and folate function
in concert to prevent the excessive accumulation of homo
cysteine, which in turn reduces the risk of coronary artery
disease (9).
The proper proportion of specific nutrients is also
important in maintaining health. For example, the ratio of
omega-3 fatty acids (primarily from fish oils and some
vegetable oils) to omega-6 fatty acids (primarily derived
from many vegetable oils) is an example of the essential
ity of correct nutrient proportions. Both types of fatty acid
are essential for regulating eicosanoid synthesis which in
turn affects physiological functions such as blood pres
sure, inflammation, and blood clotting. The appropriate
proportion of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids is 1 to 4 up
to 1 to 10. An imbalance of these fatty acids appears to be
related to various chronic health problems (10).
Nutrients, even essential nutrients, are known to be
harmful in excessive amounts. The Institute of Medicine
has published both the recommended levels of intake and
the tolerable upper intake levels for many nutrients. These
recommendations provide guidelines on what constitutes
generally safe ranges of intake and what levels of a nutri
ent may be excessive and even harmful to humans
(11—14).
The use of certain drugs may require nutrient intake to
be maintained within a more narrow range. For example,
excess vitamin K intake, even from naturally occurring
plant sources, can interfere with the function of common
blood anticoagulant drugs (15).
B. NUTRIENT PROFILES
foods from various common food groups (meat and poul
try, milk products, fruits, vegetables, grains, and beans)
have classic nutrient profiles or distinctive nutrient finger
prints. Typically, these nutrient profiles are expressed as
the amount of various key nutrients typically contained in
100 grams of edible portion.
Compared to other food group nutrient profiles, veg
etables provide the nutrient characteristics that most con
sumers perceive as health promoting (Table 21.2).
Vegetables contain no cholesterol, very little fat, sugar,
and sodium, yet provide concentrated sources of many
vitamins and minerals. There are literally hundreds of
vegetables, with the majority of these cultivated in Asia
(17). Table 21.3 presents representative nutrient ranges
and means for 38 of the more commonly consumed veg
etables in America (18).
C. FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRIENT COMPOSITION
OF VEGETABLES
Biological, chemical, and physical factors all affect the
nutrient composition of vegetables, for these reasons,
nutrient values for any particular vegetable may differ
significantly from published values commonly used in
databases. Table 21.4 presents a partial list of factors that
can significantly affect variability of nutrient content in
foods. Comprehensive texts and research papers (as well
as references cited within) are referenced in this table for
those interested in a deeper understanding of any single
production factor.
Because of the virtually endless possibilities of factor
combinations, there is no definite set of rules dictating
how the exact nutrient composition of any single plant
may vary from the usual. Vitamins and minerals, rather
than protein, fat, and carbohydrates, are the nutrients
likely to have the greatest variation even within a single
plant species.
Vitamins, functioning as cell regulating cofactors,
will continue to be utilized by the plant even after being
harvested (24). Other factors such as heating, acid, or
alkaline exposure, and processing techniques that cause
oxidation can decrease the vitamin concentration to a
fraction of the initial value (25).
The content of some minerals in plants is dependent
upon the amount of a particular element available in the
soil for the growing plant. for example, depending upon
the selenium content in the soil, plants may have very low
levels of selenium or contain toxic amounts.(26).
D. BIOAVAILABILITY
Even though vegetables may contain ample quantities of
nutrients and phytochemicals, some vegetables also con
tain chemicals that bind with nutrients and phytochemi
cals making the beneficial compounds unavailable for
absorption. An understanding of these bioavailability con
siderations is essential to avoid using nutrient data of veg
etables in a misleading way (27,28).
Nutrient antagonists can significantly decrease the
bioavailability of nutrients from foods. High levels of one
mineral may competitively reduce the absorption of another
mineral element. For example, magnesium interferes with
calcium absorption (29). Zinc also is known to interfere
with magnesium absorption (30). Phytochemicals, like
 7
C
TABLE 27.7
C
Human Essentiality and Physiological Function of Nutrients Found in Plants C

Physiological Function
C
Essentiality Energy Structure Regulation Examples of Key Specific Functions (5
Nutrient
0
Water Essential x x Provides fluid structure tar every cell
00
PROTEIN—AMINO ACIDS: Source of kilocalories; protein CD
Di
Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine Essential x x x structure of all cells; regulate C
chemical reactions through CD
Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine Essential x x x U,

Alanine, Arginine, Asparagine, Aspartic Acid Dispensable x x x enzymes; necessary for

Glutamic Acid, Glycine, Proline, Serine Dispensable x x x DNA systhesis
Cysteine, Glutamine, 1’rosine Conditional x x x

UPID—FATTY ACIDS: Source of calories; cell membrane

Linoleic: omega-6, alpha-Linolenic: omega-3 Essential x x x structure; eicosanoid synthesis;
Other Fatty Acids Dispensable x x

CARBOHYDRATES: Energy source especially essential

Glucose Dispensable x for red blood cells and brain

MINERAL ELEMENTS:
Calcium, Fluoride, Magnesium, Phosphorus Essential x x Bone and tooth structure
Chloride, Chromium, Copper, Iodine Essential x Miscellaneous physiological and
Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum Essential x regulatory functions including: energy
Potassium, Selenium, Sodium, Zinc Essential x metabolism; synthesis and transport
of red blood cells and hormones;
water balance; and immune system
functions
Arsenic, Boron, Nickel, Silicon Essential x Functions unclear

VITAMINS:
Biotin, Choline, Folate, Niacin (8-3), Essential x Miscellaneous regulatory ftinctions
Pantothenic acid including: preventing oxidation;
Riboflavin (B-2). Pyridoxine (B-6), Essential x energy metabolism; blood clotting;
Thiamin (B-I) and eye health
Vitamin A (carotenoids), Vitamin C Essential x
(ascorbic acid)
Vitamin E (tocopherol), Vitamin K Essential x

Essential nutrients not present in vegetables include Vitamin D and Vitamin B 2. Dietary fiber is commonly classified as a non-digestible form of carbohydrate. However, it is not a nutrient and has been
included in Table 5 as a phytochemical.
Source: Ref. 6.

-‘
 TABL.E 27.2
Nutrient Profile of”Classic” Food Groups Based on 700 gram
(g) Edible Material as Raw or Minimally Prepared for Consumption; Information is Based
on USDA Nutrient Database Series 14 and Presented as Unrounded Range
and Rounded Mean for Each Food Group
Water Calories Total Fat Saturated Fat Cholesterol Sodium Carbohydrates Fiber Sugar Protein Vitamin A Vitamin C Calcium Iron
tg) (kcal) (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (g) (g) (g) (g) (IU) (mg) (mg)
Vegetables (mg)
64—96 5—145 0.04—0.7 0.0—0.17 0 2—201 2—24 0—5 0—6 0—5 0—19000 3—93
90 35 0—119 0.1—3.3
0.25 0 0 35 7 2 1.5 2 1770 24 50 0.9
Fruits (not including 70—95 27—92 0.09—0.96 0—0.22 0 0—20 6—23 0—4 1—18 0—1
avocado) 10—3800 4—98 4—40 0.1—0.6
85 50 0.25 0 0 2 12 1.8 10 1 550
Grains—Cooked 65—90 43—135 28 15 0.3
0.16—1.08 0.2—2.0 0 1—35 9—30 0—7 0—1 1—4 0—98 0 1—13 0.2—1.5
76 96 0.5 1 0 15 I
20 2.2 0.5 2.5 10 Si
Beans—Cooked 61—70 118—173 0 8 0.8
0.38—8.98 0.05—1.32 0 1—13 tO—28 2—9 0—3 7—17 0—9 0—2 14—142
65 139 2.2 1.1—5.2
0.5 0 3 21 6 2 0
Nuts 10 3 1 62 2.8 0
2—47 224—71g 1.12—76.5 0.16—29.7 0 0—38 12—73 0—11 0—13 3—26 0—1091 0—36
12 533 45 1—234 0.9—9.2 0
7 0 9 28 5 4
Meat 13 130 8 74 3.2 -1,
47—76 110—274 1.25—21 0.33—8.54 41—440 39—102 0
0—6 0 0 17—32 0—35350 0—34 0
66 173 4—11 0.7—8.6
8.5 3 100 68 0
0 0 0 22 2165 3
Eggs 70—75 149—185 10.0—13.8 11 2.2
3.1—3.7 425—933 125—150 0—1 C.,
0 0—I 13—14 300—1328 0 50—100
73 170 12 1.4—4.1 Cs
3.5 790 140 1 0 1 D
Milk 13 820 0 67 3.3 n
81—91 35—108 0.18—7.01 0.12—4.6 2—27 44—52 Cs
4—5 0 4—5 3—6 126—205 1—4
87 64 119—193 0.0—0.1
3 2 II 50 5 0 5 4 180 2 C.,
138 0.1
Source: Ref. 16.
0
0
as
Si
0
m
0
as
0
Cs
Cs
0
as
<
0

Cs
Nutritional Value of Vegetables 21-5

TABLE 21.3
Vegetable Composition Based on 100 g Edible Portion as Raw or Minimally Prepared for Consumption.
Range Information Based on Various Sources Including USDA Nutrient Database Series 74 and Others
Vegetable Water (g) kilocalories Fat fg) Protein (g) Total Carbohydrates* (g) Sugar (g) Fiber (g)
Artichoke (globe) 80—86 17—70 0.3—0.4 0.5—4.5 13 2 0.8—5.4
Asparagus 92—93 9—27 0.2 2.2—3.9 4.6 1.3—2.3 0.0.7—2.1
Beet root 83—89 44—58 Tr 0.7
- 1.3—1.8 10 6—7.3 0.6—3.1
Broccoli 89—91 28 Tr-O.3 3.1—4.0 5.3 0.4—2 1.3—3
Brussels sprouts 84—89 16—58 Tr 0.5
- 2.4—4.4 8.7 36—4 1.3—4.6
Cabbage 86—93 8—36 Tr 0.7
- 1.4—3.3 5.4 2.7—3.8 0.6—3.4
Carrot 84—95 19—47 Tr 0.7
- 0.6—2.0 10.1 5.4—7.5 0.6—2.9
Cassava 50—74 120—153 Tr- 0.7 0.7 27 1.2 0.6—1.7
Cauliflower 84—92 11—34 Tr - 0.3 1.8—3.4 5.2 2.4—2.6 0.8—2.4
Celery 89—96 5—22 Tr - 0.5 0.7—2.0 3.7 1—1.2 0.7—2.7
Chard 91—94 16—19 0.2—0.4 1.5—2.6 3.8 0.8—1.1 0.6—1.6
Chayote 74—95 24—29 0.1 0.8 5.1 — 0.4—0.6
Cucumber 91—97 9—16 Tr 0.2
- 0.6—1.4 2.8 1.8—2.6 0.3—0.7
Eggplant 89—94 15—38 Tr 0.7
- 0.7—2.4 6.7 2.1—4.2 0.9—2.5
Endive 93—94 11—24 Tr- 0.2 1.6—1.8 3.4 0.3—1.0 0.8—2.2
Leek 71—92 25—52 Tr 0.4
- 1.3—2.5 7.6 1—4 1.0—3.3
Lettuce 92—97 11—27 Tr- 0.5 0.8—1.6 2.2 1.1—2.2 0.3—1.4
Mustard 68—89 10—28 Tr 0.3 - 1.6—2.4 2.1 0.4—0.9 1.8—3.7
Onion 81—93 13-49 Tr 0.35
- 0.9—2.2 8.6 5.2—6.7 0.5—1.7
Parsley 68—89 21—60 Tr 1.0 - 3.7—5.2 6.9 Tr 0.9—9.1
Parsnip 79—83 56—83 Tr 0.5 - 1.5—1.7 19.5 5.5—9.5 2.2-4.4
Pea 65—81 49—138 Tr 0.8 - 4.6—8.2 15.6 2.3—7.4 1.8—5.5
Peppers 70—93 27—37 0.1—0.7 1.2—2.0 6.4 1.7—13.9 0.5—2.7
Plantain 58—74 116—128 0.05—0.8 1 31.2 5.6 0.3—2.3
Pumpkin 80—96 15—36 Tr 0.2 - 0.6—1.8 4.9 2.5—3.2 0.5—1.3
Potato 71—85 75—109 Tr 0.1 - 1.6—2.3 25.2 0.3—1.6 0.3—2.4
Radish 92—95 15—22 Tr 1.1 - 0.7—1.2 3.6 2.0—3.4 0.5—1.0
Spinach 91—93 16—35 0.3 2.3—5.1 3.5 0.3—0.4 0.6—2.7
Summer squash 86—95 19—44 0.03—0.3 0.6—1.5 4.4 1.0—3.9 0.3—1.9
Sweet corn 57—80 86—142 0.8—2.1 2.9—4.5 19 3.2—5.2 0.6—3.2
Sweetpotato 60—80 98—125 0.04—0.7 1.4—2.8 24.3 5.4—11.6 0.5—2.3
Taro 54—83 111—142 0.1—0.5 0.5—2.9 34.6 1 0.4—5.1
Tomato 90—96 14—23 Tr 1.26
- 0.7—1.2 4.7 1.2—3.4 0.4-1.8
Turnip 87—93 11—35 Tr 0.2
- 0.6—1.1 6.5 3.8-4.6 0.7—2.8
Watercress 90—94 11—29 Tr- 0.6 1.7—3.1 1.3 0.2—0.6 0.5—3.3
Yam 54—84 104—116 0.03 -4 1.5—2.4 27.6 0.5 0.4—3.9
Zucchini 95—98 7—16 Tr 0.4 4 1.3—2.2 0.6—1.4

(Continued)

dietary fiber and phytic acid, can reduce the bioavailability
of minerals such as iron or calcium.
Minerals are the nutrient class most commonly
affected by decreased bioavailability. Most commonly, the
low availability of the mineral to the body is due to
the mineral’s chemical form or to other components in
the diet. Bioavailability for each mineral can vary exten
sively. For example, on the average, a human absorbs
from the diet about 1 to 10% of the iron and manganese,
ito 20% of the zinc, and 15 to 40% of the magnesium and
calcium. These percentages will vary based on the quan
tity of food components such as dietary fiber and oxalic
acid which bind with minerals making them unavailable
for absorption. Spinach is a good example of a vegetable
with relatively high levels of calcium that are virtually
unavailable to the body due to the high oxalate concentra
tion in the spinach. Consequently, listing spinach as a
food that is high in calcium is technically correct, how
ever, it is deceiving because it is not a good source of cal
cium for humans (31).
Another factor that can affect the bioavailability of
minerals is the physiological status of a person. For some
minerals, the efficiency of absorption is increased (within
certain limits) during times of dietary deficiency and the
absorption efficiency is decreased during times of high
intake (32).
21-6 Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering, Volume 1

TABLE 21.3
(Continued)
Ascorbic acid Vitamin A Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Folic Acid Calcium Iron
Vegetable (mg) (IU) fmg) (mg) (mg) (cg) (mg) (mg)
Artichoke (globe) 5—33 16 0.07—0.2 0.01—0.17 0.1—1.3 66 19—74 0.02—1.0
Asparagus 11—41 100—550 0.1—0.23 0.08—0.3 0.8—t.1 25—156 13—28 0.5—2.0
Beet root Tr -6 Tr 35 - 0.01—0.03 0.01—0.06 0.06—0.4 20—80 15 32 0.4—2.8
Broccoli 40—93 700—1550 0.06—0.07 0.12—0.2 0.6 50—71 48—160 0.9—1.5
Brussels sprouts 35—128 50-720 0.06—0.13 0.08—0.19 0.4—1.04 14—86 10—53 0.1—2.5
Cabbage 20—220 Tr 1330
- 0.03—0.17 0.03—0.21 0.15—1.55 20—37 30—204 0.5—1.9
Carrot 4—58 1660—28130 0.04—0.1 0.03—0.06 0.2—1.16 10—14 27—57 0.2—1.2
Cassava 9—48 10—240 0.04—0.23 0.02—0.1 0.25—1.4 22 23—91 0.6—3.6
Cauliflower 8—114 Tr- 20 0.04—0.13 0.04—0.06 0.25—0.89 30—48 13—43 0.2—1.9
Celery 5—15 Tr 220
- 0.02—0.5 0.02—0.5 0.2—0.4 7—28 31—53 0.4—9.9
Chard 30—72 390—3300 0.04—0.07 0.06—0.14 0.61—1.14 14 51—176 1.4—4.0
Chayote 8—20 Tr 50 - 0.01—0.03 0.02—0.04 0.4—0.45 18 12—13 0.3—0.4
Cucumber 5—19 Tr 215
- 0.02—0.1 0.02—0.11 0.1—0.6 6—13 14—23 0.3—0.8
Eggplant 1—5 Tr 65 - 0.05—0.08 0.02—0.04 0.5—0.8 14 6—36 0.4—1.0
Endive 7—12 560—2050 0.06—0.08 0.1—0.8 0.4 142 44—52 0.8—2.8
Leek 4-32 10—405 0.03—0.8 0.02—0.1 0.2—0.5 24 30—85 1—2
Lettuce 3—33 40—2200 0.04—0.14 0.03—0.1 0.2—0.5 20—73 17—107 0.05—4.0
Mustard 25—102 970—3030 0.04—0.09 0.06—0.2 0.36—0.8 29—73 65—220 0.7—4.5
Onion 6—10 Tr- 170 0.02—0.03 0.02—0.04 0.1—0.2 19 20—52 0.2—0.5
Parsley 90—200 1220—5200 0.08—0.2 0.11—0.6 0.53—1.8 40—183 130—325 2.3—19.2
Parsnip 10—18 Tr 0.07—0.11 0.05—0.09 0.2—0.7 20—58 36—57 0.6—1.5
Pea 12—35 50—600 0.25—0.52 0.06—0.15 1.3—3.3 8—63 13—52 1.2—3.6
Peppers 73—342 40—750 0.03—0.1 0.02—0.18 0.3—2.17 22 9—29 0.5—1.5
Plantain 6—54 15—910 0.02—0.1 0.01—0.1 0.16—1.4 26 2—23 0.1—2.1
Pumpkin 4—20 50—10820 0.03—0.05 0.03—0.08 0.4—0.9 9 15—66 0.3—0.8
Potato 8—64 Tr- 10 0.04—0.16 0.02—0.04 0.8—5.1 6—11 4—13 0.5—1.4
Radish 6—43 Tr- 10 Tr- 0.04 0.01—0.05 0.2—0.65 10—27 21—52 0.3—1.9
Spinach 1—59 800—6720 0.05—0.15 0.08—0.24 0.35—0.75 53—194 60—595 0.8—4.5
Summer squash 3—46 Tr- 1200 0.02—0.1 0.01—0.4 0.2—1.4 8—26 9—40 0.2—2.4
Sweet corn 7—10 Tr- 170 0.15—0.2 0.06—0.1 1.7 46 2—9 0.5—0.7
Sweetpotato 7—68 3340—17050 0.1—0.15 0.03—0.14 0.41—1.56 10—11 14—45 0.6—1.3
Taro 3—8 Tr-5 0.03—0.27 0.03—0.1 0.06—1.16 19 18—150 0.7—2
Tomato 19—48 50—625 0.04—0.11 0.02—0.12 0.45—0.91 5—15 5—14 0.4—1.2
Tumip 17—37 Tr 5 - 0.03—0.07 0.03—0.06 0.4—0.94 4—15 30—65 0.01—0.5
Watercress 37—153 450—4700 0.05—0.2 0.09—0.3 0.2—1.38 9—50 63—222 1.3—5.1
Yam Tr 13 - Tr 200
- 0.05—0.15 0.01—0.03 0.1—0.55 16 8—37 0.5—1.2
Zucchini 2—5 240 Tr 0.04
- 0.04 0.2—0.4 17 13—14 0.2—0.4
* USDA database values only — expressed as total carbohydrate by difference; includes sugar, starch, and dietary fiber. Tr = trace amount.
Source: Refs. 16, 18.

III. NON-NUTRITIVE PHYTOCHEMICALS
A. PHYTOCHEMICALS
Many components of foods are not strictly required by
the body for growth and daily maintenance, yet some
of these components may promote health and help
prevent disease. It has become common to call these
compounds by the general term phytochemicals when
present in plant foods or zoochemicals when present in
animal foods. Some phytochemicals are conspicuous by
their colors (carotenoids) or flavors (tannins); however,
the presence of many other phytochemicals is not as
evident.
In 1919, E.V. McCollum wrote in his book The Newer
Knowledge of Nutrition, “A plant structure, or an animal
body is an exceedingly complex mixture of chemical sub
stances many of which are themselves individually as
complicated in their structure as the most complex
machine. The first step in the direction of reaching an
understanding of the chemistry in the living mass, must
involve the separation and the study of the structural units
of which the tissues are composed” (2, p. 2).
Although McCollum was likely writing this about
nutrients, his statement is as true today as nearly a century
ago. Presently the field of nutrition is identifying and
quantifying thousands of non-nutritive phytochemicals.
Nutritional Value of Vegetables
TABLE 21.4
Factors That Can Affect Nutrient Content of Foods or Reported Nutrient Values
General References Relating to Multiple Factors (19—22)
Agriculture Production
Genetics: species and plant variety
Harvesting, Shipping, and Storage
Plant maturity, harvesting time and method:
Ripeness of plant. Harvesting time and temperature,
Time before, during, and after processing
Level and Type of Processing
Fresh, Canned, frozen, Concentrated, Dehydrated.
Dried, fermented, Salted, Smoked. With/without
sweeteners, salt, fat, added liquid
Heat Processing
Pasteurization, Irradiation, Ultra-high
temperature, High-temperature short
term, Microwave, Pressure
Source: Refs. 18—23.
Many of these plant chemicals have been identified as
having health-promoting qualities. A partial list of veg
etable phytochemicals linked to beneficial biological
activities is presented in Table 21.5. Other phytochemicals
have negative effects upon health either by inhibiting spe
cific nutrient utilization or by being toxic (57).
B. PHYTOCHEMICAL PROFILES
The development of chemical profiles for vegetable phy
tochemicals is in its infancy. Due to the enormity of the
task, it will likely be decades before good phytochemical
profiles exist.
C. FACTORS AFFECTING PHYTOCHEMICAL
CoMPosITIoN OF VEGETABLES
Many of the factors that affect nutrient composition (i.e.,
genetics, environmental factors, and processing) likely
also affect the phytochemical composition of vegetables.
This is especially true for the phytochemicals functioning
as antioxidants. However, information on this topic is
extremely limited.
IV. HEALTH BENEFITS DERIVED FROM
VEG [TAB LES
Modern society has dramatically affected how we eat.
Since the introduction of T.V. dinners, it appears that con
venience greatly influences people’s food choices.
Researchers have found that monkeys or apes foraging in
the wild appear to get far higher levels of many essential
21-7
Environmental
Geography, Altitude, Climate, Pest control, Season,
Sunlight, Soil composition/fertilization. Water
Added Food Ingredients and/or Supplemented
with Nutrients
Preparation Methods
Whole or cut, Cut/grind size,
Mixed/whipped/blended, hot/cold preparation, Dry
or moist heat frying, Cooled/frozen
Laboratory Analysis (23)
Sampling scheme, Chemical analysis methods,
Laboratory procedures, Use of calibration
standards, Intra-laboratory variation,
Inter-laboratory variation, Data transcription
nutrients and beneficial phytochemicals relative to their
body weight than the average American (58).
Without a doubt, vegetables can be considered more
nutrient dense (nutrient content per kilocalorie of food)
than foods from other food groups. However, the phyto
chemicals in vegetables may provide equally important
benefits for the prevention of chronic diseases like cancer
and heart disease (59).
Research on the purported health benefits of vegeta
bles focuses on two main areas of study:
1) Maintenance of gastrointestinal tract health and
2) Reduction of chronic disease risk
A. GASTROI NTESTI NAL TRACT H EALTH
The gastrointestinal tract (GI-tract) is the gateway through
which the body transports nutrients and phytochemicals
into the circulation for delivery to body cells. A complex
network of internal organs and tissues is responsible for
the digestion or breakdown of food components into com
pounds and elements that can be absorbed into the body.
In addition, the GI-tract serves as a protective barrier to
prevent some substances from entering the body (60).
Due to the extremely active and chemically hostile
internal environment necessary to accomplish the diges
tive process within the GI-tract, cells along the 25—30 feet
of intestine are exposed to a great deal of chemical and
physical damage. Consequently, many of these cells have
only a three- to five-day life span. This constant turnover
of GI-tract cells results in continuous cellular replacement
and repair of damage.
TABlE 21.5
Some Important Non-Nutrient Phytochemicals in Vegetables
Anti- Anti- Blood Detoxifi- Eye G.l.-Tract Heart Immune Osteo- Examples of
Phytochemical cancer Antioxidant inflamatory Clotting cation Health Health Health System porosis Food Sources Ref.
Capsaicin +1— + Hot chile peppers 33
Carotenoids +1— + + + Orange, yellow, & green 34—36
alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, vegetables
beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein,
lycopene, zeaxanthin
Curcumin (phenolic) + + + + Turmeric, mustard 37
Coumarins + Vegetables, tonka bean, 38,39
sweet clover, licorice
Dietary fiber + + + Wide variety of vegetable 33,40—43
sources
Glucosinolates (glucobrassicin) + + Cruciferous vegetables, 36,37,40,
Isothiocyanates (sulphorophanc) broccoli sprouts 44—46
Indoles (indole-3-carbinol)
I
Inositol phosphates (phytate) + + a]
Whole grains, beans 47
Monoterpene (limonene) + Citrus fruit peel 36,37,40 0
0
Organosulfur compounds +1— 0
Garlic, onions, and other 33,48,49
diallyl sulfide, ally! methyl allium vegetables; 0
disulfide, ally! methyl thsulflde, mustard and horseradish 3,
0
S-ally! cysteine, diallyl
trisulfide, and others (1)
0
Protease inhibitors to
+1— Legumes, cereals, vegetables 36,5f) 0
0
Tannins +1— + + Grapes, tea, lentils, wine 51,52 to
Flavcnoids + ÷ + + a + Green vegetables, onions, 40,47,48, 0
apigenin, catechins, chrysin, 0
garlic, tea 53 0
kaempferol, myricetin, 0
0
quercetin era
Isoflavonoids, biochanin A, +1— + + soybeans, clover sprottts, 54,55 a)
at
daidzein, formononetin, alfalfa sprouts 0
genistein, glycitein at
era
Lignans ÷ flaxseed, berries, 54,56 at
to
whole grains
to
at
Coumestans + soybeans, clover sprottts, 54,56
alfalfa, beans <
0
C
3
to
Nutritional Value of Vegetables
There is a significant amount of nutrient recycling
from injured GI-tract cells which allows many nutrients to
be digested and absorbed along with new food compo
nents. This combination of recycled and dietary nutrients
is utilized to support adequate replacement of the cell lin
ing of the GI-tract.
Over the last decade there has been an increase in the
number of reported cases of various gastrointestinal dis
eases. Two of the most common GI-tract diseases are
diverticulitis (inflammation of small pouches formed
along the gastrointestinal tract) and gastro-esophageal
reflux disease (GERD), the common cause of indigestion
which causes the pain popularly called “heartburn” (61).
In fact, GERD is so common and chronic in the United
States that Prilosec® was one of the world’s top-selling
drugs in the year 2000.
Diverticulitis and GERD have one significant dietary
factor in common. Both of these conditions appear to be
related to years of inadequate dietary fiber intake (6 1,62).
Ironically, fiber is the most abundant phytochemical in
vegetables.
Vegetables contain both soluble and insoluble forms
of dietary fiber. The physiological effects of these two
dietary fiber types have both similarities and some signif
icant differences.
Both soluble and insoluble fiber types hold water and
create bulk inside the GI-tract. Soluble fibers slow the rate
of stomach emptying into the small intestine. It is thought
that the stomach distension caused by fiber bulk and the
slower stomach emptying produces an extended feeling of
satiety after a meal (63,64). Intake of high soluble fiber
also tends to decrease the overall nutrient absorption rate
and may also reduce the amount of nutrients and phyto
chemicals absorbed. This can benefit those with problems
in the management of blood glucose and may reduce the
absorption of cholesterol (65). Excessively high intake of
dietary fiber can interfere with the absorption of minerals.
B. IMMUNE SYSTEM HEALTH
The immune system is part of the body’s natural defense
system against disease and disease-producing conditions.
Approximately 80 percent of the immune system is
located directly adjacent to the GI-tract. Ordinarily, undi
gested food molecules, microorganisms, and many toxins
cannot readily cross through the intestinal lining and do
not enter the circulatory system. However, disruptions to
the integrity of the 01-tract can challenge the immune sys
tem beyond its capacity to maintain health (60).
C. CHRONIC DISEASE
Many phytochemicals have been associated with preventing
or decreasing the incidence of disease. Disease conditions
and related mechanisms that are purported to be affected by
various phytochemicals are summarized in Table 21.5.
21-9
No doubt there are numerous triggers in the initiation
of cancer and heart disease. And although there may be
many varied mechanisms of phytochemicals with anti
cancer and heart promoting properties, one mechanism
may be related to the antioxidant property shared by many
of these compounds. The process of normal cellular
metabolism produces chemicals that are reactive oxygen
species like hydrogen peroxide and the superoxide anion
free radical. It is thought that free radical production
causes a secondary oxidative stress whenever there is an
imbalance of antioxidants to oxidants. This can occur with
an excess of oxidation stress or an inadequate amount of
antioxidants in the diet.
Research has shown that antioxidants are involved in
delaying many diseases and conditions that are associated
with aging such as cancer, heart disease, decreased
immune functioning, and visual and cognitive impairment
(66). A number of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals
provide antioxidant protection in the body. Based on a per
gram or per kilocalorie basis, vegetables contain signifi
cant amounts of antioxidants.
Dietary phytoestrogens may help reduce the risk of
developing certain hormone-stimulated cancers such as
breast and prostate cancers. However, much more
research on this relationship is needed since some studies
indicate that phytoestrogen compounds may stimulate
progression of some types of cancer (67).
flavonoids such as those found in onions, tea, and red
wine also are under study for potential cancer prevention.
The possible mechanisms of action may vary from one
flavonoid to another. They may prevent cancer cell prolif
eration through specific enzyme inhibition (68).
V. SUMMARY
As a major category of foods. vegetables have a variety of
qualities and characteristics that supports common recom
mendations to include them as a significant part of a bal
anced and varied diet. They serve as important sources of
a wide variety of vitamins and minerals essential for nor
mal human nutrition.
Vegetables supply these nutrients in forms that are
generally low in energy and fat, making them more “nutri
ent dense” than most other food sources. The nutrient con
tent of a particular vegetable can vary, with the extent
dependent on the nutrient, and a variety of factors includ
ing plant genetics, agricultural factors, storage and han
dling, processing, packaging, and preparation. Nutrient
content values in databases generally reflect averages.
The extent to which a vegetable food is a good source
of a nutrient also depends on type of processing and the
bioavailability of the nutrient. In some cases, a vegetable
can contain high levels of a mineral such as calcium or
iron, but the form of the mineral or interfering compounds
in the vegetable allow very little of the mineral to be
27-10 Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering, Volume 1
absorbed into the body. Some nutrients are not found in
vegetables, including vitamins D and B-12 and the long
chain omega-3 fatty acids commonly found in fish oils
and some species of algae.
In addition to nutrients, vegetables provide a great
variety of non-nutrient chemical compounds commonly
called phytochemicals. The potential benefits and risks of
various phytochemicals found in vegetables represent an
increasingly active area of nutrition research. The body of
scientific research to date supports the inclusion of a wide
variety of vegetables in the human diet for reducing the
risk of developing a number of disease conditions that
tend to develop with age. Additional research is needed to
clarify more specific risks and benefits of various types of
chemical compounds found in vegetables.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The information in this chapter has been derived from
“Nutritional Value of Vegetables,” by C.A. Titchenal, J.
Dobbs. In Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and
Processing, edited by: Y.H. Hui et al., Marcel Dekker,
New York, 2004.
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