Unit −II CONNECTEDNESS

¿ this unit we discuss the concept of connectedness∧its relation

¿ continuity .
Definition 2.1. A metric space S iscalled disconnected if S= A ⋃ B ,
where A∧B are disjoint nonempty open sets∈S .
We call S connected if is not disconnected .
Note : A⊂X of a metric space S is called connected if is a connected
metric subspace of S .
Examples .
1 ¿The metric space S=R−{0 }with usual metric is disconnected , since
¿ is the∪of two disjoint nonempty open sets (−∞ , 0)∧(0 ,+ ∞).
2 ¿ Every open interval∈ R is connected .
3 ¿ The set Q of rational numbers , regarded as a metric subspace of Euclidean
space R is disconnected .
4 ¿ Every ball ∈Q is dis connected .
5 ¿ Every singleton set { p }∈a metric space is connected .
Definition 2.2. A real−valued function f which iscontinuous on a metric
space S is said ¿ be two−valued on S if f ( S) ⊆{0 , 1}.
¿ other words , a two valued function is a continuous function whose only
possible values are 0∧1.
This can be regarded as a continuous function ¿ the metric space S ¿ the
discrete metric spaceT ={0 , 1}, where T has the discrete metric .
NOTE : Every⊂of a discrete metric space T is bothopen∧closed ∈T .
Theorem 2.1 . A metric space S is connected if ,∧only if , every two valued
function on S is constant .
Proof . Suppose that S is connected∧let f :S T = { 0,1 } be a
two−valued function on S ⟹ f is continuous on S
We know that every⊂of a discrete metric spaceT is both open
¿ closed ∈T .
Therefore subsets { 0 }∧ {1 } of { 0,1 } are open sets∈T .
Hence , by theorem 1.2 , A=f −1 {0 }∧B=f −1 are open subsets of S
Also A ∩ B=ϕ∧A ∪ B=f
−1
{0 } ⋃ f −1 {1 }=S

1
Since S is connected , either A=ϕ∨B=ϕ .
⟹ Either S= A ⋃ B=B∨S= A ⋃ B= A .
−1 −1
⟹ Either S=f {1 }(¿)S=f {0}.
⟹ Either f (S )=1 for all x ∈S (¿)f ( S)=0 for all x ∈S .
⟹∈either case f is a constant on S .
Conversely , assume that every two−valued funct ionon S is a constant
on S∧assume that S is disconnected .
∴ S= A ⋃ B , where A∧B are nonempty disjoint open sets∈S .

{
Define a function f :S {0 , 1}by f ( x)= 0 if x ∈ A ,
1 if x ∈ B .
We know that every⊂of a discrete metric space { 0 ,1 } is both open
¿ closed ∈{0 , 1}.
Therefore {0 },{1}∧{0 ,1 }are open sets∈{0 ,1 }.
−1 −1 −1
Clearly f ({0 })= A , f ({1 })=B∧f ( {0 , 1})=S are open sets ∈S .
Therefore , by the theorem1.2 , f is a continuous function on S .
Hence f is a two valued function on S . By assumption, f is constant on S .
∴ f (x )=0 for all x ∈S (¿)f (x)=1 for all x ∈S .
⟹ S= A ( ¿ ) S=B ⟹ B=ϕ ( ¿ ) A=ϕ ,
which is a contradiction ¿ the that! A ≠ ϕ∧B ≠ ϕ
Therefore S must be connected∧hence thetheorem .
The following theorem shows that continuous image of a connected set
is connected .
Theorem 2.2 . Let f :S → M be a function ¿ one metric space S ¿ anthor
space M ∧let X be a connected⊂of S . If f is continuous on X , then
f ( X )is a connected⊂of M .
Proof . By theorem 2.3 , ¿ prove f ( X ) is connectedis enough prove that every
two−valued function on f ( X ) is a constant .
Let g be a two valued function on f ( X ) ⟹ g is continuous on f (X ).
Now we define a new function h on X by
h(x )=g [f (x)], for all x∈S .
f is continuous on X∧g is on f ( X)⟹ h=g ∙ f is continuous on X
¿ can take only two values0∧1.

2
Therefore h is a two valued function on X .
Since X is connected ,h is a constant function on X ⟹ g is constant on f ( X )
Hence f ( X )is connected . Hence thetheorem .
Theorem 2.3( Intermediate−value theorem for real continuous functi ons)
Statement : Let f be a real valued∧continuous on a connected⊂S of Rn .
If f takes on two different values∈S , say a∧b , thenfor each real c between
a∧b there exits a x ∈S such that f ( x ) =c .

Proof . Since the continuous image of a connected set is connected , f (S)is a

1
connected⊂of R .
1
We know that every connected set ∈R is an interval . ∴ f ( S ) is an interval∈R .
1

f takes thevalues between a∧b∈S ⟹ a , b f (S ).

If some value c between a∧b such that c ∉ f ( S ) ,then f ( S ) is disconnected ,
which is a contradiction .
Therefore , for all c∈(a , b),there isan element x∈S such that f ( x)=c
Hence the theorem .
2.2 COMPONENTS OF A METRIC SPACE
Theorem 2.4 . Let F be a collection of connected subsets of a metric space S
such that the∩T =¿ A ∈ F A is nonempty .
Then the∪U =¿ A ∈ F A is connected .
Proof . ¿ prove U is connected ,is enough ¿ prove every two valued function
on U is a constant function . Let f be a two valued function onU .
SinceT ≠ ∅ , there is an element t ∈T such that is t ∈ A for all A ∈F .
Take f ( t )=0∧let x ∈U . Then x ∈ A for some A ∈ F
Since A is connected , every two valued function on A is constant .
Since A ⊆ U implies f is constant on A .
Now x , t ∈ A ⟹ f (x)=f (t )⟹ f is constant on U .
Note : Every point x ∈a metric space S belongs¿ at least one conected
¿ set of S , namely { x }.
By theorem2.6 ,the ∪of all the connected subsets which contain x is also
connected .We call this∪a component of S ,∧we denoteby U (x ).
Thus , U ( x )is the maximal connected⊂of S which contains x .
Theorem 2.5 . Every point of a metric space S belongs¿ a uniquely determined

3
 compo nent of S .∈other words , the components of S ¿ a collection of disjoint
sets whose∪is S .
P roof . Suppose that a point x of S belongs two different components of S .
Then , by theorem 2.4 the∪of these two component would be a larger conne cted
set containing x∧hence every point of S belongs¿ a unique component of S .
2.3 UNIFORM CONTINUITY
Suppose f is defined on a metric space (S , d s) , with values∈another metric space
(T ,d T ) ,∧assume that f is continuous on a⊂A of S . Then , given any point
p∈A∧any ε> 0 , there is a δ >0 (depending on p∧on ε ) such that
d T ( f (x) , f ( p) ) < ε whenever x ∈ A∧d S ( x , p)< δ .
¿ general , we cannot expect that for a ¿ ε the same value of δ will serve
equally well for every point p∈A .
Whenhappens , the function is called uniformly continuous on A .
Definition 2.3 Let f :S → T be a function ¿ one metric space ( S , d S )
¿ another metric space (T ,d T ). Then f is said ¿ be uniformly continuous on a
¿ A of S if the following condition holds:
For every ε >0 , there exits a δ> 0(depending only on s ε )such that
d T (f ( x ), f ( p))< ε whenever x ≠ p ∈ A∧d S ( x , p)< δ .
The following examples of real – valued function shows the difference between
continuity∧uniform continuity on A .
1
Example 2.1 L et f ( x )= for x >0∧take A=¿ .
x
First we provethat the function f iscontinuous on A .
Let ε >0 be given∧ p∈ A
1 1
| || |
Now ,|f (x )– f ( p)|= − =
x p
x− p
xp
=¿

If |x− p|< δ , then| p|−|x|≤| x−p|<δ ⟹| p|≤|x|+δ

1 1
⟹ x≥ p – δ ⟹ ≤
x p−δ
|x− p| δ
If |x− p|< δ , then|f ( x ) – f ( p )|= < .
xp ( p−δ ) p
2
δ εp
Choose δ such that ε= ⟹δ=
( p−δ ) p 1+ pε

4
 2
εp
Thus for every ε > 0 ,there is a δ= such that
1+ pε
|f ( x ) – f ( p )|<ε whenever |x− p|< δ .−−−−−−−(1)
Therefore f is continuous at p∧hence f iscontinuous on A .
Next we prove that f isnot uniformly continuous on A .
If f is uniformly continuous on A ,then for every ε >0 , there ∃a δ >0
such that∨f ( x) – f ( p)∨¿ ε whenever x , p ∈ A∧¿ x− p∨¿ δ .
Take ε=10 , x=δ , p=δ /11.Then∨x− p∨¿∨δ−δ / 11∨¿ 10 δ /11< δ .
By(1) ,∨f (x) – f ( p)∨¿ 10.

| ||
1 1 1 11 −10 10
But |f ( x ) – f ( p )|= − = − =
x p δ δ δ
= >10.
δ || |
s ince x ∈ A , which is a contradiction .
Therefore f is not uniformly continuous on A .
Example 2.2 Let f : R R be a function defined by f (x)=x 2 , for all x ∈ R .
Take A=( 0 , 1 ] ∧let ε > 0 be given .
If x , p ∈ A , then
|f ( x ) – f ( p )|=|x 2 – p 2|=|( x + p ) ( x – p )|≤ (|x|+| p|)|x – p|< 2|x− p|.
If |x− p|< δ , then|f ( x ) – f ( p )|<2 δ

ε
Choosing δ= , we findd that |f ( x ) – f ( p )|< ε
2
Hence f is uniformly continuous on A .
¿ the above two examples , we find that uniform continuity on a set A implies
continuity on A but the converse need not be true .
The continuity on a set A implies uniformcontinuity on A when A is compact .
2.4 UNIFORM CONTINUITY ∧COMPCT SETS .
Theorem 2.6 ( Heine ) .
Statement . Let f : S → T be a function ¿ one metric space ( S , dT )
another metric space ( T , d S ) . Let A be a compact set∧assume that f is
continuous on A . The n f is uniformly continuous A .
Proof . Let ε>0 be given . Since f is continuous on A , for each point a A ,
there is an r >0 depending on ε ∧a such that
ε
d T ( f ( x ) , f ( a ) )< whenever x , a A∧d S (x , a)< r .
2

5
 ε
i .e . ,d T ( f ( x ) , f ( a ) ) < whenever x ∈ B S ( a ,r ) ∩ A−−−−−−−(1).
2

Now the collection of all balls B S a , ( r2 ) each withradius r /2 covers A .

i .e . , A ⊆¿ a ∈ A B (a , )
r
S
2
Since A is compact , a finite number of these balls also cover A .
Hence there exits finite number of points a 1 , a 2 , … , am ∈ A such that

A ⊆¿ k =1¿ m B S ak , ( r2 ) . k

¿ any ball of twice radius B S ( ak , r k ) , we have

d T ( f ( x ) , f ( ak ) ) < ❑ whenever x ∈ BS ( ak ,r k ) ∩ A ( ¿ (1 ) ) −−−( 2 )

2

Let δ=min { r1 r2 r3
, , ,…,
2 2 2
rm
2
. }
Consider two points x , p∈A such that d s ( x , p ) <δ .
We prove that d T ( f ( x ) , f ( p ) ) < ε .

Since x ∈ A ⟹ x ∈ BS a k , ( ) rk
2
for some k ⟹ x ∈ BS ( ak , r k ) for some k

( r2 ) ⊆B (a , r ) ⟹ d ( f ( x ) , f (a ))< ε/ 2 for some k by (2)

as B S a k , k
S k k T k

By the triangleinequality , we have

rk rk rk
d S ( p , a k ) ≤ d s ( p , x ) +d s ( x , ak ) < δ + ≤ + =r k .
2 2 2
⟹ p ∈ B S ( a k , r k ) ∩ A ⟹ d T ( f ( p ) , f ( ak ) ) < ε /2
Again usingthe triangle inequality , we have
ε ε
d T ( f ( x ) , f ( p ) ) ≤ d T ( f ( x ) , f ( ak ) ) +d T ( f ( a k ) , f ( p ) ) < + =ε .
2 2
2.5 ¿−POINT THEOREM FOR CONTRACTIONS
Definition 2.5 Let f :S → S be a function ¿ one metric space ( S , d )
into itself . A point p∈S is called a ¿ point of f if f ( p )= p .
The function f is called a contractionof S if there is a positive constant
α <1 ( called contraction constant ) , such that
d ( f ( x ) , f ( y ) ) ≤ α d ( x , y ) , for all x , y ∈S .

6
Note : A contraction on any metric space isuniformly continuous on S .

Theorem 2.7 ( ¿ – point theorem) .

A contraction f of a complete metric space S has a unique ¿ point p .
Proof . Suppose that p∧ p ' are two ¿ point of f .
Then f ( p )= p∧f ( p )= p .
' '

'
Since f isa contractionof S∧ p , p are∈S , we have
d ( p , p ) =d ( f ( p ) , f ( p ) ) ≤ α d ( p , p ) , where α <1
' ' '

⟹ ( 1−α ) d ( p , p ) ≤ 0 ⟹ p= p .
' '

Hence f has at most one ¿ point .

Next we prove that f has one ¿ point .
Take any point x∈ S∧consider the sequence of iterates :
x , f ( x) , f (f (x )) , ...
That is , we define a sequence { p n }inductively as follows :
p0=x , p n+1=f ( pn ) for n=0,1,2 , … .−−−−−−−−−(1)
We will prove that the sequence { p n } converges ¿ a ¿ point of f .
First we show that { pn } is a Cauchy sequence.
Since f isa contraction of S , we have
d ( pn+1 , p n ) ≤ α d ( p n , pn−1 ) , α <1 is a contraction constant

≤ α [ α d ( p n−1 , p n−2 ) ]

… … . … .. … .
≤ α n d ( p1 , p0 )

≤ c α n , where c=d ( p 1 , p0 ) −−−−−−(2)

If m>n , by using triangleinequality , we find that
d ( pm , p n ) ≤ d ( pm , p m−1 )+ d ( p m−1 , pn )
≤ d ( p m , pm −1 ) + d ( pm −1 , p m−2 ) +…+d ( pn +2 , pn+1 ) + d ( pn +1 , pn )
m−1 m−1
¿ ∑ d ( pk+ 1 , pk ) ≤ c ∑ α k by (2)
k=n k=n

¿ c ( α n+ α n +1+ α n +2+ …+α m−1 )

¿ c ( α n+ α n +1+ α n +2+ …+α n α m−n−1 )

7
 ( )
m −n
n 1−α
¿c α
1−α

[ usingG . P formula: a+ ar +a r +…+ a r

2 n−1
; S n=
a ( 1−r n )
1−r ]
( )
n m
α −α
¿c
1−α

¿c(
1−α )
n
α n
a=α , r=α ∈S n

n
Since α <1 , α ⟶ 0 as n ⟶ ∞∧hence d ( p m , pn ) ⟶ 0 as n ⟶ ∞ .
This shows that { p n } isa Cauchy sequence∈S .
But S is complete , so there is a point p ∈S such that pn → p . , i. e lim pn → p
n→∞

By the continuity of f , we have

( n→∞ )
f ( p ) =f lim p n =lim f ( p n) =lim pn+1= p
n→∞ n→∞

Hence pis a ¿ point of f . Thiscompletes the proof .

2.6 DISCONTINUOUS OF REAL−VALUED FUNCTIONS
Definition 2.6 Let f be defined on an interal(a , b). Assume that c ¿ .
If f (x)→ A as x → c through values greater thanc , we say that A is the
¿ hand limit of f at c∧we write
lim ¿
+¿
x→ c f ( x ) = A =f ¿¿

¿ the ε , δ terminology this means that for every ε > 0 , there is a δ>0
such that∨f ( x) – f ¿
Note that f need not be defined at the point c .
If is defined at c∧if f ¿
¿ the ¿ at c .
We say that A isthe ¿ limit of f at c ( a ,b ] if f ( x ) → A as x → c
through values less than c∧we write
lim ¿
−¿
x→ c f ( x ) = A= f ¿¿

¿ the ε , δ terminology this means that for every ε > 0 , there is a δ>0
such that ¿
If f is defined at c∧if f ( x )=f ¿
¿ the ¿ c .
If a< c< b , thenf is continuous at c if ,∧only if ,

8
 f (c )=f ¿
We say that f is discontinuous at c if f is not continuous at c .
¿ this case one of the following caseis satisfied :
a) Either f ¿
b) Both f ¿
c) Both f ¿
¿ the cases ( a )∧( b ) , we call c an irremovable discontinuity .
¿ the case (c) , we call c as a removable discontinuity .
Definition 2.7 Let f be defined on [a ,b ]. If f ¿
a) f (c )=f ¿
b) f (c )=f ¿
c) f ¿
If any one of these three is different ¿ 0 ,then c is called a jump discontinuity of f .
2.7 MONOTONIC FUNCTIONS
Definition 2.8. Let f be a real valued function defined on a⊂S of R .
Then f is said ¿ be increasing ( ¿ non decreasing ) on S if for every pair of
points x an d y ∈S , x < y ⟹ f (x) ≤ f ( y )
If x< y ⟹ f ( x ) < f ( y), we say that f is strictly increasing on S .
Similarly , decreasing functionsare defined .
A function is said ¿ be monotonic if is increasing on S∨decreasing on S .
If f is an increasing function , then – f is a decreasing function .
The following theorem shows that functions which are monotonic on compact
intervals always have finite ¿∧¿ limits .
Theorem 2.8 . If f isincreasing on [a ,b ],then f ¿

(a , b)∧we have

f¿

At the end points we have

f (a) ≤ f ¿

Proof . Let A= { f ( x ) : a< x< c } .

Since f isincreasing , f (x )≤ f (c ) for all x ∈(a , c ).

Therefore , A is bounded above by f ( c ) .

9
 . A
By completeness axiom , A has a , say α = . Then α ≤ f (c ).

Now we shall prove that f ¿

For this , we must show that for every ε >0 ,there is a δ >0 such that

c−δ< x <c ⟹|f ( x )−α |<ε .

A
Since α = , by approximation property there is an element

f ( x 1 ) of A such that α −ε< f ( x 1 ) ≤ α

Also , since f isincreasing , for every x∈ ( x 1 ,c ) we have f ( x 1 ) ≤ f ( x ) .

Hence α −ε < f ( x ) ≤ α ⟹|f ( x )−α|< ε

[ α −ε< f ( x ) ≤ α ⟹ α −ε <f ( x ) <α + ε ⟹−ε< f ( x )−α <ε ]

Therefore the number δ=c−x 1 , has the required property .

That is∨f (x )−α ∨¿ ε whenever c−δ < x <c where δ =c−x 1 .

Similarly f ¿

Therefore , f ¿

At the end points , we have f (a)≤ f ¿

Theorem 2.9 . Let f be strictly increasing on a set S∈R .

−1
Then f exits∧is strictly increasing on f (S ).

Proof . Since f is strictly increasing ,is one−¿−one on S .

−1
Therefore f exits .
−1
Let y 1 < y 2 be two points∈f ( S )∧let x 1=f ( y 1 ) ∧x 2=f −1 ( y 2 )

If x 1 ≥ x 2 , then we must alsohave y 1 ≥ y 2 .

Hence the only alternative is x1 < x 2 .

Thisimplies that f −1 is strictly increas ing on f (S ).

Theorem 2.10 . Let f be strictly increasing∧continuous on a compact interval [ a , b ] .

Then f −1 is continuous∧strictly increasing on the interval [f (a), f ( b)].

10
Proof . Since f is strictly increasing ,is one−¿−one on S .

Therefore f −1 exits .

Also since f is continuous on a com pact interval [ a , b ] , f −1 is continuous on f ( [ a , b ] )

−1
Hence f is continuous∧strictly increasing(byTheorem 2.9)on[ f (a), f (b)].

11