CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

SIWES was established by ITF in 1973 to solve the problem of lack of adequate
practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of
tertiary institutions. The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills
necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work. It
affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being familiarized and
exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are
usually not available in the educational institutions. Participation in Industrial
Training is a well-known educational strategy. Classroom studies are integrated
with learning through hands-on work experiences in a field related to the student’s
academic major and career goals. Successful internships foster an experiential
learning process that not only promotes career preparation but provides
opportunities for learners to develop skills necessary to become leaders in their
chosen professions. One of the primary goals of the SIWES is to help students
integrate leadership development into the experiential learning process. Students
are expected to learn and develop basic non-profit leadership skills through a
mentoring relationship with innovative non-profit leaders. By integrating
leadership development activities into the Industrial Training experience, we hope
to encourage students to actively engage in non-profit management as a
professional career objective. However, the effectiveness of the SIWES experience
will have varying outcomes based upon the individual student, the work
assignment, and the supervisor/mentor requirements. It is vital that each internship
position description includes specific, written learning objectives to ensure
leadership skill development is incorporated. Participation in SIWES has become a
necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and Degree certificates in
specific disciplines in most institutions of higher learning in the country, in
accordance with the education policy of government. The following are some of
the objectives of SIWES: SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their
interest in a particular career before permanent commitments are made. SIWES
students will develop skills in the application of theory to practical work situations.
SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their aptitude for a particular
career before permanent commitments are made. SIWES students will develop
skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers. SIWES will aid students
in adjusting from college to full-time employment. SIWES will provide students
the opportunity to develop attitudes conducive to effective interpersonal
relationships. SIWES will increase a student's sense of responsibility. SIWES
students will be prepared to enter into full-time employment in their area of
specialization upon graduation. SIWES students will acquire good work habits.
SIWES students will develop employment records/references that will enhance
employment opportunities. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to
understand informal organizational interrelationships. SIWES will reduce student
dropouts. SIWES Students will be able to outline at least five specific goals with
several staff members by comparing performance with job duties and develop a
draft plan with staff to accomplish performance needs, supervision plan and
rewards.

SIWES Students will be able to develop a draft agency or project budget and will
be able to identify methods of obtaining revenue to support the budget. SIWES
Students will be able to provide tools to use in prioritizing tasks of an assigned
project and create with staff a tentative schedule for completion based on these
tasks. SIWES Students will be able to develop a model policy that gives current
front-line leaders the permission and expectation to work with other staff on
conflict resolution and explain how this works to current front line leaders. SIWES
Students will be able to describe different skills leaders can use to Foster
commitment and collaboration with both internal and external constituents. The 6
months Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a requirement
for the completion of my course of study, BSc. degree in Geology program at
Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil. A student is expected to
undergo six months (24 weeks) industrial work experience scheme, which at the
end is expected to write a technical report that covers the activities carried out
during this period. This report covers mainly the techniques used in underground
water exploration and exploitation during my six month training at GEOCENTRIC
SYNERGY NIGERIA LIMITED, where preliminary survey comprising
Geomorphological and Hydrogeological/Geological survey were initially carried
out to narrow down the scope of geophysical survey while the Geophysical survey
be Electrical resistivity are used in locating a point for underground water
exploitation.
The process and procedure of borehole drilling either using mud or air rotary
method is also discussed in the report.

1.1 PLACE AND LOCATION OF ATTACHMENT COMPANY

I did my industrial attachment at GEOCENTRIC SYNERGY NIGERIA LIMITED

which is located at suite C5 Ummi Plaza zaria Road, Kano, this company deals
mainly with the application of geophysics in groundwater exploration.

1.2 COURSE AND DURATION OF ATTACHMENT

This report is in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the completion of my

course of study, BSc. Geology program at Kano University of Science and
Technology, Wudil.The training started 4th of September 2017 and ended on 4rd of
march 2018, aimed to exposing 300 level student, to have a better understanding of
geology, and how they would be able to relate/apply theoretical aspect of geology
to industrial practice knowledge.

1.3 ORGANIZATION PROFILE

GEOCENTRIC SYNERGY NIGERIA LIMITED is located at suite C5 Ummi

Plaza zaria Road, Kano. The division of labour of the company depends on the
service offered by the company as follows:

 Geophysical/geological survey.

 Bore hole drilling completion and development erection of overhead tank

and surface tank.

 Pipeline reticulation in semi-urban areas.

The company is headed by Managing director, followed by Chief Hydro-
Geologist acting as director who is in charge of internal affairs, while the site
manager, under him 2 Engineers, 4-professional drillers, and 30 nonprofessional
drillers crews, 2 qualified geologist, the company presently has 5 drilling rigs, 5 air
compressor, 5 crane bearing trucks, site vehicles one and a terrameter.

1.4 ORANIZATION CHART

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 GEOLOGY OF KANO STATE

Geologically, more than fourfifth of Kano is underlain by quartzite,

undifferentiated metasediments and basement complex rocks of the pre-Cambrian,
upper cambrian origin. Prolonged weathering of the rocks produced deep clay rich
regolith, which have been subjected to laterization.The lateritic outcrops dot the
interfluve areas of the upland plain serving as caps for regolith hills e.g. Gwauron
Dutse and Dala hills. Well jointed younger granites of Jurassic origin occur in ring
complexes in the extreme south. A narrow strip of the Chad Formation occurs to
the east (Olofin 1981). In height, the relief ranges from lower plains (500 m) to
highlands of more than 1,000m above sea level. The landforms include: the Rishi
hills: plains with grouped hills: sandy plains; and alluvial channel complexes.The
Geology of Kano State comprises both basement complex and sedimentary basin.
Basement complex covers about 97% of the state and the sedimentary basin
covering just 3% found in the northern part of the state covering area like
Dambatta and Makoda local Government areas. These sediments were believed to
be the extension of the Chad formation sometimes called Borno basin. The
boundary between the basement complex and the sedimentary basin is generally
well define, although in few areas there is a transitional zone in which the
sediments are shallow for quite some distance dipping down gently and most of the
boreholes in the area were drilled through the sediments.In the basement complex,
the rock type encountered were predominantly granite, with migmatite gneisses,
schist and minor occurrence of quartzite, volcanic basalt and rhyolite.
FIG 1: HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF KANO STATE

2.1 BASEMENT COMPLEX

In this view the basement complex of the state rocks found are as follows
according to McDonald et al(1986)

 Granite Suite

 Metamorphic suite

 Younger suite
2.1.1 GRANITE SUITE

The granite rocks occupy about 50% of the area in the states. The granite rocks
have been classified or grouped as follows:

 Pink granite

 Undifferentiated granite

Pink, orange or red feldspars, very coarse grains characterize the pink granite, low
contain of white and mafic minerals. While the undifferentiated granite, group
together a large variety of granite rock ranging from light (possibly rhyolite or
quartzite or genesis).
FIG 2: SIMLIFIED MAP OF GROUND WATER IN NIGERIA

2.1.2 YOUNGER GRANITE SUITE

The younger granite are, a small group but are separated from the granites, because
the rocks are Jurassic age and therefore much younger, they tend to occurs as ring
complex in Gwaram, Dutse and Tudun-Wada Local Government of the states.

2.1.3 METAMORPHIC SUITE

The metamorphic suite occupy about 15% of the states, in the middle western
portion of the state although smaller areas of metamorphic rock occur although the
basement complex, the metamorphic in these areas are mainly migmatites, gneisses
sedimentary schist’s, and quartzite. Weathering depth to vary rapidly in the
metamorphic suite typically having exposed outcrops then weathering and clay up
to 70m nearby

2.2 SEDIMENTARY BASIN

The sedimentary found in Kano State is the Chad formation: Chad basin covering
only 3% of the state and occurring only in the north western part in areas like
Dambatta and Makoda local governments. The Gundumi formation is a cretaceous
sandstones that is fairly well sorted with minor exposures in some areas. It colour
ranges from yellow or purple to red. In sedimentary areas, most aquifer consist of
sands and gravels, though carbonate aquifers occur and are developed in some
areas. While ground water occur in most part of the sedimentary basin, some
communities still lack suitable groundwater supply where the underlying rocks are
predominantly clays or the aquifer are very deep and therefore expensive to
develop

2.2.1 GUNDUMI FORMATION

Occurring only in the north western part of the state, showing an outcrop for about
1% of total areas the Gundumi formation, a cretaceous sandstones, is a minor unit
of fairly well cemented usually colored from yellow to purple and red

2.2.2 CHAD FORMATION

The Chad formation in Kano – Jigawa states is a sequence of clay, sandy clay silt,
sand fine gravels layers or beds. It occupies about third of the state

2.3 HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE KANO

Kano area is underlain by rocks of the Nigerian Basement Complex comprising

migmatite-gneiss complex, Younger Metasediments, Older and Younger Granites.
The aquifers of the Basement Complex rocks are the regolith and the fractures in
the fresh bedrock which are known to be interconnected at depth (Mohammed,
1984; Alagbe, 1987; Adanu, 1989; Uma and Kehinde, 1994). These previous
works also suggest that the regolith aquifer is uniform in its hydraulic
characteristics, properties which Uma and Kehinde (1994) highlights as more
crucial than thickness or saturated thickness in determining regolith aquifer
performance. In a recent hydrogeological study carried out in parts of Kano area,
Bala (2008) has shown that regolith aquifer derived from schists and gneisses of
sedimentary origin (orthogneisses) proved to be a difficult groundwater terrain
contrary to the observations in the earlier works that not only indicated similarity
in aquifer performance across the different bedrock types, but also that these
aquifers compare with those in other parts of the African Shield.Using information
on depth to the water table measured in hand dug wells, Bala (2008) sets an
optimum borehole depth in the regolith aquifer for the area and also reveals that
the larger the depth to the water table, the smaller is the borehole yield, and the
deeper isthe borehole, and that both drawdown and specific capacity are weakly
and negatively correlated with depth to the water table. The study also revealed
that depth to the water table in hand dug wells vary independently of independently
of rock types, but it is comparable from well to well in the same locality.It was also
noted that wells located in areas underlain by schists and similar rocks were
generally deep and the depth to the water table in them is larger than in those
located in the other rock types.The findings of Bala (2008) relating aquifer yield to
depth to the water table and hence depth of the well is at variance with that of Uma
and Kehinde (1994) that indicates a uniform yield of the regolith aquifer from all
bedrock types.Mohammed (1984) indicates that the aquifers of the Basement
Complex area of Kano State are the weathered and fractured rocks in which
groundwater exist under water table condition. Water table lies at a depth generally
less than 20 m, and the maximum depth of boreholes rarely exceeds 60 m.Muslim
(1984) presents a composite hydrogeological section for the basement rocks having
a general sequence as follows: Lateritic sand or laterite top layer, silty sand, sandy
clay, clayey sand or clay, weathered rocks and fresh bedrock. The mean depth to
water table was put at 8.4 m while the maximum depth is 18.5 m.For the fact that,
the areas are part of the basement complex, the aquifers occurs as a result of three
main factors

 Tectonic tonic movement (cause fractures, faults, fissures)

 The weathering process and The original mineral composition

2.4 GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE

When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop moving, some of it flows
along the land surface to streams or lakes, some is used by plants, some evaporates
and returns to the atmosphere, and some seeps into the ground. As water seeps into
the ground, some of it clings to particles of soil or to roots of plants just below the
land surface. This moisture provides plants with the water they need to grow.
Water not used by plants moves deeper into the ground. The water moves
downward through empty spaces or cracks into the soil, sand or rocks until it
reaches a layer of rock through which water cannot easily move. The water then
fills the empty spaces and cracks above the layer. The top of the water in the soil,
sand or rock is call the water table and the water that fills the empty spaces and
cracks is call ground water. Water seeping down from the land surface adds to the
ground water and is call recharge from rainwater and snowmelt. At least some
ground water can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep, such
as under a hillside or shallow such as under a valley. The water table may rise or
fall depending on several factors. Heavy rain or melting snow may increase
recharge and cause the water table to rise. An extended period of dry weather may
decrease recharge and the water table to fall.
FIG 3: OCCURANCE OF GROUNDWTER

Occurrence of fresh groundwater varies with the geology of the area. In basement
complex terrain, groundwater occurs in weathered regolith and in fractured fresh
crystalline rocks where thick weathered or fractured fresh crystalline rock occur,
wells and boreholes sinks to the groundwater for water supply. Most areas of the
basement complex obtain water through hand-dug wells. Well fields have been
developed in many parts of the basement complex as a result of the use of various
surface geophysical techniques which revolutionized ground water development in
the basement complex terrain. Many communities now obtain water from
boreholes either with hand pumps or motorized pumps.In sedimentary areas, most
aquifer consists of sands and gravels, though carbonate aquifers occur and are
developed in some areas. While ground water occur in most part of the
sedimentary basin, some communities still lack suitable groundwater supply where
the underlying rocks are predominantly clays or the aquifer are very deep and
therefore expensive to develop.

FIG 4: HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

2.5 GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS AS AQUIFERS

Aquifer is the name given to underground soil or rock that can hold and transmit
appreciable amount of groundwater into wells or boreholes. The amount of
groundwater that can flow through soil or rock depends on the size of the spaces in
the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected. The amount of this space is
the porosity. Permeability is a measure of how well the spaces are
connected.Aquifers typically consist of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock
such as limestone. These types of materials are permeable because they have large
connected spaces that allow water to flow through. The spaces in a gravel aquifer
are called pores. The spaces in a fractured rock aquifer are called fractures. If a
material contains pores that are not connected, groundwater cannot move from one
space to another. The materials are impermeable materials such as clay or shale has
many small pores, but the pores are not well connected. In basement complex the
rocks are crystalline with low permeability and generally not water bearing aquifer
in these rocks is often heterogeneous and of limited lateral and depth extent,
despite its poor hydrogeological characteristics this formation is still very
important in ground water development,. Whereas in sedimentary environment the
aquifer system is often homogeneous and of extensive lateral and depth extent,
there are case of clay intercalation in sand and sandstone aquifers, void and
fractures in areas underline by limestone. Ground water is widely distributed under
the ground and is a replenishable resource unlike other resources of the earth. The
problems in Ground Water Investigation are the zones of occurrence and recharge.
The modern trends are to create more opportunity for recharge of ground water
from natural sources like rain, percolation dams, etc. The ground water is free from
pollution and the ground water storage is free from atomic attacks. Ground water
can be developed at a small capital cost in least possible time, and intensive
irrigation can be practiced with double and triple cropping including commercial
crops; ground water can be used for supplemental irrigation during periods of
deficient surface supply, for the year-round irrigation practice.Water bearing
geologic formation or stratum capable of transmitting water through its pores at a
rate sufficient for economic extraction by wells is called ‘aquifer’. Formations that
serve as good aquifers are:

unconsolidated gravels, sands, alluvium

lake sediments, glacial deposits
sand stones
limestone with cavities (caverns) formed by the action of acid waters
(solution openings in limestone and dolomites)
granites and marble with fissures and cracks, weathered gneisses and
schists
heavily shattered quartzite
vesicular basalts
slates (better than shale owing to their jointed conditions)
An aquitard is a saturated bed formation or group of formations which yields
inappreciable qualities of water to wells compared to an aquifer but through which
appreciable leakage of water is possible. Examples are clay lenses interbedded
with sand.

An aquiclude is a saturated bed, formation or group of formations which yields

inappreciable quantities of water and through which there is inappreciable
movement of water. It may also be define as a saturated but poorly permeable
stratum that impedes groundwater movement and does not yield water freely to
wells. Examples are clays, shales, etc.

An aquifuge is a geologic formation with no interconnected pores and hence can

neither absorb nor transmit water. Examples are basalts, granites, etc.

2.6 CONFINED AND UNCONFINED AQUIFERS

If there is homogeneous porous formation extending from the ground surface up to

an impervious bed underneath, rainwater percolating down in the soil saturates the
formation and builds up the ground water table (GWT). This aquifer under water
table conditions is called an unconfined aquifer (water-table aquifer) and well
drilled into this aquifer is called a water table well.On the other hand, if a porous
formation underneath is sandwiched between two impervious strata (aquicludes)
and is recharged by a natural source (by rain water when the formation outcrops at
the ground surface—recharge area, or outcrops into a river-bed or bank) at a higher
elevation so that the water is under pressure in the aquifer (like pipe flow), i.e.,
artesian condition. Such an aquifer is called an artesian aquifer or confined aquifer.
If a well is drilled into an artesian aquifer, the water level rises in the well to its
initial level at the recharge source called the piezometric surface. If the piezometric
surface is above the ground level at the location of the well, the well is called
‘flowing artesian well’ since the water flows out of the well like a spring, and if the
piezometric surface is below the ground level at the well location, the well is called
a non-flowing artesian well. In practice, a well can be drilled through 2-3 artesian
aquifers (if multiple artesian aquifers exist at different depths below ground
level).Sometimes a small band of impervious strata lying above the main ground
water table (GWT) holds part of the water percolating from above. Such small
water bodies of local nature can be exhausted quickly and are deceptive. The water
level in them is called ‘perched water table’.Storage coefficient. The volume of
water given out by a unit prism of aquifer (i.e., a column of aquifer standing on a
unit horizontal area) when the piezometric surface (confined aquifers) or the water
table (unconfined aquifers) drops by unit depth is called the storage coefficient of
the aquifer and is dimensionless (fraction). It is the same as the volume of water
taken into storage by a unit prism of the aquifer when the piezometric surface or
water table rises by unit depth. In the case of water table (unconfined) aquifer, the
storage coefficient is the same of specific yield.
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES

Groundwater exploration is multi disciplinary in approach, if it is to be effective. It

involves geo-morphological, geological/hydro-geological and geophysical
investigations of an area of interest.

3.1 GEO-MORPHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

After a thorough study of geomorphology map, a field check is highly necessary
to know the geomorphological features to assess the ground water potential. The
geomorphic units like pediments, flood plains, drainage pattern, soil types,
lineaments which primarily control the occurrence, movement and potential of
ground water have to be investigated in detail.

3.2 GEOLOGICAL/HYDROLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

This is a preparatory investigation that involves:

The ground water potential of an area mainly depends upon the

hydrogeological set up, for which a detailed & systematic hydrogeological
survey is a prerequisite.Well inventory study is very important in any ground
water exploration programme.Especially in hard rock terrain ground water
confines to the weathered mantle, joints and fractures. The weathering
thickness, joint & fracture system of the area ought to be studied in depth.
Water level measurements, water level fluctuation studies are the important
factors in the assessment of ground water potential.Only by a systematic
hydrogeological study, the ground water abstracting structures like open
well, bore well, tube well have to be finalized.The recharge and discharge
areas ought to be identified.The fluvial hydrological studies like the river &
stream flows, whether it is perennial etc details are important in quantifying
the potential.Interpretation of remotely sensed data such as aerial
photographs, land sat imageries etc for regional reconnaissance mapping of
lineaments and major geological structures.Localized ground geological
mapping of the area for the identification of:

Lithological units
 Microstructures and

General strike of the geology

Both geo-morphological and geological hydrological investigations are primary

superficial and are used to narrow down the scope of geophysical investigation.

The geophysical investigation drives sub-surface information from surface and

subsurface geophysical measurements. The strategy of geophysical investigation
for groundwater development depends on the geologic environment, which could
be broadly classified as sedimentary basin and basement complex.

In sedimentary environment, the aquifer system is often homogenous and of

extensive lateral and depth extent. The objectives of geophysical investigation for
groundwater development in sedimentary environment are to:

Delineate the subsurface sequence, identify the aquifer units and map
the lateral and depth extent.

Delineate clay or shale intercalations and determine the degree of

shallowness of sandstone aquifer.

Map structures that are favorable to groundwater accumulation such

as fault and fracture zones.

Map the water level.

Map ground water flow direction.

In basement complex area the aquifer are much localized with high degree of
vertical and lateral inhomogenity hence complex aquifer system. Geophysical
investigation for groundwater development in a basement complex area is carried
out with a view to:

Delineate the subsurface geo-electric sequence and determine its

geoelectric parameters.

Identify the aquifer units and determine the lateral and depth extent.
 Map structures such as fault and fracture zones, network of joints,
buried stream channel and basement depression etc that are favourable to
groundwater accumulation.

Determine depths of the rock head and map the bedrock topography.

Map groundwater flow direction.

3.3 GEOPHYSICAL METHOD APPLIED IN GROUNDWATER

INVESTIGATION

Geophysical methods comprise of measurement of signals from natural or induced

phenomena of physical properties of sub surface formation. Various physical
properties that are made use of in different geophysical techniques are electrical
conductivity, magnetic susceptibility, density, elasticity & radioactivity.

The geophysical investigation for the sitting of wells or boreholes can involve one
or combination of the following methods:

Seismic Method

Magnetic /Electromagnetic method

Electrical Resistivity Method

Gravity method

Only electrical resistivity was witnessed during my SIWES exercise.

3.4 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

The electrical resistivity method is the most popular of all the geophysical methods
employ in groundwater investigation. This method of geophysical survey works
with the principle of Ohm’s law which is given by:
 V = IR

Where V is the potential difference between two surfaces of constant potential

measured in volts. I is the current in Amperes in a conducting body and R is the
resistance in ohms between the surfaces.

Hence, Resistivity ( ) = RA/L

Where A is the cross-sectional area of the path of flow of current and L is the
distance through which the current flows.

The ability of a rock unit to conduct an electric current depends on three factors.

The amount of open space between the rock particles (porosity)

The fluid that is in the pore spaces.

The amount of dissolved salt in it.

This method involves the passage of an electric current into the ground through
two current electrodes, while the resulting potential difference is measured across
another pair of potential electrodes. These four electrodes can be arranged in
several possible patterns called electrode configuration.

FIG 5: SCHLUMBERGER CONFIGURATION

The electrode configuration witnessed during this exercise was the Schlumberger
configuration where two of the four electrodes (current electrode and the potential
P electrode) are placed on the either side of the tetrameter in a straight line on the
earth’s surface as shown in the figure above in such a way that; the wider the
current electrodes (outer electrodes) the dipper the electric current penetrates.
Other electrode configuration are; winner array, dipole-dipole and the offset
winner.

PLATE 1: VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING INSTUMENTATION

Two different techniques are generally available to examine the resistivity changes
within. These are vertical electrical sounding (VES) and the horizontal resistivity
(profiling). Vertical electrical sounding is the process by which depth
investigations are made while horizontal resistivity profiling is the process by
which lateral variations in resistivity are detected.
 FIG 6: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING
(VES).

3.4.1 INTERPRETATION OF RESISTIVITY DATA

Resistivity vertical electrical sounding (VES) data are interpreted by plotting

apparent resistivity against electrode spacing on a log-log scale which produce a
curve.

The data can be interpreted qualitatively by examining the curve shape, or

quantitatively by using curve matching or more recently computer modeling.
Quantitative analysis involves identifying from the apparent resistivity curve a
number of layers, their thickness and resistivity weathered zone. Curves are
generally a rough U-shape. High resistivity in the shallow soil layers (mainly due
to lack of water in the soil) lower resistivity at moderate depths, corresponding to
the weathered zone and higher resistivity at depth, where the basement is
unweathered are common phenomenon. If the U-shape is broad the tail does not
rise steeply, then it may indicate deeper weathering (or a more conductive
weathered zone). If the tail rises very steeply (up to 45 0) there is likely to be little
or no weathering.

The resistivity of the soil zone can also significantly affect the shape of the
resistivity curve which can make two curves look very different, even though the
thickness of the weathered zone is similar. It is important to note that different
types of bedrock may have different un-weathered resistivity (e.g. Schist may have
a lower resistivity than granite). Therefore, more emphasis should be placed on the
relative changes in resistivity than absolute numbers.

In areas that are underlain by sandstone and mudstone; the main target will usually
be the sandstones. Sandstones (or sand and gravels) at depth will be indicated by
higher resistivity measurements at the wider electrode spacing, mudstones (or
clays) will be indicated by low resistivity at large electrode spacing. Clays and
mudstone tend to have fairly low resistivity, generally less than 30 ohm-m while
water-filled sand have a higher resistivity.

TABLE 1: THE ELECRICAL RESISTIVITY OF SOME COMMON ROCKS IS

GIVEN BELOW.
Rock Resistivity (ohm-m)

Clay 1-30

Fresh water sand 50-1000

Saline water sand 0.1 – 4

Dry sand 2000 – 100,000

Weathered crystalline rock 10 – 20

Fresh crystalline rock 5000 – 1,000,000

Dry limestone 10,000,000,000,000

3.4.2 VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING CURVES

The Shape of vertical electrical sounding (VES) curve depends on:

Number of layers in the sub-surface

Thickness of each layer and

Ratios of resistivity of the layers

The number of inflection points on a VES curve gives some idea of the number of
layers in the sub-surface geological section of the area of survey.

There are four types of three layer curve, these are H, K, A and Q curve types.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 BOREHOLE DRILLING
A borehole is a deep narrow hole sinks into the ground for the purpose of obtaining
appreciable and potable water from the aquifer which could be used commercially,
industrially, agriculturally and domestically. Unlike a hand dug well, a borehole is
drilled using a machine (rig), it is also deeper, safer and reliable.

The distribution of ground water on the geology of an area, therefore, sitting or

locating suitable point for ground water exploitation will be achieve by studying
the geology of the area using geophysical techniques.

4.1 BOREHOLE DRILLING METHODS

There are two types of borehole drilling methods:

Mud rotary drilling and

Air rotary drilling

4.1.1 MUD ROTARY DRILLING METHOD

This is a method of borehole drilling in which the drilling fluid commonly known
as drilling mud or circulating fluid is used. Drilling fluid is a mixture of water,
Bentonite (Baso4) and additive (carbon methyl cellulose). Generally in mud drilling
the drilling fluid circulate from mud pit through the hose to connecting rod down
to the hole and then back to mud pit. Hence circle continuous.

The functions of drilling mud are:

To clean the drill bit and remove cuttings from the hole

To lubricate drilling bit and reduce friction between the drilling rod
and the formation drilled.
 To cement the sides of the hole hence prevent collapsing and lost of
circulation.

Generally, mud rotary method is most appreciable in drilling through top soil,
highly weathered rock and in sedimentary bits and their particular area of
application.

Tricon bit - laterite, sand, gravel

Roller bit - decompose rock, sandstone

Clay cutter - Clay, clayey sand, micaceous formation

Hammer bit - Basement or fresh crystalline rock

FIG 7: ROLLER BIT

FIG 8: DRAGON BIT

FIG 9: CLAY CUTTER BIT

FIG 10: HAMMER BIT

 PLATE 2: MUD DRILLING

PLATE 3: MUD DRILLING

4.1.2 AIR ROTARY DRILLING METHOD

This is a method of borehole drilling which involve the use of compressed air
instead of drilling mud. In this case, temporary casing is required during drilling to
stabilize the wall of the hole. The air from the air-compressing machine goes into a
string of pipes via hoses through the drill bit carrying out the cuttings. Hence the
circle continues. Some advantages of this method are:

Removal of the cutting from the hole is often faster resulting in less
regrinding of the cuttings.

All water that enters the hole from the formation penetrated is almost
immediately flushed to the surface and is easy to see. Hence, it is normally
much easier to determine when a good aquifer is encounter.

SAMPLE COLLECTION
A driller need to identify and report accurately the ground formation he is drilling
on because screen and or casing will have to be set at depths where aquifer is
located.

HOW SAMPLE WAS COLLECTED

During drilling well cuttings (sample) are collected on a sample box that has depth
level on it with the help of shovel.
We collect sample when there is change usually at 6m depth
PLATE 4: SAMPLE COLLECTION BOX

4.1.3 WELL LOGGING

While drilling, it is important to keep records and logs of the drilling operation for
decision on casting installation, management of drilling problem that may arise and
management of subsequence drilling and his interpretation of them logs should
include the following information.

MACHINE BEHAVIOUR:

Penetration rate

Thrust and torque levels

Smoothness/vibration during drilling

HOLE BEHAVIOUR
 Any deviation

Stability of bore hole wall

Shape sizes and condition of cutting

FORMATION FRUID BEHAVIOUR

Water level and its change

Grain or loss of permeability or fluid

4.2 BOREHOLE DESIGN

This is the process of inserting permanent casing (blind and screen) at an

appropriate position of a borehole with the objective of securing the highest
sustainable yield of a borehole.

Casing serves as living to maintain an open borehole from ground surface to the
aquifer. It seals surface water and any undesirable groundwater as well as provide
structural support against caving materials.

There are two types of casing there are API (Steel) and PVC (Plastic) casing. The
length of API casing is about 6m while that of PVC casing is about 3m. The
thickness of either of the two types of casing is about 6mm. The size of the pump
required for the desired yield is one of the controlling factor in choosing the size of
casing. Steel casing is used mostly in areas where the groundwater is highly
corrosive.

4.2.1 SCREENS
Screens are perforated casings through which water from aquifer enter the
borehole. In consolidated formations, screens could be installed or not, as
groundwater enters directly into an uncased hole. The advantage of screens
includes -

Stabilization of sides of the hole

Prevent movement of sand into the hole.

Allow maximum amount of water to enter into the well.

4.2.2 GRAVEL PACKING

A gravel packed borehole is the one that contain artificially placed gravel envelop
surrounding the borehole casing. The function of an annular space in gravel
packing includes:

Provide a zone of high permeability

Stabilizing the aquifer

Minimize sand pumping.

 PLATE 5: GRAVEL PACKING

4.2.3 GROUTING

This is the process in which borehole is cemented in the annular space surrounding
the casing from the top for about 1-7m depth in order to prevent entrance of
contaminated water into the borehole and to stabilize rock formation.
 FIG 11: BOREHOLE DESIGN

4.3 BOREHOLE DEVELOPMENT

Borehole development is the final phase of operation in borehole construction. The

objective of borehole development is to break or dissolve the mud cake lining the
wall of the borehole and flushing out fine particles and drilling fluid in the screen
area. In this manner, near well permeability is increased and water can then flow
easily from the formation into the borehole.

There are different types of borehole development these are: -

Flushing (Air lifting)

Backwashing (Back Pushing)

4.3.1 FLUSHING (AIR LIFTING)

Flushing (surging) is carried out by means of air compressing machine, which is

capable of developing a maximum pressure into the hole. The compressor forces
air into the well system and this surges water outward through the well screens. As
the air is released a reverse flow takes place and water is lifted completing a cycle.
The cycles are repeated several times until water is sand free all through the length
of the screen.

PLATE 6: AIR LIFTING

4.3.2 BACKWASHING

This is achieved by the use of deep-water turbine pumps or compressor. The

compressor is started and switched off intermittently. This has the effect of raising
and lowering the water level in the well and this produce inflow and outflow
through the screen. The activity of this method is to break up mud gets and filter
cakes by agitating the formation.

4.4 PUMP TEST

Pumping test is carried out to obtain data with which to assess the performance
characteristics of the borehole and the transmission and storage properties of the
aquifer. The method of pumping test is aim at;

Selecting the most suitable pump plant for long-term use and give
some estimate of probable pumping cost.

Determine the yield/ draw down characteristics of a well.

Determine the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer.

Determine the effect of pumping upon neighboring wells.

Provides a good opportunity to obtain information on water quality

and its variation with time and perhaps with discharge rate for the well.

The aquifer test provide data from which the principal factors of aquifer
performance/ transitivity and storage coefficient) can be calculated. In the aquifer
test, drawdowns are measure in the pumping well and nearby observation wells.
The result from aquifer test can be used to determine the characteristics of the
pumping well.

There are two primary methods of pumping during testing. Firstly, the pumping
rate is kept constant throughout the period of test this is known as a constant
discharge test. In the second type, yield is increased in stages, from lower to higher
pumping rates which is referred to as drawdown test.

Measurements required for both well test and aquifer test include:

Static water level just before test started.

Time since the pump started

Pumping rate

Pumping levels (dynamic water levels) at various intervals during the

pumping period.

Time of any charge rate

 Time the pump is stopped – Recovery water levels with time

FIG 12: BOREHOLE LOG

4.5 CASE STUDY OF A BOREHOLE CONSTRUCTION.

GEOPHYSICAL & HYDROGEOLOGICAL SURVEY REPORT FOR
THE ONE (1) PROPOSED MOTORISED BOREHOLE AT TAURA LOCAL
GOVT. AREA,

JIGAWA STATE.

LOCATION: KAUYEN BARDE, ALONG GILIMA ROAD,

KWALAM

CONTRACTOR; GEOCENTRIC SYNERGY NIG. LTD.

CLIENT: ALH. JAFARU DAHIRU

PURPOSE: IRRIGATION.

REMARK: GOOD SITE FOR BOREHOLE DRILLING

BH-01, BH-02, BH-03 & BH-05 (40m)

FEBRUARY, 2017

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

INTRODUCTION

1.1 AIM:
The aim of the investigation is to ascertain the ground water resources
potential within the area, hence the need to conduct a thorough geophysical
investigation.
The information supplied is expected to assist the Hydrogeologist and the
Drillers to economically sink the proposed borehole(s)

1.2 CLIENT: The client that is responsible for the construction of this project is;
ALH. JAFARU DAHIRU.

1.3 CONTRACTOR; The contractor undertaking this Project is:

GEOCENTRIC SYNERGY NIGERIA LIMITED.

2.0 GEOLOGY/HYDROGEOLOGY
Based on the general geological setting of Jigawa State, three (3) major litho-
petrological components make up the geology of the area, these include the

predominant Precambrian Basement complex of Northern Nigeria, the Jurassic

Younger Granitic Rock and a Sedimentary Formation known as Chad Formation.

The Chad Formation occur around the Study area which form the uppermost
Pliocene–Pleistocene formation consisting of fluviatile and

lacustrine thick bodies of clay, separating three major sand bodies, with lenses of
diatomite up to a few meters thick (Wright, 1985). The sand is uncemented with
angular and subangular quartz grains. The clay is massive and locally gritty in
texture. Both the sand and the clay are of variable colors ranging from brown,
Yellow and white to grey. The three sand bodies correspond to the upper, middle
and lower aquifers defined by Barber and Jones (1965). The lower member is
made of sands and sandy clays while the middle and the upper consist of sandy
clays with diatomite and clays and sands, respectively (Obaje,2009).

The Topography of the state is generally flat-lying. Rocks in the Basement terrain
include; Granitic rock/or undifferentiated basement complex which comprises of
Migmatites Gneiss Complex, Phylitte, and older Metasediment.

Post tectonic folding and fracturing are common in this area. The aquifers 0f
Basement complex exists within weathered/ fractured zone. Where the thickness
and porosity is sufficient to allow economic withdrawal of water.

There are two main aquifer types in the study area. The weathered overburden and
fractured crystalline aquifers. These two types of aquifers are usually
interconnected. But locally the Geology of the study area is Chad Formation.

3.0 GEOPHYSICS

The reconnaissance survey and the actual fieldwork took place on 03 rd February,
2017 Five (5) VES Stations were conducted within the available spaces to site four
good locations for borehole drilling, Using Omega Terrameter (a resistivity
measurement instrument). The resulting Data were then tabulated and plotted as
 curves of apparent resistivity in ohm-Meters, against electrode separation (AB/2)
in meters.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS

From the analysis and interpretation of the field data, we therefore arrived at the
following inferred lithology as tabulated below. The obtained apparent resistivity
values were improved upon using a known software ‘IX1D’ and the interpreted
version presented as in appendix.

VES NO. 01 LAYERS THICKNESS LITHOLOGY

RESISTIVITY
(meter)
(ohm-meter)
Kauyen barde 1 38 0 – 10 Top soil + Sandy
BH--- 01 Clay.
2 65 10 – 15 Sandy Clay.

3 63 15 – 40 Coarse Sand

VES NO. 02 LAYERS THICKNESS LITHOLOGY

RESISTIVITY
(meter)
(ohm-meter)
Kauyen barde 1 32 0–6 Top soil + Sandy
Clay.
BH—02
2 38 6 – 20 Sandy Clay.
 3 39 20 – 40 Coarse Sand.

VES NO. 03 LAYERS THICKNESS LITHOLOGY

RESISTIVITY
(meter)
(ohm-meter)
Kauye barde 1 13 0 – 10 Top soil + Clay.
BH—03

2 35 10 – 20 Sandy Clay.

3 47 20 – 40 Coarse Sand

VES NO. 05 LAYERS THICKNESS LITHOLOGY

RESISTIVITY
(meter)
(ohm-meter)
Kauyen barde 1 82 0 – 10 Top soil + Alluvial
BH—04 Sand

2 70 10 – 20 Sand
 3 52 20 – 40 Sandy Clay.

3.2 DISCUSSION.

The above survey interpretation showed three and four geo-electric layers
respectively in the area investigated, ALL VES- points above shows good
prospect for ground water exploration, because of its averagely low -
medium resistivity values obtained at this point. Thus, indicate the presence
of appreciable thickness of a potential aquifer.

3.4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Based on the interpretation of the field data, ALL V.E.S point mentioned
above would be expected to produce a yield that can sustained the target
capacity. Therefore Drilling shall commence at this point [35m
max]

It is pertinent to note that values obtained from this survey do not Indicate specific
yield or re-charge until it is drilled. But rather an Indication for ground water
occurrence.

Conducted & Report made by;

SHAMAWIL A. ISAH (B-TECH. MNMGS)

GEOLOGIST. 070 66025200
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 EXPERIENCE DERIVED FROM THE SIWES

During the six months of my SIWES at GEOCENTRIC SYNERGY NIGERIA

LIMITED, I was engaged in Geophysical survey that is Electrical Resistivity
Survey Method and Borehole Drilling.

This industrial training has afforded me the basic practical and theoretical
knowledge that I may not have gotten from the lecture room. It also gave me the
opportunity to have a feel of what it would be like after graduation when I start
working.

After my internship with GEOCENTRIC SYNERGY NIGERIA LIMITED:

• I can effectively handle the demands a help desk of any Organization I find
myself in future.

• I can effectively assist in the Vertical Electrical Sounding survey.

• I can carry out Data Interpretation of Data gotten from the field.

Other benefits include:

Good working ethics: As a result of the close working relationship I had with the
staffs of my attachment place, I have been able to imbibe good working ethics.
These ethics includes been able to handle situation with little or no help, being able
to provide solutions to lingering problems, etc.
Career Path: I have been able to use this training to explore various avenues
available at my disposal career-wise. It has given me the opportunity to have a look
into the future and access my readiness for employment or entrepreneurship.

Finally the internship has bridged the gap between academic theory and practical
and has built a good degree of confidence especially in my abilities to perform. It
has also given me a first-hand experience of Geology especially in Geophysics.

I can confidently say that the experience gotten from this training was a
worthwhile experience.
5.1 CONCLUSION

Geomorphological, Geological and Geophysical methods of investigation are of

utmost importance in any hydro geologic assessment. In this regard, no efficient
groundwater evaluation is possible without precise and extensive knowledge of the
regional geology of the area under investigation. Perhaps the measure of the
physical properties of rock (Conductivity and Resistivity) mostly cannot directly
detect the presence of water, but can help to interpret the hydrogeology and
geoelectric sequence of an area.

Resistivity method (vertical electrical sounding) gives an insight about subsurface

in-homogeneity at a relatively greater depth. However, geophysical exploration for
groundwater development could involve one or combination of geophysical
methods, hence the more the geophysical method the better the subsurface
resolution.

The selection of borehole site in basement complex is based primarily on the result
of geophysical investigation since the geophysical test points (surveyed areas)
were supposed to have been determined from reconnaissance, geomorphological
and geological investigation. Such site must be a weathered zone where the local
permeability is highest or where groundwater flow is assisted by fractures.

The highest groundwater yield is often obtained from a subsurface sequence that
has a combination of significantly thick and sandy weathered layer and fractured
aquifer.

Therefore, groundwater yield is determined by a complex interrelation between the

geology, post emplacement tectonic history (which determines the degree of
fracturing), weathering process and depth, composition of the weathered layer,
aquifer types and combination, groundwater flow patter, recharge and discharge
process.
5.2 RECOMMENDATION

For subsequent trainees being taken up by the company, I strongly recommend a

more stringent supervision of their training program, especially by the Human
Resources Department. This will go a long way in ensuring that trainees do not
lose focus and will constantly remind them that their services to the company
remain valuable.

Also I suggest ITF should liaise with some companies where they will take up
students for industrial training. This will help students who find it difficult to find
attachments or who end up in companies where they do nothing.

Based on what I have experienced during my Six month SIWES, I would like to
suggest that the Industrial Training Scheme is of paramount importance to both the
students and their institutions since it’s through the Scheme that student to learn
the practical aspect of their discipline. Therefore, extra attention needs to be given
to the scheme.

Furthermore, I would like to recommend the provision of geophysical equipment

especially the terrameter in institutions, because they can be used not only in
groundwater exploration but also in exploration of other economic minerals such
as metallic minerals. Moreover, this equipment will help student to understand the
practical concept of geophysics before going to industrial training.
REFERENCE

Bala AE (2008). Optimum depth for boreholes in regolith aquifer in

parts of Northern Nigeria. Savanna, 21(1):81 – 90.

David K.T Ground water hydrogeology. John Wiley & Sons,

INK,U.S.A.

Falconer JD (1911). The geology and geography of northern Nigeria,

MacMillan, London.

FMWR National Water Rehabilitation project: Borehole Maintenance

and Rehabilitation: Code 1012 page (10, 18 and 25). 1985.

Lollert, (1996). Ground water exploration by the electrical resistivity

method ABEM AB, Brema.

McDonal and Partners (1987): KNARDA Rural Water Supply Final

Report on Geology and Hydrogeology of Kano State.

McNeil, J.D. (1980). Electromagnetic terrain conductivity measures at

low induction numbers Technical note, TN-6, 151 GeonicS L.T.D ONtarior
Canada.

Mohammed I (1984). Hydraulic properties of the Basement Complex

and Chad Formation aquifers of Kano State based on test-pumping of
selected boreholes. M.Sc. Thesis, Dept. Geol., Ahmadu Bello University,
Nigeria.

Muslim I (1984). Report on geological cross sections in Kano State,

volume 1. A report of the Water Resources and Engineering Construction
Agency (WRECA), Kano.

MWT: Ruwatsani, Deep Well Hand Pump. Pump Installation and

Maintenance Manual.Anif& SonsPublishers
 Niwasa: Paper presentation at an intensive training workshop. On
borehole construction and maintenance March (1998).