QS-9000 ISO 9001 ISO 14001

CAST IRON
INOCULATION
THE TECHNOLOGY OF GRAPHITE SHAPE CONTROL

www.elkem.no
CAST IRON INOCULATION
This brochure describes some of the conditions in the production of cast iron
which call for the addition of an inoculant to ensure the reliable production of a
sound, strong, machinable casting. The mechanism of inoculation and graphite
nucleation in cast iron during solidification is also described.

Synopsis
Two irons have virtually the same chemical composition. One was melted and alloyed in the furnace with the
desired content of silicon. The other was brought to the same composition by furnace alloying combined with a
controlled late ferrosilicon inoculant addition in the ladle. The two irons will show remarkable differences in their
microstructure and mechanical properties. The reason for these differences is that the second iron was inoculated
with an alloy containing important nuclei forming trace elements.

What is Inoculation of Cast Iron?

Inoculation is a means of controlling
the structure and properties of cast
iron by minimizing undercooling and
increasing the number of nucleation
sites during solidification. An
inoculant is a material added to the
liquid iron just prior to casting that will
provide a suitable phase for
nucleation of graphite during the
subsequent cooling. Traditionally,
inoculants have been based on
graphite, ferrosilicon or calcium
silicide. The most popular inoculants
today are ferrosilicon containing small
quantities of elements such as Al, Ba,
Ca, Sr, RE, and Zr.
chilled structures are undesirable.
Chilled structures interfere with
machining, necessitate additional
heat treating operations, result in
non-conformance with
specifications and, in general,
increase the total cost of production.
Inoculation changes the structure
of cast iron by altering the
solidification process. A look at the
solidification of hypoeutectic grey
iron (iron with a carbon equivalent
below 4.3%) helps in understanding
the effects of inoculation.
section thickness and other
conditions, the metal will cool below
the eutectic temperature before the
start of final solidification. If the
undercooling is slight, random
graphite flakes form uniformly in the
iron matrix. This is known as Type A
graphite. As the undercooling
increases, the graphite will branch,
forming abnormal patterns. This is
known as Type B and D graphite. A
further increase in undercooling will
suppress the formation of graphite
and result in a hard iron carbide
structure.

The purpose of inoculation is to aid
in providing enough nucleation sites
for the carbon to precipitate as
graphite rather than iron carbide
(cementite, Fe3C). This is done by
preventing undercooling to
temperatures below the metastable
eutectic where carbidic (white)
structures are formed. The iron
solidification mechanism is prone to
form chilled iron structures when the
inoculation is inadequate, and there
are several reasons why
The first metal to solidify in
hypoeutectic grey iron is primary
austentite. As cooling continues, the
remaining iron grows richer in
dissolved carbon. Eventually, this
liquid reaches the eutectic
composition of 4.3% carbon
equivalent, at which final or eutectic
solidification starts under
equilibrium conditions. Equilibrium
solidification, however, does not
occur under most foundry
conditions. Due to variations in
chemistry, pouring temperature,
solidification rate,
The role of the inoculant is to
produce nuclei in the liquid iron melt
which enhance the graphite
nucleation at very small under-
coolings. This will, in turn, promote
the formation of Type A graphite
structures in grey cast irons, and a
high number of small graphite
nodules in ductile cast irons.

Superseed, Ultraseed, Foundrisil, Barinoc, Zircinoc and Reseed

are
Registered Trademarks owned by Elkem ASA

2
 1. Structure and Phases in Cast Iron
The structure of cast iron has a
dominant influence on strength and
machinability, and in order to obtain
a machinable grey iron structure for
thin sections, the addition of an
inoculant to molten iron is widely
practiced and often absolutely
necessary. For convenience,
potential difficulties with
machinability can be determined by
carrying out a hardness test (Brinell
hardness) on iron castings and, in
general, machinability improves
with decreasing hardness.
The cast iron structure can be
influenced at two distinct stages in
the production route:
- during solidification
- during heat treatment
However, for economic reasons,
the desired structure should be
Analysis (%)*
Phase
Fe
achieved during solidification
without the necessity for heat
treatment.
The microstructure of an iron
casting consists of several phases,
each having varying levels of
carbon, iron and other elements
present. Table 1 shows the analysis
and specific densities of the solid
and liquid phases which take part in
the solidification process. When
solidification is complete, the
following combination of phases
may be found:
1. Austenite + Graphite
=> GREY structure
2. Austenite + Graphite +
Cementite
=> MOTTLED structure
3. Austentite + Cementite
=> WHITE structure
Specific
Density
(g/cm3)
C
This review demonstrates that
solidification results in a minimum of
two solid phases, and austenite is
present in all the phase
combinations. As the casting cools,
the austenite subsequently
transforms to pearlite and/or ferrite
at a lower temperature (eutectoid
transformation).
Of all the solid phases listed
above, cementite has the highest
hardness (~660 HB), whilst graphite
is a relatively soft material of low
density, which can act as a lubricant.
Hardness and machinability of the
as-cast structure are, therefore,
influenced by the relative amounts
of cementite and graphite, with
austenite playing only a minor role.

Melt 94.6 - 93.6 3-4 6.9

Austenite 96.9 - 96.5 0.7 - 1.1 7.8

Table 1: Approximate analysis and
Cementite 93.3 6.7 7.7 specific densities of phases in the
0 100
solidification range of cast iron with
Graphite 2.2
2.4% Si.

2. Structure Stability
A metastable white or mottled
structure can be transformed into a
stable grey structure by annealing,
but the reverse transformation is not
possible as the stable structure
represents the lowest possible
energy level (at a given temperature
and composition). The graphite
produced by annealing will have a
different structure to that formed
during solidification. Cementite,
austenite and liquid iron have
similar densities and all contain
carbon in solution (see Table 1). No
major redistribution of the atom
species is required for a white
structure to be produced during
solidification.
However, the formation of a stable
grey structure containing graphite is
quite different. Graphite precipitated
from molten iron is virtually pure
carbon, and since it has a lower
specific density than the alternative encourages the formation of a grey
phases, a major redistribution of structure with good machinability
atoms is required to develop a and discourages a hard white
stable structure. A slow rate of structure.
solidification is therefore more likely
to produce a grey iron structure.
The precipitation of cementite,
requiring less atom redistribution
than graphite, will be more likely
during solidification. This can be
demonstrated by examining a
typical wedge test specimen. The
narrow tip of the wedge solidifies at
a faster rate than the thicker section
at the base of the wedge, and will
show a white structure whilst the
area of slow cooling at the base will
display a grey structure (see Figure
1). Consequently, a slow rate of
solidification (slow cooling rate) and
a small value of undercooling
Figure 1: Chill wedge with fast solidifying
‘white’ tip and slowly cooled ‘grey’ base.

3
 3. Influence of Analysis on the As-Cast Structure
Within the composition of cast
iron, graphitizing elements will
promote the bond carbon-carbon to
produce graphite in the as-cast
structure, whereas carbide
stabilizing elements promote the
bond carbon-iron and cementite will
appear in the structure. Table 2 lists
a number of such stabilizing
elements.
As an example, in malleable cast
irons the need for the as-cast
structure to solidify white
determines that the silicon level is
much lower than in grey irons. Also,
since chromium is a carbide
promoting element it has to be kept
at a low level to allow transformation
to a graphitic structure during
subsequent heat treatment.
In normal furnace charge can also display a similar variable
materials, steel and external cast response to inoculation due to
iron scrap may be heterogeneous fluctuating trace element contents.
materials, especially on different A more consistent response to
deliveries, with contents of Cr, Cu, inoculation is attainable by adopting
Sn, Sb, V, Mo, Ti, etc., depending on a charge containing a reasonable
the original source and ultimately on proportion of ore-based pig iron due
the ability of the scrap dealer. Pig to its low level of trace elements of
iron produced from steel scrap the carbide stabilizing type.
Controlling the concentration of
trace elements allows the
foundryman a means of promoting
grey as-cast structures and, also,
Graphitizing Carbide Promoting
Elements Elements helps in avoiding other undesirable
Silicon Vanadium effects of trace elements on
Phosphorus Chromium microstructure and properties.
Aluminium Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Cobalt Tungsten
Copper Nitrogen
Calcium Magnesium
Barium Rare Earths
Strontium

Table 2: Graphitizing and carbide

promoting elements

4. Influence of Nuclei on the Solidification Structure

When crystallization of eutectic
cast iron in chilled specimens is
studied, a gradual advance of the
solidification front is revealed.
Transformation does not take place
instantaneously or uniformly over a
cross section. Initial solidification
occurs at the surface from distinct
crystallization centres and after
some time a solid/liquid interface
forms. Other isolated crystallization
centres are active in the remaining
melt and initiate the formation of
solid (see Figure 2). These isolated
areas are called eutectic cells.
Eventually, cells grow at the
expense of the liquid, and a solid
cast structure develops. Each
eutectic cell consists of graphite and
austenite with graphite as the
primary phase. Its precipitation is
initiated by randomly distributed
crystallization centres, called nuclei.
These nuclei offer favourable sites
Figure 2: Solidification of
near-eutectic iron. 2)
for the deposition of carbon atoms
and, subsequently, precipitation of
graphite and austenite onto existing
graphite continues.
The morphology of these cells for
grey iron shows a marked difference
with that for nodular iron, as can be
seen from Figure 3.
- Grey iron: graphite lamellae start
growing from a common centre and
stay in contact with the melt as
austenite fills the spaces between
the lamellae.
- Nodular iron: a graphite nodule
forms first and is surrounded by
austenite at a later stage.
In eutectic nodular iron, the nodule
number is virtually identical with the
number of eutectic cells. The
mechanism described is for eutectic
solidification and is not influenced by
the presence of kish (primary)
graphite or austenite dendrites.
The nuclei substances can be
more easily observed in nodular
graphite iron than in grey iron, since it
is easy to locate the centre of a
graphite spheroid. Measurements

lamellar nodular
Austenite Austenite

Graphite Graphite
Figure 3: Eutectic cells for lamellar

4
have shown that the nuclei are sulphide and magnesium silicate in problems as the original nucleus
between 0.5 to 2.0 microns in nodularized ductile irons.1) A similar of the irregular shaped graphite
diameter, with a bulk chemical investigation of nuclei composition flakes within the eutectic cell is
composition of magnesium for grey iron presents greater much more difficult to pinpoint.

5. Prerequisites for Successful Inoculation

5.1 Number of Nuclei
About 2.4wt% graphite and
97.6wt% austenite are formed
during the crystallization of eutectic
(nodular) cast iron, which
corresponds to approximately
8 vol% graphite and 92 vol%
austenite. The mean diameter of
graphite nodules is usually between
10-80 microns, although lower and
higher values are possible. This
leads to about 3000 to 30,000
nodules per cubic millimetre
depending on the section size
(cooling rate) of the casting. The
total number of possible nuclei for
graphite(inclusions) will be at least
one order of magnitude larger than
this graphite nodule density. This
means that the number of inclusions
or possible nuclei for graphite is at
least 100,000 per cubic millimetre,
and that only a small fraction of
these nuclei actually nucleates
graphite during solidification.1) Table
3 gives examples of number
densities and mean particle sizes
for nuclei and graphite nodules in
ductile cast iron under various
inoculation conditions.
As can be seen from the Table, the
number and mean size of nuclei
particles are unaffected by the
inoculant addition, although the
nodule characteristics obtained
after solidificaton are strongly
dependent on the type of inoculant
used. These findings will be
discussed below.
The calculations used to generate
these figures contain certain
assumptions, but one can safely
conclude that:
- the number of nuclei per volume of
melt is extremely high, and
approximately one order of
magnitude larger than the number
of graphite nodules actually
nucleated;
- the ability of the particles to
nucleate graphite is strongly
affected by the inoculant addition.
In order to obtain a nucleation
event, a certain degree of
undercooling during solidification is
required. But since different nuclei
phases initiate graphite nucleation
at different undercooling levels, it is
preferable to have a large number of
nuclei particles which can initiate
nucleation at very small
undercooling. This is achieved by
the addition of an inoculant to the
melt just prior to casting.
5.2 Constituents of an Inoculant
Most of the inoculant material is
so-called ‘carrier’ material which is
doped with a minor additive
(“nucleant”) which produces
nucleating particles in the iron melt.
These particles will, in turn, initiate
the crystallization of graphite. The
carrier (e.g. silicon and iron
combined as ferrosilicon) should
have the following characteristics:
- provide fast and homogeneous
distribution of the nucleant in the
melt
- have a composition which is
compatable to the analysis of the
melt
- form an alloy between the nucleant
and the carrier
- be cost efficient

Trials using very pure ferrosilicon

as an inoculant have demonstrated
1,3,4)
that it does not have any
NUCLEI PARTICLES GRAPHITE NODULES nucleating effect for graphite, as
shown in Table 3. The nucleant
CASE INOCULANT NN(mm-3) DN( m) VN NG(mm-3) DG( m) VG(%) (e.g. Ca, Sr, Ba or Al) only needs a
limited presence and it is beneficial
1 Foundrisil 2.1x105 1.1 5.4x10-4 1.8x104 20.6 11 if the nucleant forms an alloy with
the carrier. Also, the nucleant must
2 Superseed 1.1x105 1.1 3.3x10-4 1.7x104 23.3 10 have a limited solubility in cast iron,
and form stable compounds with the
3 Pure Ferrosilicon 1.9x105 1.0 1.9x10-4 0.3x104 18.2 1 other elements forming the nuclei
particles (e.g. sulphur and oxygen).
4 None 1.1x105 1.0 2.3x10-4 0.3x104 17.8 3 Good nucleation effect may be
achieved if the ferrosilicon contains
where NN is the 3-D nuclei number density (per mm3), DN is the mean 3-D small but controlled amounts of
nuclei diameter ( m), VN is the volume fraction of nuclei, NG is the 3-D nodule calcium, strontium or barium in the
number density (per mm3), DG is the mean 3-D nodule diameter ( m), and VG range of 0.6 to 2.0%.
is the volume fraction of graphite (in per cent).

Table 3: Examples of nuclei and nodule number densities, mean nuclei and nodule
diameters (in microns) and volume fractions of nuclei and graphite (in per cent) in ductile
iron castings inoculated with various inoculants.1)

5
5.3 Composition of the Nuclei
Laboratory test results are used in
the following paragraphs to explain
the role of calcium as an example of
a trace element behaving as the
nucleant in ferrosilicon. Calcium will
occur in ferrosilicon as a silicide
(CaSi2). Calcium has virtually no
solubility in iron melts, and reacts
with components in the melt to form
sulphides and oxides.
In magnesium treated cast irons,
the inclusions contain mainly
magnesium, calcium, sulphur,
silicon and oxygen. These are
primary reaction products of the
magnesium treatment. The
inclusions are composed of a
sulphide core and a faceted outer
silicate shell.
The sulphide core contains both
MgS and CaS, while the outer shell
consists of complex magnesium
silicates (e.g. MgO SiO2, 2MgO
SiO2). These phases will
not act as potent nucleation sites for
CaO SiO2 or
graphite during solidification
because of a large nucleus/graphite
CaO AI2O3 2SiO2 }
interfacial energy barrier.
The interfacial energy barrier is the
controlling factor in heterogeneous
nucleation behaviour.
After inoculation with a Ca- MgS
CaS
containing ferrosilicon, hexagonal
silicate phases of the CaO SiO2 and
the CaO Al2O3 2SiO2 type will form at
the surface of the existing oxide MgO SiO2
2MgO SiO2
inclusions produced during
nodularization. These silicates will
act as very favourable nucleation
sites for graphite during Figure 5: Schematic representation of an
solidification, due to their hexagonal inclusion after inoculation with a calcium
crystal structure which matches the containing ferrosilicon. The surface layer
graphite crystal lattice very well (i.e. of calcium silicates is the effective phase
low energy interface). Figure 4 for graphite nucleation. 1)
shows a typical inclusion in ductile
cast iron which is formed after
nodularization, while Figure 5 gives
a schematic representation of the
inclusion composition after

inoculation. The surface shell

contains hexagonal calcium
silicates formed during inoculant
addition, while the bulk particle is a
product of the nodularization
treatment. Hence, the inoculation
does not increase the total number
of nuclei particles in the melt, but
rather modifies the surface of the
already existing products from
nodularization. This explains why
the number density of particles in
uninoculated and inoculated ductile
iron melts are the same (Table 3),
while the resulting nodule numbers
Figure 4: Transmission electron micrograph of duplex sulphide/oxide inclusion in will differ greatly due to the inclusion
ductile cast iron. 1) surface modification.

When inoculation is carried out

Inoculant %Si %Ca %Ba %Sr %Zr %RE %Al
with a strontium or barium
Superseed®75 73 - 78 0.1 max 0.6 - 1.0 0.5max containing ferrosilicon inoculating
Superseed®50 46 - 50 0.1 max 0.6 - 1.0 0.5max
hexagonal silicates equivalent to
the calcium silicates (CaO SiO2 and
Superseed®Extra 73 - 78 0.1 max 0.6 - 1.0 1.0 - 1.5 0.5max
CaO Al2O3 2SiO2) will be formed (i.e.
Superseed®Quantum 72 - 78 0.1 max 0.8 - 1.2 1.8 - 2.2 0.5max SrO SiO2,SrO Al 2O3 2SiO2, BaO SiO2
Ultraseed® 70 - 76 0.75 - 1.25 0.75 - 1.25* 0.75 - 1.25 and BaO Al2O3 2SiO2)
Foundrisil® 73 - 78 0.75 - 1.25 0.75 - 1.25 0.75 - 1.25

Barinoc® 72 - 78 1.0 - 2.0 2.0 - 3.0 1.5max

Zircinoc® 73 - 78 2.0 - 2.5 1.3 - 1.8 1.0 - 1.5

Reseed® 72 - 78 0.5 - 1.0 1.8 - 2.1 0.5 - 1.25

TM
Alinoc 70 - 75 0.5 - 1.5 3.5 - 4.5

*Rare Earth present as Cerium, total added sulphur and oxygen content of this inoculant
is less than 1%. Table 4: Inoculants produced by Elkem

6
5.4 Specification of Inoculants
The chemical composition and
reliability of the analysis from lot to
lot is important if a ferro alloy is to be
considered as a good and
consistent inoculant. Many
foundrymen insist on silicon and
phosphorus analyses in pig iron, but
pay little attention to the analysis of
an inoculant.The preceding
paragraphs indicate quite clearly
that the minor constituents in ferro
alloys, not the major constituents
(usually silicon),are critical for the
performance as inoculants. All the
Elkem inoculants are alloys that
have been smelted and alloyed to
the quoted specifications, and with
the exception of Ultraseed, no
further additions have to be
mechanically blended with the alloy.
The analysis guaranteed by the
specification ensures consistent
inoculant properties from lot to lot.
The inoculants listed in Table 4 differ
by analysis, price and application.
Elkem’s foundry experts can give
detailed information on each
inoculant and its individual features,
and also suggestion as to the most
suitable alloy for a specific foundry
condition.
5.5 Addition Technique
Chemical considerations alone
will not ensure satisfactory results
since equal attention must be paid
to addition technique. For ladle
inoculation this means a continuous
addition of inoculant to the stream of
iron so that the high turbulence
encourages fast and homogeneous
distribution of the alloy. Stream
inoculation may be practised, in
conjunction with automatic pouring
furnaces, using finer sized grades
of the above inoculants at smaller
addition rates. Similarly, inoculant
fade can be overcome by reducing
the time interval between the
inoculant addition and solidification
by placing the inoculant piece, or
granules, into the gating system.
The reaction with liquid iron occurs
within the mould and this is known
as in-mould inoculation.
Fading is the decrease in
inoculation effect with increasing
time taken to pour inoculated iron.
Elkem inoculants have been
assessed against untreated
reference melts and even after 10
minutes the inoculation effect of the
treated melt proved to be good.
Provided ladle inoculation has been
carried out in a satisfactory way and
the ladle is not delayed for an
excessive period before pouring,
the need for mould inoculation can
be avoided.

6. Control of Inoculation
Although nuclei cannot be Conversely, when the inversion formation of white iron. In the iron-
observed directly at solidification point is at a low level on the cooling carbon system there is only a 7oC
temperatures, they have an effect curve, there will be a tendency for temperature interval between
on some properties which can be cementite to precipitate in place of “grey” solidification and sufficient
measured by: graphite giving a “white” structure. An undercooling to cause “white”
increased cooling rate, as found in solidification. In Figure 6 the cooling
- recording cooling curves thin sections, will increase the degree curve for an uninoculated reference
- measuring depth of chill in chill of undercooling which must be melt is compared with a curve from a
wedges balanced by an increased number of melt inoculated with 0.25wt%
- counting the number of eutectic active nuclei to avoid the inoculant addition.
cells
- counting the number of graphite
nodules. 1300

6.1 Cooling Curves

1260

Cooling curves record the drop or

increase in temperature with time as 1220
a consequence of a change of
Temperature (OC)

energy within the system. A

1180
deviation from normal cooling
indicates the occurrence of a source
of heat such as the heat of 1140
crystallization released by a
precipitating phase. The location of
1100
the inversion points on the generally
S-shaped cooling curve in the
region of eutectic crystallization 1060
indicates the tendency of the melt to
solidify “grey” or “white”. A high level 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
of nucleation promotes a higher Time (min)
arrest temperature which, by
avoiding the white eutectic, will
result in less risk of carbide
formation. Figure 6: Solidification curves for (a) uninoculated ductile cast iron, and (b) inoculated
ductile cast iron (30mm section size).1)

7
The uninoculated melt shows
inversion at 1145o C whereas
inversion occurs at 1162oC for the
inoculated melt. This means that the
uninoculated melt is undercooled by
20oC and the inoculated melt by 3oC,
which gives “white” and “grey”
solidification, respectively.
6.2 Chill Testing - Regular and
Forced Chill Tests
The traditional method to determine
the tendency of a melt to solidify
“grey” and “white” is by examining
chill wedges. The larger the zone of
white iron, the fewer the number of
nuclei were active in initiating a
“grey” solidification. Figure 7 shows
chill wedges from a foundry which
had an average 11.2mm of chill for a
period of two weeks on
uninoculated cupola iron. By adding
0.2% FeSi (85% Si), the average
chill depth was reduced and with
0.125% Superseed addition, the
chill depth was reduced even
further.
7. Fading of Inoculation
7.1 Principal Effects
The effects of inoculation are at a
maximum immediately after the
addition of the inoculant. The rate of
inoculant fading, which depends
upon the composition of the
inoculant and of the iron to which it is
added, may be very rapid and much
of the inoculating effect may be lost
in the first few minutes after the
addition. The principal effects of
fading are:
1) to cause greater undercooling to
take place during eutectic
solidification and to lead to a
greater tendency to chilling in
grey and ductile cast irons,
particularly in thin sections;
2) to reduce the number of nodules
formed in ductile iron and to
cause a deterioration in their
shape. If sufficiently severe, the
deterioration in shape may affect
8
Figure 7: Cupola melted grey cast iron
(2.6X); no inoculation (left), inoculated with
0.2wt% FeSi85% (centre), and inoculated
with 0.125wt% Superseed (right)
Inoculant
Addition%
0 3.13 - 3.25
0.1
0.2
0.4
*0.51 - 0.55% Mn; 0.10 - 0.11% S; 0.10 - 0.11% P
Table 5: Eutectic cell count (30mm round bars)
the mechanical properties of the
casting;
3) to reduce the number of eutectic
cells growing in flake graphite
irons resulting in a less uniform
size distribution of graphite in the
casting and a reduction in
mechanical properties.
There are some well established
facts concerning fading which are of
practical significance:
1) all iron/steel treating inoculants
fade;
2) there is no period after inoculation
during which fading does not
occur. To obtain the maximum
effect, metal should be cast as
soon as possible after the
addition of inoculant;
3) some inoculants fade more
slowly than others;
6.3 Eutectic Cell Count
The number of eutectic cells in grey
irons can be determined on etched
microspecimens. If an effective
inoculant has been added to the
melt, there will be a large number of
active nuclei to promote graphite
precipitation at low undercooling
during solidification. This will be
represented on the microspecimen
by a high cell count for grey irons
and a high nodule count for ductile
irons. Table 5 shows the result of cell
counts after inoculation. The
eutectic cell number increases as
the inoculant addition to the base
melt is increased.
Analysis (%)*
Eutectic Cell
Count
C Si
1.69 - 1.76 750 - 1000
3.21 - 3.24 1.81 - 1.83
1000 - 1550
3.23 - 3.25 1.80 - 1.83 1550 - 1950
3.17 - 3.18 1.91 - 1.94 1950 - 2300
4) inoculating effects vary according
to inoculant composition. It is
desirable that foundries should
carry out tests to determine
which is the most suitable
inoculant for their purpose.
7.2 Coarsening of Inclusions
It is a well known fact that graphite
nucleation occurs from non-metallic
inclusions in the melt. A significant
coarsening of these inclusions
occurs within the time interval
between inoculation and
solidification of the cast iron. This
coarsening of inclusions will result in
a reduction in the inclusion number
density, consequently reducing the
graphite nucleation frequency.
Hence, the fading of inoculation can
be explained by this coarsening of
the inclusion population with time.
Due to the coarsening, the total
number of possible nucleation sites
for graphite during solidification is 5 x 105
reduced. Figure 8 shows a plot of
the number density of inclusions in
cast iron as a function of holding
time after inoculation. The shape of 4 x 105
the curve is in close agreement with
experimental observations of

Inclusion number (per mm )

fading.

3
3 x 105
7.3 Effects of Various Inoculants

Inoculants lose their ability to

reduce chill and nucleate graphite if 2 x 105

the metal is held for extended

periods before casting. However,
inoculants have different fading
1 x 105
characteristics. The barium-
containing inoculant Foundrisil
produces a high initial number of
nucleation sites throughout the 0
holding period, thus making it an 0 10 20 30
excellent inoculant for ladle
treatments. Foundrisil is an effective Holding time (min)
chill reducer for both low and high
sulphur grey irons as well as ductile
irons. Another effective inoculant
that maintains the inoculation effect Figure 8: Coarsening behavior of inclusions in liquid cast iron during holding.1)
is the strontium-containing
Superseed inoculant. Figure 9
shows the fading characteristics of
different inoculants in cast iron.

10
Grey iron
Eutecitic cells/sq.mm

6
1
2
4 3

2
0 4 8 12 16 20

100
Ductile iron

80
Nodules/sq.mm

1
60
2

40

20
3
0
Figure 9: Fading characteristics for various 0 4 8 12 16 20
inoculants in cast iron.
Time after inoculation (min)
1. Foundrisil, 2. Superseed, and
3. Foundry Grade ferrosilicon

9
 8. Inoculation and Cast Iron Properties
8.1 Inoculation and Strength 8.2 Inoculation and unmachinable white iron structures.
Machinability
Inoculation increases the Inoculation also reduces section
number of eutectic cells (or nodules) a) inoculation increases the number sensitivity. While uninoculated irons
which leads to a finer structure of the of potent nuclei which will will show a wide variation in
iron, and in particular, this will cause promote graphite nucleation at hardness, inoculated grey or
an increase in tensile strength in low undercooling; nodular cast irons will show more
hypoeutectic irons. Figure 10 shows consistent hardness values over a
the increase in tensile strength by b ) i m p r o v e d m a c h i n a b i l i t y i s wide range of sections (see Figure
adding an inoculant. a c h i e v e d b y i n o c u l a t i o n 11)
suppressing the formation of
hard

310
300
Tensile strength N/mm2

0.80
290
262* 255* 248* 229* 223* 223 235 223 217 217 212 217
280
270
Inoculant Addition (%)

260 0.40
293* 262* 260* 241* 235* 235* 235 235 228 228 228 241
250
0.25 . 0.50 0.75 1.00
Inoculant Addition (%)

0.25
Figure 10: Increasing inoculant additions 415** 285* 285 255* 235* 241* 241 241 235 228 228 241

improve tensile strength. The final

analyses of these trial melts are identical
after inoculation. 0
469** 477** 453** 415* 260 255* 248 228 228 223 223 235
Figure 11: The wall thickness sensitivity of
(Brinell) hardness can be reduced by an 3.2 6.4 12.7 25.4

inoculant (partly calculated from Rockwell - Section Size (mm)

B* and -C**)

9. Inoculation and Shrinkage

The solidification of “grey” cast increased volume of the mould dilation of the mould although mould
iron is characterized by the cavity becomes too great for geometry will have an influence.
formation of a skin type array of compensation by graphite
eutectic cells at the mould/metal precipitation at the end of Unfortunately, inoculation changes
interface, followed by the solidification. Some shrinkage may the mode of solidification in such a
development of eutectic cells ahead occur as a result of excessive way that the rigidity of the
of the advancing solidification front.
Newly formed graphite
compensates partly or fully for the
liquid iron contraction, provided it
precipitates within a relatively rigid
“skin” which is characteristic of Inoculation grade FeSi Superseed

uninoculated “grey” cast iron.

However, if the mode of
solidification is changed, the good
shrinkage characteristics can be
jeopardized, especially if a rigid skin
cannot be developed at the
mould/metal interface leaving the
mould directly exposed to ferrostatic
pressure. Eventually, the mould
may yield under the ferrostatic
pressure from the remaining liquid, Figure 12: Comparison of the eutectic cell
and the count in 5mm sections at about equal chill
depth (from BCIRA)

10
“skin” is decreased. Inoculant
additions should not become
excessive to avoid shrinkage and
yet the addition should be adequate
to ensure “grey” solidification. Test
specimens in Figure 12 show that
for an equivalent chill depth, the
eutectic cell count will be lower
when using Superseed in place of
inoculating grade ferrosilicon. The
lower cell count reduces the
ferrostatic pressure on the mould
and improves the tendency to avoid
shrinkage defects.
Since the eutectic cell count for
nodular cast iron is much higher
than for grey iron, one would expect
Figure 13: Example of micro-shrinkage
porosity in a ductile iron casting that has
been minimized by Ultraseed inoculant. (a)
Ultraseed inoculant, (b) Manganese-
zirconium type inoculant.
10. Elkem Solves Your Problem
Elkem has tested many alternative
alloy analyses to develop the
current range of inoculants which
includes the well established
Superseed. More recently,
Ultraseed and Reseed have been
added to the range of inoculants and
the development of
References
1) Skaland, T. : Ph.D Thesis, The Norwegian Inst. of Tech., 1992.
2) Engler, S. : Giesserei, techn.-wiss.Beih., 17(1965), p 169/202.
3) Moore, A. : Brit.Foundrym. 68 (1974) March, p 59/69
Patterson, V.H. : Foundry 100 (1972) June, p 68/71
a greater shrinkage tendency, and it
is interesting to see that the
solidification pattern is in fact similar
to over-inoculated grey iron.
Ultraseed inoculant has proven
highly successful in providing fresh
nucleation sites to ductile irons of
long holding time where the base
iron or magnesium treated iron have
been held for prolonged times
before addition of the post inoculant.
Such long hold times are well known
to reduce the overall capabilities of
the iron prior to inoculation resulting
in so-called “dead” iron. Ultraseed
inoculant will thus reinstall good
nucleation effectiveness from
reactions with its sulphur and
oxygen
(a)
new improved alloys goes on
continuously. For further
information on Elkem’s extensive
range of inoculants, please contact
your local representative. The
success of Elkem products
worldwide justifies their elaborate
development and provides
content forming new nucleation
sites.
Due to the powerful effects of
Ultraseed inoculant on raising
nodule count and improving chill
protection, it has been found that the
tendency to shrinkage formation is
also reduced with this inoculant.
Especially, the type of shrinkage
that often occurs as small porosities
in hot-spot sections of the complex
castings, appear to be effectively
reduced or even eliminated by
Ultraseed inoculant. Figure 13
shows an example of micro-
shrinkage porosity that has been
minimized by the use of Ultraseed
inoculant.
(b)
a sound base for a foundryman to
select the appropriate inoculant for
his foundry’s particular
requirements.
11
Elkem ASA
Foundry Alloys
Hoffsveien 65B
P.O. Box 5211
Majorstua
N-0303, Oslo, Norway

Telephone : +47 22 45 01 00
Telefax : +47 22 45 01 52
Telex : 77133 esfer n
Printed in England. Ref: Revised April 2000