COURSE TITLE:

INTRODUCTION TO
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: EDC 121D

Lecturers: Dr. Samuel Asare Amoah
(0208131469)
&
Prince Laryea
(0242071193)
 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY
 EDUCATION
• To educate means to train people to acquire
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• The process of acquiring these is known as
learning.
What is Education?
• It is the process of human learning by which
knowledge is imparted, faculties trained and
skills developed.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
• A process by which individuals born into a
society learn the ways of life that include
knowledge, skills and attitudes of the society so
that they can function effectively as members
of the society.
• Education, however, can be described as the
process by which people acquire knowledge,
attitude, skills, habits, values and moral
behaviour.
 EDUCATION AS A
FUNCTION
• Education has always lived a tension between
two functions.
Education is a matter of assuring continuity,
that is, passing on what is known.
Education is a matter of fostering creativity
and change, that is, propelling learners into
the unknown
 • Education helps people to become useful to
themselves and their society
• It is the business of developing an individual or
the continuous all-round development of the
formal, informal or
individual for life through the
non-formal approach.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
Formal education
• Organized and structured learning and
training that takes place in schools.
• It usually has a curriculum and syllabus
that are prescribed; and examinations are
used for evaluation.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
Informal education
• Learning or training that takes place casually all
the time throughout a person’s life. Most of the
time, informal learning takes place
unconsciously through all kinds of experiences
in the family, with friends, and the whole
community.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
Non-formal education
• The type of learning or training that is organised
at specified times but is not part of a school
programme.
• Usually, it is organised by various established
bodies to meet specific learning needs of
various groups.
• These programmes are usually loosely
structured.
 EDUCATION (CONT.)
It can be deduced from the definitions that
Education:
• Involves acquisition of knowledge, skills and
attitudes,
• Is a process (i.e. It involves activities)
• Is value related.
 OBJECTIVES IN
EDUCATION
• Educational objectives can be classified
into three areas or domains.
The cognitive (knowledge),
the affective (sense of value or attitude)
the psychomotor domain (physical
activity)
• The cognitive domain aims at increasing a
person’s knowledge and mental (intellectual)
skills. It tries to improve the human ability to think
and reason logically and effectively.
• The greatest aspect of educational objectives
falls into the cognitive domain.
• The affective domain deals with feelings,
values and appreciation. It aims at enabling the
individual to develop appropriate moral and
spiritual attitudes and emotions.
• It is a form of character training, which helps
the individual to fit into the society in which he
or she lives.
• The psychomotor domain includes the
development of person’s muscular or
mechanical skills and abilities or manual
dexterity.
• These skills can be developed by such
courses as handwriting, speech training,
vocational, technical and physical
education.
 NOTE:
• These three domains are interrelated and
should be combined in any teaching-learning
process and curriculum development.

• Such a combination will ensure an all-round

human development and a balanced society
 TECHNOLOGY
• The word “Technology” was derived from
the Greek word “Technos” meaning “Art”.

• In Ancient Greek when people talked of

Art they were talking of skills/techniques
and ideas used in drawing, painting and
sculpturing.
 TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• Technology is the complex of human activity
which is concerned with the using of the
findings of art and science to solve human
problems.

• The word technology does not simply mean the

accumulation or use of hardware such as
projectors, radio, television sets, video and
other gadgets
 TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• Instead it has to do with all the ways people use
their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their
needs and desires.

• Technology is a systematic and integrated

organization of men, machine, ideas and
procedures to achieve a desired goal.

• Technology can be explained in two ways. That is,

technology as a process, and technology as a
product.
 TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• As a process will mean the on-going business
of practicing an approach to doing a thing.
This can be termed as soft technology.

• As a product is the end result of the practicing

business.
These are visible aspects of technology and
they can be termed as hard technology.
 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

• Trickton (1970) defined educational technology

as a systematic way of designing, carrying out
and evaluating the total process of learning in
terms of specific objectives based on research
in human and non-human resources to bring
about more effective instruction”.
• Educational technology "is the application of
research, learning theory, emergent
technologies, and child and adult psychology to
solving instructional and performance
problems“ (University of North Carolina Media
Services, 1997).
 EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY (CONT.)
• Educational technology is the study and ethical
practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using, and managing
appropriate technological processes and
resources (Association of Educational and
Communication Technology, AECT, 2008).

• The definition contains four components.

 EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
 First, the focus is a “study and ethical practice.”
 Second, thepurpose of educational technology is
“facilitating learning and improving performance”.
 The third part of the definition tells ushow we do
this: “by creating, using and managing”.
 The fourth stage of the definition tells uswhat we
work with: technological processes and resources.
• Any technology which increases the rate of
learning would enable the teacher to teach less
and the learner to learn more. Sir Eric Ashby

• Cuban assertion on Educational Technology is

any device available to teachers for use in
instructing students in a more efficient and
stimulating manner rather than the sole use of
the teacher’s voice.
 FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE
OF EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
• Educational technology can be viewed in two
functional perspectives. That is,
Technology in Education and
Technology of Education

• These two have distinct historical conceptions

which can be called the physical sciences
concept and the behavioural science concept.
 FUNCTIONAL
PERSPECTIVES……
♠ Technology in Education refers to the product,
that is, the application of technological
products such as audio, visual and audio-visual
to education.

♠ Technology of Education refers to the process,

that is, systematic planning, executing and
evaluating of educational process to enhance
efficiency and effectiveness.
 DOMAINS IN EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
• The concept of educational technology by
Seels and Richey (1994), can be classified into
5 domains:
♠ Design,
♠ Development,
♠ Evaluation,
♠ Utilisation, and
♠ Management
DOMAINS IN EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
 INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
• A field concerned with improving the efficiency
and effectiveness of learning, performance and
instruction through:
• Designing instruction (including all the
phases of activity from needs assessment to
evaluation)
• [Instructional technology] … is the art and science of
designing, producing, and using with economy and
elegance solutions to institutional problems;
• these solutions
• may combine verbal or audio-visual media and
• may be experienced with or without human
mediation and
• may take the form of learners, courses or
whole systems
• that facilitate learning efficiently, effectively
and humanely (Molenda, 2003).
 IMPORTANCE OF
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
It evokes curiosity
It enhances understanding.
It makes teaching and learning easier
It takes care of individual differences
It improves learning outcomes
o Clarify and illustrate concepts,
o Create interest and variety,
o Aid in retention, extend scope of experience.
It increases collaboration among learners when
learning.
It gives instruction a scientific base
 READING ASSIGNMENTS
♂The Place of Educational Technology in the
Teaching-learning Process

♂Function of Educational Technology

♂Criteria for Using Instructional Materials

♂Basic steps in using instructional materials

♂Historical Development of Educational Technology

THEORIES AND
33

PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING AND
INSTRUCTION
 DEFINITION OF 34

LEARNING
• Learning does not have one UNIVERSAL
definition
• Learning is any process that in living organisms
leads to permanent capacity change and which is
not solely due to biological maturation of ageing
(Illeris, 2009).
• Learning involves ongoing, active processes of
inquiry, engagement and participation in the
world around us (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,
2000).
 35

• We do it from the moment we’re born and it takes

place anywhere such as the schools and beyond
those school walls, including the homes,
communities, among many others, and
throughout our lives.
• Learning from the lenses of most educational
psychologists, is the relatively permanent change
in behaviour due to practice and experience
(Rose & Meyer, 2002).
• Lifelong learning should be seen as the
foundation of an effective school, an active
community, and a fulfilled and meaningful life.
 36

• Learning focuses on the development/

construction of knowledge, skills and
attitudes that result in behaviour change.
• Learners can acquire knowledge, skills and
attitudes independently, but most often
they need help.
• This help is what is referred to as
instruction/teaching or learning support.
 37

PRINCIPLES OF
LEARNING
• Educational psychologist and pedagogist have  
identified several principles of learning
• Also referred to as laws of learning

• They provide additional insight into what makes

people learn most effectively.

• Edward Thorndike developed the first three "Laws

of learning:" i.e.readiness exercise
, , andeffect .
 CONT.
38

These principles are:

♣Readiness
♣Exercise
♣Effect
♣Primacy
♣Recency
♣Intensity
♣Freedom
♣Requirement
 39

READINESS
• Readiness implies a degree of concentration and
eagerness

• Individuals learn best when they are physically,

mentally, and emotionally ready to learn

• Learning is an active process, so students must

have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a
definite reason for learning something
 40

CONT.
• As teachers or instructors we need:
to get students ready to learn and
to create interest
to show the value of the subject matter, and
to provide continuous mental or physical
challenge.

• On the basis of securing good marks in various

subjects in an academic examination, leads to
mentally and emotionally readiness to do more
 41

EXERCISE
• The principle of exercise states that those things
most often repeated are best remembered.

• It is the basis of drill and practice.

• It has been proven that students learn best and

retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition.
 42

CONT.
• The human memory is fallible.
• The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new
concepts or practices after a single exposure.

• The instructor must

• repeat important items of subject matter at
reasonable intervals, and
• provide opportunities for students to practice while
making sure that this process is directed toward a
goal.
 43

EFFECT
• The principle is based on the emotional reaction of
the student.

• It has a direct relationship to motivation.

• Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a

pleasant or satisfying feeling, and

• Learning is weakened when associated with an

unpleasant feeling.

• Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success

and motivate the learner
 CONT. 44

• Whatever the learning situation, it should:

contain elements that affect the students
positively and
give them a feeling of satisfaction.

• Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using

punishment in the classroom.

• It is better to tell students that a problem or task,

although difficult, is within their capability to
understand or perform.

• Every learning experience does not have to be

entirely successful, nor does the student have to
master each lesson completely
 45

PRIMACY
• Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a
strong, almost unshakable, impression.

• Things learned first create a strong impression in the

mind that is difficult to erase.

• For the instructor, this means that what is taught

must be right the first time.

• For the student, it means that learning must be right.

 46

CONT.
• The student's first experience should be positive,
functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to
follow.

• What the student learns must be procedurally correct

and applied the very first time.

• The instructor must present subject matter in a

logical order, step by step, making sure the students
have already learned the preceding step.
 47

RECENCY
• The principle of recency states that things most
recently learned are best remembered.

• The closer the training or learning time is to the

time of actual need to apply the training, the more
apt the learner will be to perform successfully.

• Information acquired last generally is remembered

best.
 48

CONT.
• Frequent review and summarization help fix in the
mind the material covered.

• Instructors recognize the principle of recency when

they carefully plan a summary for a lesson or
learning situation.

• The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes

important points at the end of a lesson to help the
student remember them.
 49

INTENSITY
• The more intense the material taught, the more
likely it will be retained.

• A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning

experience teaches more than a routine or boring
experience.

• The principle of intensity implies that a student will

learn more from the real thing than from a
substitute.

• Classroom instruction can benefit from a wide

variety of instructional aids, to improve realism,
motivate learning, and challenge students.
 50

CONT.
• Instructors should emphasize important points of
instruction with gestures, showmanship, and voice.

• Demonstrations and role playing do much to

increase the learning experience of students.

• For example, a student can get more understanding

and appreciation of a movie by watching it than by
reading the script.
 51

FREEDOM
• The principle of freedom states that things freely
learned are best learned.

• Conversely, the further a student is coerced, the

more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and
implement what is learned.

• The greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals

within a society, the greater the intellectual and
moral advancement enjoyed by society as a whole.
 52

CONT.
• Since learning is an active process, students must have
freedom:
freedom of choice,
freedom of action,
freedom to bear the results of action

• These are the three great freedoms that constitute

personal responsibility.

• If no freedom is granted, students may have little

interest in learning.
 53

REQUIREMENT
• The law of requirement states that "we must have
something to obtain or do something."
• It can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may
help us to learn or gain something.
• A starting point is needed
• For example, if you want to draw a person,
• You need to have the materials with which to draw,
and
• You must know how to draw a point, a line, a figure
and so on
• Until you reach your goal, which is to draw a person.
 54

THEORIES OF LEARNING
• Theories of learning explain how learning occurs.
• How teachers/instructors view the role of media
and technologies in the classroom depends very
much on their beliefs about how people learn.
• Different learning theories have different
implications for instruction in general and for the
use of media for teaching/instruction in specific
 55

CONT.

The three basic learning theories are:

• Behaviourism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
 56

BEHAVIOURISM
• Behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable
and measurable aspects of human behaviour.

• The origins of behaviourist learning theories may be

traced backed to the early 1900's with the formulation
of "associationistic" principles of learning.

• Emphasize changes in behaviour that result from

stimulus-response associations made by the learner.
 57

CONT.
• Behaviourism is a worldview that assumes a learner
is essentially passive, responding to environmental
stimuli.

• The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e.tabula

rasa )

• Learner’s behaviour is shaped through

reinforcement and punishment
 
REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
(Behaviour Increases) (Behaviour Decreases)

POSITIVE Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment

(Something is Something is added to increase Something is added to
desired behaviour decrease undesired behaviour
added)
Ex: Smile and compliment Ex: Give student detention for
student on good performance failing to follow the class rules

NEGATIVE Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment

(Something is Something is removed to Something is removed to
increase desired behaviour decrease undesired behaviour
removed)

Ex: Give a free homework pass Ex: Make student miss their
for turning in all assignments time in break for not following
the class rules
 EDUCATIONAL
59

IMPLICATIONS
• Instruction should be provided gradually or little by little, from
simple to complex and the subsequent one should build on
the previous one.

• Material to be learned should be arranged systematically and

in sequential steps from simple to complex.

• Students should be encouraged to progress at their own pace.

• Teachers should encourage learner’s participation.

• Teachers should reinforce the behaviour in their students

which they wish to be repeated.
• Serwaa and Nora were voted class prefect and
cardboard prefect respectively in Besease
JHS. After a term, it was observed that Serwaa
and Nora were abusing their colleagues. They
were, however, discharged of their roles. Using
this scenario, what technique was adopted?
a. Negative Punishment
b. Negative Reinforcement
c. Positive Punishment
d. Positive Reinforcement
The integration of technology in the
instructional process must be geared
toward
a. Solitary and self-help learning
b. Inefficiency of teachers
c. Interactive, meaningful, and
collaborative learning
d. Disregarding development of creative
and critical thinking
Using the knowledge from the Behaviourist
perspective, arrange the following in the order
they should appear when presenting a radio
lecture
I. The radio lecture should proceed in a
conversational cycle
II. Prepare the script of the radio lecture and
rehearse it ahead of time
III. Inform students of time and dates for the
radio lecture
IV. State the objectives clearly in behavioural
terms
• The definition of educational technology
according to AECT (2008) contains four
components. These components include
all the following except
a. Study and ethical practice
b. Facilitating learning and improving
performance
c. Designing, carrying out and evaluating
the total learning process
d. Technological processes and resources
 64

COGNITIVISM

• The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the

“black box” of the cognitive domain should be
opened and understood.

• The learner is viewed as an information processor

(like a computer).

• Originators and important contributors: Merrill,

Gagne, Briggs, Wager, Bruner, Schank, Scandura.
 65

EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
Teachers should
• Speak aloud so that learners can hear clearly what they
are saying.
• Write clearly so that learners can see.
• Do well gain learners’ attention and interest.
• Motivate learners by creating desirable learning
environment.
• Give a piece of information at a time.
• Encourage learners to rehearse information.
 66

CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview
posits that learning is an active, constructive
process.
• The learner is an information constructor.
• People actively construct or create their own
subjective representations of objective reality.
• New information is linked to prior knowledge,
thus mental representations are subjective.
 EDUCATIONAL
67

IMPLICATIONS
• The goal of instruction is not teach information
• but to create situations or learning environments
that enable the students to interpret information
from their own understanding.
• The teacher should act as a facilitator, guiding and
supporting learners in the process of constructing
knowledge.
• The acquisition of knowledge should include
active construction of knowledge.
  BEHAVIOURIST COGNITIVIST
SUMMARY
CONSTRUCTIVIST
Knowledge is: Passive, largely Abstract symbolic A constructed entity
automatic representations in made by each
responses to the mind of individual through
external factors in individuals the learning process
the environment

Learning is: A relative A change in a Discovery and

permanent change learner’s construction of
in behaviour understanding meaning

Focus of learning is Association, operant Increased meaning Problem-solving and

on: behaviour, and improved construction of
conditioning memorisation meaning

Key learning Reinforcement and Elaboration Intrinsic motivation

concept: programmed
learning

Centred on: Teacher Learner Learner

INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA
 WHAT IS MEDIA?
• It is derived from a Latin word “medium”
meaning “between”.

• A medium (plural- media) is channel of

communication.

• It refers to anything that carries information

from a source to a receiver.
• Media are the replicable “means”, forms, or vehicles by
which instruction is formatted, stored, and delivered to
the learner

• Examples: Film, Television, diagrams, computer, printed

materials, etc.

• They are considered instructional media when they

carry messages for instructional purposes.

• The basic characteristic of media is that they carry a

message to a receiver.
• Just as people use a variety of tones, pitches,
rhythm, timbre, loudness, inflections, gestures, etc.
to communicate ideas to others;

• You should also use a variety of media to aid in the

transfer of learning.

• This is also referred to asBlended Learning .

 INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• The broad-range of resources which can be used to
facilitate effective and efficient communication in the
teaching and learning process (Abimbade, 1997).

• This may include traditional materials such as

• chalkboards,
• handouts,
• charts, and slides,
• Newer materials and methods such as
• computers,
• DVDs, CD-ROMs,
• the Internet, and interactive video conferencing.
 EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
• They are both human and material resources which
can be used in the classroom to teach in order to
make teaching and learning to be explicit, thought
provoking, interesting, efficient and effective.

• They are Audio, Visuals or Audio-Visual materials

which helps in the achievement of specific learning
objectives.
 ?
• Educational media should not be
master to the teacher but a good
servant.

• Educational media are means to

an end but not an end in
themselves.
 EDGAR DALE’S “CONE OF
EXPERIENCE”
• Dale’s Cone of Experience is a model that incorporates
several theories related to instructional design and
learning processes.
• During the 1960s, Edgar Dale theorized that learners
retain more information by what they “do” as opposed to
what is “heard”, “read” or “observed”.
• His research led to the development of the Cone of
Experience.
• Today, this “learning by doing” has become known as
“experiential learning” or “action learning”.
 THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL /
EDUCATIONAL MEDIA
♣ Gain attention
♣ Recall prerequisites
♣ Present objectives to the learners
♣ Present new content
♣ Support learning through examples and visual
elaboration
♣ Elicit student response
♣ Provide feedback
♣ Enhance retention and transfer
♣ Assess performance
 CLASSIFICATION OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• There are different ways to classify media.
These may include:
Print media, non-print media, electronic
media
Projected media & non-projected media
Audio media, Visual media & Audio-visual
Hardware and software
Power Consumption
Physical dimensions
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• Objective(s) of the lesson to be taught.
• Learning style of the learners
• The type of learning which the learners are to be
engaged in
• Practicability of the media
• Availability of the media
• Durability of the media
• Portability of the media
• Available technical know-how or expertise
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 BASIC STEPS IN USING
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
• Proper selection
• Preparation before use
• Presentation
• Immediate follow-up
• Evaluation

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 TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUES
• Imitative production technique
• Adaptive production
technique
• Creative invention

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 IMITATIVE PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUE
• This involves the teacher producing
instructional media adopting and using
models and techniques which other
producers have used for producing and
testing of their own products.

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 ADAPTIVE PRODUCTION
TECHNIQUE
• It requires the creation of new forms of
products from already produced product.

• The producer works out the objectives and

uses his initiative to change the already
existing product to suit his own new purpose
and operations.

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 CREATIVE INVENTION
• The ability to define and solve problems in
original ways without too much dependence
on the other people’s guidelines or products.

• It is the use of creativity, initiative and

originality to develop new products with new
functions, which no one else has ever
produced.

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INSTRUCTIONAL &
VISUAL DESIGN
 WHAT IS VISUAL DESIGN?
• Visual design is “rhetorical”
• reflect on how different audiences may “read”
design in different contexts of time, media, or
situations.
• Visual design is the use of imagery, colour,
shapes, typography, and form to enhance
usability and improve the user experience.
• Visual design as a field has grown out of both
User Interface (UI) design and graphic design.
• Visuals can be used to enhance teaching/
instruction and learning.

• A successful visual design does not take away from

the content on the page or function.

• Instead, it enhances it by engaging users and

helping to build trust and interest in the brand.

• The most important question is how do we design

visuals to enhance learning?
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF
VISUAL DESIGN
• Lines connect two points and can be used to help
define shapes, make divisions, and create textures.
• Shapes are self-contained areas. Every object is
composed of shapes.
• Colour choices and combinations are used to
differentiate items, create depth, add emphasis, and/or
help organize information
• Colour theory examines how various choices
psychologically impact users
• Texture refers to how a surface feels or is perceived to
feel.
• Typography refers to which fonts are chosen, their size,
alignment, colour and spacing
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
GOOD VISUALS
• In improving communication between the source (teacher) and
the receiver (learner), a picture/visual should exhibit certain
characteristics. These characteristics make visuals good
quality to enhance learning.

• Grouped under three alphabets: “The ABC of a good illustration”:

 A
• Accurate: Information should be without mistakes

• Appropriate:should be relevant to the topic taught

• Artistic: should be attractive to focus attention on the

most important parts of the message
 B
• Bold: should be bold enough to read by students at the
back of the class

• Brief: ideas presented should just be simple enough to

be interpreted at a glance

• Bright: colour should be bright to attract attention

 C
• Clear: message should be clear for easy reading

• Clean: soiled surfaces should be avoided

• Careful: arrangement of elements should be carefully

planned to reduce the effort required to interpret the
message
 PRINCIPLES FOR CREATING A
VISUAL DESIGN
• Can be thought of as what we do to the elements of design
• A successful visual design applies the principles to effectively
brings them together to make sense. For instance:
• Unity has to do with all elements on a page visually or
conceptually appearing to belong together.
• Gestalt, in visual design, helps users perceive the overall design
as opposed to individual elements
• Space is “defined when something is placed in it”,
• Hierarchy shows the difference in significance between items.

• NB: How we apply the Principles of Design determines how

successful we are in creating a work of art
 ROLE OF VISUALS IN
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Allows the student to look at problems differently in a
way they will understand.
Increases student memory of important information.
Builds the students understanding of the “big picture”.
Inspire students
Help students learn more effectively
Increase the student’s interest in the subject matter.
 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
MODELS
• An instructional design model provides guidelines to organize
appropriate pedagogical scenarios to achieve instructional
goals.
• Instructional design can be defined as the practice of
creating instructional experiences to help facilitate learning
most effectively.
• There are numerous instructional design models. These are
commonly accepted design models:
• Assure
• ADDIE
• Dick and Carey
• Kemp Design Model
• Backward Design (Understanding by Design)
 ASSURE: INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN MODEL

• An instructional design model that has the goal of producing

more effective teaching and learning.

• “ASSURE” is an acronym that stands for the various steps in

the model.
 A – ANALYZE LEARNERS
• The first step in the process is that the teacher should
analyze the attributes of his/her learners.

• The analysis of your learners should include:

• The general attributes of your learners, such as age, academic
abilities, gender, interests, etc.
• Prior competencies
• Learning styles, such as auditory, visual, and tactile
 S – STATE STANDARDS
AND OBJECTIVES
• After the analysis of the learner attributes, the teacher must
state standards and objectives for the learning module.
• The mark of a good set of learning objectives is conformity to
the ABCDs of well-stated learning objectives. They are as
follows:
• Audience – For whom is the objective intended?
• Behaviour – What is the behaviour or performance to be
demonstrated?
• Conditions – What are the conditions under which the
behaviour or performance will be observed?
• Degree – To what degree will the knowledge or skill be
mastered?
 S – SELECT STRATEGIES,
TECHNOLOGY, MEDIA, AND
MATERIALS
• Figure out what which delivery method will be best for your
instruction.
• For instance, what proportion of your instruction will be instructor-
centered and what proportion of will be student-centered?
• The first of these are strategies such as lecture, demonstration or
showing a video.
• The second are strategies such as group discussion or
cooperative group work.
• Figure out which technology, media, and materials best support
the method of teaching that you’re using.

• This ranges from simple tools such as chalk and blackboard to

more sophisticated ones such as power-point presentations.
 U – UTILIZE TECHNOLOGY,
MEDIA, AND MATERIALS
• You must make sure that your plans contribute towards
producing the objectives that you have laid down

• It’s important to follow the “five p’s” process to achieve this:

Preview the Technology, Media, and Materials
Prepare the Technology, Media, and Materials
Prepare the Environment
Prepare the Learners
Provide the Learning Experience
 R – REQUIRE LEARNER
PARTICIPATION
• It requires that you make plans to how you are going to
actively engage your students in the material that you are
teaching.
• This needs to be figured out both at the class level and the
individual level.
• The most basic step that you can take is requiring
participation of the students in class discussions.
• A more sophisticated approach would require that students
prepare questions and comments at home to bring into the
class
 E – EVALUATE AND
REVISE
• The final step in the ASSURE process is just as crucial as all
of the others.
• In this step, you evaluate the impact of your teaching on
student learning.
• This includes an evaluation of your teaching strategies and
the technology, media, and materials that you used.
• It requires asking yourself some questions such as did the
lesson meet the objectives, can the lesson be improved, was
the choice of media appropriate, etc.
THE ADDIE MODEL
• Analysis:
• considered as the “Goal-Setting Stage”. The focus is to
distinguish between what the students already know and what
they have to know after completing the course
• Design
• focus is on the learning objectives, content, subject matter
analysis, exercise, lesson planning, assessment instruments
used and media selection
• Development
• use data from previous state to create a program that will relay
what needs to be taught to participants
• stage is all about putting it into action. Thus involves creating
and testing of learning outcomes
• Implementation
• Focus is on the “actual” work and make sure the design is
continuously being evaluated for further improvement.
• Evaluation
 BACKWARD DESIGN AND
BACKWARD COURSE DESIGN
• The focus is typically on how the content will be taught,
rather than on what is to be taught.
• “Teaching is a means to an end. Having a clear goal
helps us educators to focus our planning and guide
purposeful action toward the intended results.”
• Approach consists of three phases:
• identify the desired outcomes;
• determine the acceptable criteria for evaluating
students’ progress; and
• plan the instructional methodologies
 112

COMMUNICATION
 113

WHAT IS
COMMUNICATION?
• The process of transmitting information and common
understanding from one person to another (Keyton, 2011).
• Communication is the human cement that glues our society
and all other cultures together.
• It links us emotionally and intellectually to other individuals,
groups, and institutions.
• Communication is often functionally defined as “the sharing
of experiences” or “the transfer of meaning” or “the
transmission of values” but it is more than the sum of these
actions.
 114

VERBAL, NON-VERBAL, AND

UNINTENDED COMMUNICATION
• Verbal Communication is a message or information
expressed in words, either orally or in writing
• Non-verbal Communication is any gesture or behaviour that
conveys information, often simultaneously with spoken
words
• Unintended Communications are the excess meanings of
utterances; they are the messages received by students
without the teacher’s awareness or desire.
• For instance, a teacher may say, “This section of the text won’t
be on the test, but read it anyway for background.”
• But a student may instead hear the message, “Do not read this
section of the text.”
• What is heard is not what the teacher intended to be heard.
 115

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION
• Daily routines involve very diverse communication
experiences.
• These activities tend to fall into four relatively discrete levels
of communication. These are Intrapersonal, Interpersonal,
Group, and Mass communication.
 116

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
• The four levels of the process of communication can be
visualized along a V-shaped continuum.

Intrapersonal interpersonal Group mass

 117

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION
• Intrapersonal communication describes one person talking to
himself/herself. It is the thought process. All of us think
things through before we speak or act.
• Interpersonal communication may be dyadic (two persons)
or triadic (three people) or it may involve few individuals
communicating with one another in close emotional or
physical proximity.
 118

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
• Group communication covers situations from participating in
a business meeting to going to a class, e.t.c. As the numbers
of people increases, the level of involvement often change.
• Mass communication involves a communicator (nearly
always more than one person) using a mass medium to
communicate with very large audiences.
 119

LEVELS OF
COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
• Four major changes occur as we move to the far right onto
the process of mass communication
1. The number of participants increase.
2. The message becomes less personal, less specialized, and
more general.
3. The audience members become physically and emotionally
separated in time and space from other members and from
the communicator.
4. A mass medium must always be involved for mass
communication to occur.
 120

PURPOSES OF
COMMUNICATION
• To inform. That is, making other people to be aware of
happenings in the society. This could be through instruction,
teaching or through the mass media.
• To affect other people, influence them either through
persuasion or argument.
• To entertain. That is, something that amuses or interest
people.
 121

THE ELEMENTS/
COMPONENTS OF THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
• Sender/Source/Encoder
• Message
• Channel/Medium
• Receiver/Destination/Decoder
• Barrier/Noise factor
• Feedback
 123

COMMUNICATION
REDUNDANCY
• The sender can improve his/her chances of getting attention
at the receivers end, by resorting to communication
redundancy. That is, transmitting a limited amount of
information through the process of repetition. For example,
the teacher repeats key words, write them on the board, asks
students to copy them into their notebooks and then reviews
them frequently.
 PERCEPTION 124

• In communication, perception is important.

• That information comes from somewhere.
• The state of nature is one thing, but more importantly, the
information packages which arrive at the recipient or
perceiver depends on how it gets to the recipient and
therefore on both the sender and on the transmission.
• It refers to the process whereby an individual becomes aware
of events and objects in one’s environments, through the
sensory modalities; hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch.
• For example, think of the perceptual process that occurs
when meeting someone for the first time.
• Your attention is drawn to the individual’s physical
appearance, mannerisms, actions and reactions to what
you say and do.
 COMPONENTS OF
PERCEPTION
• Includes at least two basic components:
• (1) an “objective” component mediated through the senses,
which provide the brain with information about the objects
surrounding us, their descriptions and location, and our
position in relation to them; and
• (2) a “subjective” component that analyses the perceived
objects through the lens of personal experiences, previous
knowledge, and cultural biases.
• For instance, a person born and raised in New York City
sees snow,
• an Eskimo sees a variety of landscapes and resources for
survival
• a Ghanaian….. (your guess)
 126

PHASES OF PERCEPTION
• A correct perception leads to an effective learning. There are
three phases of perception as it relates to communication/
instruction. These are:
• Diffusion,
• Differentiation and
• Integration.
 DIFFUSION
• This phase is when the individual first experience an
event or object.
• The initial response is characterized by haziness (not
too clear).
 128

DIFFERENTIATION:
• This phase describes a level of understanding and
awareness when an individual attempts to discriminate
between different parts of the events or objects being
experienced.
• When a learner begins to give examples and non-
examples of a given concept.
 129

INTEGRATION:
• This phase is the highest level of awareness when the
individual can not only identify more elements of events and
objects but also sees the relationship between these parts.
• The events now make sense to the individual and the event
become very clear and meaningful to the perceiver.

• Perception, communication and learning have things in

common.
 TYPES OF PERCEPTION
• Someone’s perception is his/her reality.
• Perception in communication determines how one will
communicate and how they will receive information from
another person.
• self-perception is the way you perceive yourself.
• The self-perception is based on your self-esteem, self-
concept and self-efficacy.
• Self-esteem is how much you value yourself. Are you
confident or insecure in how you perceive yourself?
• Self-concept is designed by how you think people perceive
you, how you’re perceived in a group setting and your own
perceptions based on past experiences.
• Self-efficacy is the predictions you make about yourself, such
as “No matter what, I’m going to get an “A” grade in my
course.”
COMMUNICATION
MODELS
 132

COMMUNICATION
MODELS
Shannon and Weaver communication models
• The first major model for communication came in 1949
by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories.

• The original model was designed to mirror the

functioning of radio and telephone technologies.
 COMMUNICATION
133

MODELS (CONT)
• Their initial model consisted of three primary parts:
sender, channel, and receiver.

• The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke

into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the
receiver was the part of the phone where one could
hear the other person.

• Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there

is static that interferes with one listening to a telephone
conversation, which they deemed noise.
COMMUNICATION
134

MODELS (CONT)
 COMMUNICATION
135

MODELS (CONT)
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this
model based on the following elements:
• An information source, which produces a
message.
• A transmitter, which encodes the message
into signals
• A channel, to which signals are adapted for
transmission
• A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs)
the message from the signal.
• A destination, where the message arrives.
 136

COMMUNICATION
MODELS (CONT)
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of
problems for communication within this theory.
• The technical problem: how accurately can the message be
transmitted?
• The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning
'conveyed'?
• The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the
received meaning affect behavior?
 137

DAVID K. BERLO CREATED

THE SMCR MODEL IN 1960
• Berlos’ SMCR model breaks up the
communication process into four
components:
• Source,
• Message,
• Channel and
• Receiver
 138

DAVID K. BERLO CREATED

THE SMCR MODEL IN 1960
 139

DAVID K. BERLO CREATED

THE SMCR MODEL IN 1960
• Berlo firmly believed that the most important variables
for successful communication lies in the relationship
between the communicator, known as the Encoder or
Source, and the listener, known as the Receiver or
Decoder.
• He believed that common factors must exist between
the encoder and decoder for successful
communication to occur; as well as an agreed format
of communication, known as a Channel.

email: asareamoahy@yahoo.com
 140

DAVID K. BERLO CREATED

THE SMCR MODEL IN 1960
(CONT.)
• Berlo’s model does not take into account the
possibility for the receiver to respond, comment
or ask further questions when in
communication with the source.
• The model depicts a linear flow from left to
right; that the source begins the communication
and delivers all messages to the receiver.
• In reality, communication is usually a two‐way
or multi‐way process.
OSGOOD AND SCHRAMM’S
141

CIRCULAR MODEL (1961)

THE END