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GENDER STEREOTYPES AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE USAGE

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GENDER STEREOTYPES AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE USAGE
Author: Valentina Bošković, MA
English Language Teacher
Faculty of Business, Singidunum University
E-mail: vboskovic@singidunum.ac.rs
Co- author: Slavko Alčaković, MBA

Author’s Biodata
Miss Valentina Bošković graduated at Faculty of Philology, University of Belgrade, at English
Language Department, where she also finished her Master studies, in the field of American
literature (grade point average: 9.33). She is currently a PhD student at the same faculty. She is
interested in sociolinguistics, particularly in gender studies, language ideology, language policy
and learning English as a second language. Her scientific background includes several articles
about gender equality in Serbia. Miss Bošković has been working as an English language teacher
at Faculty of Business, Singidunum University in Belgrade for three years now.

Co- author’s Biodata

Mr Slavko Alčaković graduated at Faculty of Business in Belgrade, Singidunum University, at
Auditing Department. He finished MBA, Lincoln University, in the field of financial
management and banking. He is currently a PhD student at Singidunum University in the field
of advertising. He is interested in advertising, psychology, neuro- linguistic programming. He is
a certified business practitioner in NLP and certified lecturer of ERP SAP systems. Mr
Alčaković has been working as teacher assistant at Faculty of Business, Singidunum University
in Belgrade for four years now.

ABSTRACT
Along with various social, cultural and political factors, language is one of the biggest
conveyors of prejudices. As speakers of a specific language, consciously or subconsciously, we
tend to depict all our beliefs, values and expectations via our choice of vocabulary, speaking
style, register etc. Moreover, the attitude of speakers towards diverse social issues, such as
gender equality, can be visible through our language usage. Therefore, this paper will present the
idea of gender (in) equality seen from a sociolinguistic and applied linguistic perspective, using
the language as the main means of gender stereotypes.
The paper highlights the influence of the society and the area in which the language is
communicated as one of the main contributors to the speech differences between men and
women, which later on contribute to their social differences. In other words, the differences (or
similarities, if existing) between male and female speech characteristics will be presented in the
paper, taking into consideration the attitude of speakers and their communication habits and
characteristics.

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 The paper also presents a brief research (questionnaire) including men and women who give
their opinion on this topic and who answer relevant questions regarding language usage and
language policy. The questionnaire also includes the group of nouns denoting titles and
professions in male/ female gender and their usage, as it has been shown in some languages that
most of the titles and professions are used mainly for male gender.
In the end, the paper depicts potential solutions to the problems of gender (in) equality in
languages and gives examples of how this issue can be solved.
Key words: gender equality, male/ female titles, language usage, speech differences

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 1. INTRODUCTION
Having in mind that the possession and exchange of information are the most available means
of gaining social power, it should be of no wonder that language ideology, represented mostly
through stereotypes, has an immense role in the process of communication. Therefore, it is
crucial to discover, define and explain the differences in communicative expectations, styles and
habits, most of which are based on chosen or imposed ideology, which is often adopted in our
previous interactive experience.
Since childhood, the upbringing of genders has been based on diverse beliefs. Moreover,
different behavioural patterns are expected of men and women in the process of communication,
depending on ideology and stereotypes. If speakers do not act in compliance with the social
’rules’ of speaking, they become subjects of prejudices and are often marked as ’different’ in
society (Eckert, McConnell- Ginet, 1999).
Namely, diverse ideologies and expectations impose specific verbal behaviour, which can lead
to misunderstanding and confrontation. These expectations are frequently caused on a
subconscious level, with the speakers and interlocutors being completely unaware of the
prejudices which influence their behaviour and which are present since childhood and modified
according to the environment. This paper will name some of these gender stereotypes visible in
language and try to prove their validity, with the help of the questionnaire which has been
submitted in the appendix.

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 2. GENDER STEREOTYPES
2.1 Theoretical and Historical Background
In the beginning of 1970s, the first theories appeared which discussed the issue of gender
differences in language. Deficite theory implied that men owned some characteristics which
women lacked in. In this period, it was still believed that men dominated women in all areas,
which is why occupations were presented only in male gender (Savić, 1995).
In the beginning of the 1980s, the first critiques of deficite theory appeared and a completely
new approach was presented: difference theory, which regarded gender differences as the
consequence of diverse socialization of boys and girls. This approach is also defined as two
cultures theory, as it represents differences which could also be applied to different cultures
(Cameron, 2003).
In the third, contemporary approach, from the beginning of the 1990s, the previous two
theories are juxtaposed and the idea of language activity is created. In other words, once we
describe who, why, and how discusses a topic, we can define the characteristics of their speech
and the power it implies. That is why this approach is called social power theory, since language
is regarded as the means for the creation of social structure and power (Bergvall, 1999).
The cultural representation of gender communication has had several periods and
modifications. Men and women have had various roles in society through history- sometimes
those roles were given by nature, but more often they were imposed by society. What has
remained unchanged is the idea of genders being different in the sense of their social
responsibility, which has always been depicted through appropriate behaviour and acts.
In accordance with deficite theory, main traits of women include the following: modesty,
politeness, empathy, support, cooperation and respect (Savić, 1995). In the past, women were not
regarded as good orators, as they were not given the chance to speak publicly. Consequently,
women have managed to achieve great listening skills, which is why they have more success as
secretaries, call centre operators, etc (Tannen, 1998).
On the other hand, the role of men in communication has always been to provide vigour and
variety (Cameron, 2003), to prove their authority and to provide their interlocutors only with the
necessary information, without irrelevant details. It is noticeable that the role of men in
communication has not been changed dramatically and that it has always been in accordance
with their role in business and entrepreneurship (Tannen & Kendall, 1997).

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 2.2 Characteristics of Male and Female Speech- Basic Stereotypes
Since their childhood, males and females tend not only to speak differently, but to choose
different topics as well. Men would rather discuss sport, computers or military topics, while
women’s world will most often revolve around mutual relationships, interpersonal events and
emotions, with specific details and thorough descriptions (Tannen, 1994). Even when the topic
is the same, men and women approach it from different perspectives. Furthermore, men are
taught to observe world as a hierarchial structure where it is important to have a dominating
status, while women are taught to negotiate and make compromises (Tannen, 1994).
Indirectness is often regarded as the necessary means for representing emotions as implied
without being mentioned. However, not both genders prefer to use this means. Women tend to
use indirectness more ase they establish stronger relationship, while men tend to avoid it
(Tannen, 1982).
Intimacy is another aspect which causes major differences in communication. For women,
intimacy is depicted by sharing secrets and feelings, while men define it by mutual activities.
When stating a problem, women tend to participate by using exclamations of compassion and
agreement, while men consider those interruptions rude and offensive (Tannen, 1982).
Business communication represents most visible stereotypes between genders (Tannen, 1995).
Men’s style implies being more aggressive and assertive, while women are more sensitive and
compassionate (Tannen, 1995). Furthermore, men tend to speak with higher tone and
exclamations at business meetings, while women remain quiet, using sentences which usually
end with a question mark and show modesty and insecurity by using words ’sorry’ and ’please’.
When on a higher position, women tend to decrease their authority by lowering the tone and
highlighting the interlocutors’ values before criticizing their mistakes. If a woman holds a
typically male position, she will copy the male style in conversation and behaviour (Tannen&
Kendall, 1997).
Apart from the scientific research and empirical studies, the general stereotypes suggest that
men are more aggressive, direct, confident, strict and violent, using harsher words and shorter
phrases. Women are considered to be very calm, gentle, talkative, and better at describing things
or situations, which is why they use more adjectives and pronouns. In order to prove these
stereotypes or to refute them, the following research has been conducted.

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3 RESEARCH- QUESTIONNAIRE
3.1 Methodology
The examinees in the questionnaire are 30 male and female undergraduate students at a private
university in Belgrade, Serbia and their foreign language teachers. Five additional examinees are
graduate students of linguistics. In this way, we managed to investigate whether persons with
explicit linguistic knowledge and everyday speakers exercise any differences in their approach to
gender stereotypes.
The questionnaire has been posted online and it was open for 7 days. It has four sections:
1) Examples of sentences produced by males/ females: examinees should choose whether
the sentences offered are produced by males or females and give reasons for their choice.
All sentences are created in accordance with basic characteristics and stereotypes in
language usage;
2) Male/ female characteristics: examinees should choose several characteristics which can
be applied to male or female gender. All characteristics for both genders are the same,
and there is a multiple choice option;
3) Titles: male form of some occupations is presented and the task is to type the female
form;
4) Open question: ’Do you think that there is a difference between men and women in
speech? Why?’

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3.2 Results
3.2.1 Section 1
The examinees had no difficulties in defining whether a sentence was said by a male or a female
and there is no alarming discrepancy in percentage. However, the reasons for their choices vary,
and they sometimes display even bigger stereotypes than expected, even though the gender in
question is chosen appropriately. Most of the stereotypes mentioned are connected with social
aspect.
Figure 1

The sentence represents female manner of speaking due to the polite form of question and the
usage of modal verb ‘could’ and ‘sorry’. This stereotype is noticeable among speakers, but some
examinees are misled by their social expectations, as they claim that men borrow a pen more
often than women. When explaining why they choose the female gender, the examinees claim
that women tend to apologize more and that this is more emotional and cultural form of question.
Figure 2

This sentence is very brief, concise and provides the interlocutor with a simple statement or a
fact. The examinees mostly choose the male gender randomly, without specific arguments.
However, those who have a firm opinion on the issue claim that this sentence is more aggressive,
straightforward, self- certain and impolite. The lack of ‘please’ and ‘sorry’ is also named as one
of the main reasons for choosing male gender.

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Figure 3

This sentence represents a male speaker, with assertive modal verb ‘must’ and a statement.
Although most examinees give the correct answer, most of them do not have the appropriate
explanation. The examinees who give the wrong answer are more radical in their explanations:
they claim that females would always put the blame on others when they have a problem, or that
their computer knowledge is low, which are usual social stereotypes.

Figure 4

This sentence represents a female speaker, as it shows uncertainty (‘guess’) and apology
(‘sorry’). Most examinees notice that women tend to be more apologetic and careful when
describing a problem to which there is no solution. On the other hand, some examinees choose
the wrong answer as they always connect the Internet with men.

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Figure 5

This sentence is the most efficient example of gender stereotypes which have their implicit
representation in language. Namely, it is believed that women pay more attention to specific
details, especially when it comes to appearances. Furthermore, females own broader vocabulary
regarding clothes and colours. It is clear that the examinees are aware of these characteristics and
know how to recognize them in speech.

Figure 6

Unlike the previous example, this sentence is concise, simple and gives no unnecessary details.
However, the results show that the examinees were less certain about gender than in the previous
example. The reason for that is the usage of adjectives ‘blue’ and ‘elegant’, as men are believed
not to be able to differentiate between various colours, which led some examinees into believing
that females are speakers in this example.

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 3.2.2 Section 2

Figure 7

When asked to choose the most noticeable male characteristics, most examinees highlight
professionalism, intelligence and independence, whereas characteristics such as insecurity,
emotions and spontaneity have the lowest percentage. This chart confirms common gender
stereotypes, with males being dominant and without showing any weakness or emotion.

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Figure 8

The characteristic which dominates in this chart is ‘emotional’, which is closely followed by
‘attractive’ and ‘complicated’. Neither of these characteristics is chosen as a male trait, while the
top three male characteristics are below 10 % in this chart, with intelligence which is rated in the
same percentage. When compared, these two charts represent completely diverse characteristics
between genders, which proves the idea of gender prejudices in society.

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3.2.3 Section 3
The nouns that should be written in the female form are: ‘writer’, ‘actor’, ‘pilot’, ‘artist’,
‘chairman’, ‘journalist’. The example which is publicly used in both male and female form is
also given as answer in the questionnaire (‘actress’). The nouns ‘writer’, ‘journalist’ and ‘pilot’
have no marked female form. However, what is interesting to notice is the answer for the noun
‘chairman’- although there are nouns ‘chairperson’ and ‘chair’, only 2% of the examinees gives
these answers, while 98% leaves the same form for both genders.

3.2.4 Section 4
Most examinees claim that there are differences between genders in language usage, but a very
low percentage of them can actually define what those differences are. Some examinees claim
that there are exact differences in perception of reality which translate to different ways in which
that same reality is presented or communicated through speech. It usually depends on various
situations- if the conversation is performed between men and women or between the same
gender. Each group has different patterns of speech they use when interacting with each other.
Furthermore, some examinees believe that the environment matters more than gender. The
lowest number of examinees believes that there is no difference between genders, or that it is
irrelevant.

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3. CONCLUSION
Along with various social, cultural and political factors, language is most certainly one of the
biggest conveyors of prejudices. Consciously or subconsciously, we tend to depict all our beliefs,
values and expectations via our choice of vocabulary, speaking style, etc. Moreover, the attitude
of speakers towards diverse social issues, such as gender equality, can be visible through our
language usage.
As the results of the questionnaire show, there are many dichotomies between genders and
their language usage, starting from diverse expectations and vocabulary, through the usage of
power, solidarity and indirectness, to the habits of interruption and exclamation. However, in
order to ameliorate the communication between genders, it is not enough to define those
dichotomies, but to accept them and learn how to recognize them and comply with them. Apart
from understanding the differences, it is also crucial to recognize the similarities in
communication, as they can be of great help in bridging the gaps between genders.
According to the research, what is regarded as crucial in successful communication today is
not gender, but communicative competence. The essential skill is the ability to share personal
feelings and information, the ability to hold adequate interpersonal relations and the ability to
discuss life issues, and it has been proven that both men and women own some of these skills,
but it is a rare occurence that one man or one woman owns all of these traits. That is why
successful orators today are speakers who can combine traditional masculine characteristics of
authority, entrepreneurship and leadership and female characteristics of emotional expressivity
and understanding.

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REFERENCE LIST:

1. Bergvall, V. (1999) Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Language and Gender,

Language in Society 28, Cambridge University Press, p. 273- 293.
2. Cameron, D. (2003) Gender and Language Ideologies, The Handbook of Language and
Gender, Oxford University Press, p. 447- 481.
3. Cameron, D. (2003) Gender Issues in Language Change, Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics 23, Cambridge University Press, p. 187- 201.
4. Eckert, P, McConnell- Ginet, S. (1999) New Generalizations and Explanations in
Language and Gender Research, Language in Society 28, Cambridge University Press,
p. 185- 201.
5. Savić, Svenka (1995) Jezik i pol- Istrazivanja kod nas (Language and Gender- Research
in Serbia), Gender Studies 2-3, Belgrade, p. 228- 244.
6. Tannen, D, Kendall, S. (1997) Gender and Language in the Workplace, Gender and
Discourse, ed. by R. Wodak, SAGE Publications, London, p. 81- 105.
7. Tannen, D. (1982) Ethnic Style in Male- Female Conversation, Language and Social
Identity, Cambridge University Press, p. 217- 231.
8. Tannen, D. (1994) The Talk of the Sandbox; How Johnny and Suzy’s Playground Chatter
Prepares Them for Life at the Office, The Washington Post, 11th December
9. Tannen, D. (1995) The Power of Talk, Harvard Business Review, September- October, p.
138- 148.
10. Tannen, D. (1998) Talk in the Intimate Relationship: His and Hers, Language and
Gender, A Reader, Oxford University Press, p. 435- 445.

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 APPENDIX
Questionnaire

GENDER STEREOTYPES AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE USAGE

Gender: male female
Age: 18- 25 26- 30 31- 35
Occupation: graduate student postgraduate student teacher linguist

I Who (male or female) do you think said these sentences and why do you think so?
1. Sorry, could you lend me your pen?
2. I will borrow your pen.
3. The Internet must have stopped working.
4. Sorry, I guess something went wrong with the Internet.
5. She was wearing a shiny, turquoise and a very smart dress with short sleeves and a
cleavage.
6. She was wearing a blue elegant dress.

II Do you think the following characteristics are owned by men, women or both?
1. Intelligent
2. Attractive
3. Spontaneous
4. Complicated
5. Professional
6. Strict
7. Emotional
8. Competent
9. Self- assured
10. Independent
11. Insecure
12. Communicative

III Give the female form of the following nouns:

1. Actor
2. Journalist
3. Chairman
4. Pilot
5. Writer
6. Artist

IV Do you think that there is a difference between men and women in speech? Why?

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