Emilio Aguinaldo College

School of Arts and Sciences

PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM
Congressional East Avenue, Brgy.Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite
(+63)046-4164342 loc. 148
www.eac.edu.ph/cavite

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

ALFRED ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

I. OVERVIEW OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

The term individual psychology was used by Adler to stress his belief that each person is an integrated
whole, striving to attain future goals and attempting to find meaning in life while working harmoniously with
others. It presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily on the notion of social interest, that is, a
feeling of oneness with all humankind.
Adler argued that people may become largely aware of their deepest impulses and fictional finalism
and, with conscious intent, create their own personalities and lifestyles that will achieve their highest goals.
In the end, Adler’s position was almost the complete antithesis of Freud’s which emphasized that our
behaviour is largely determined by forces of which we are unaware.
 Emphasized that our unconscious does not determine personality
 Theory is about the governing internal forces of personality
 Overcome inferiorities
 1st to emphasized the role of family in the development of personality

Freud Adler
Reduced all motivation to sex and People are motivated by social influences and
aggression their striving for superiority and success
People have little or no choice in shaping People are responsible for who they are
their personality
Present behavior is shape by past Present behavior is shape by people’s view of
experiences the future
Put high emphasis on unconscious Psychologically healthy people are aware of
what they are doing and why are they doing it

II. ALFRED ADLER’S BIOGRAPHY (1870-1937)

Adler was born on February 7, 1870 in Vienna, Austria. As a young boy, Adler was weak and sickly and
at age 5, he nearly died of pneumonia. Adler’s poor health was in sharp contrast to the health of his older
brother Sigmund. Several of Adler’s earliest memories were concerned with the unhappy competition between
his brother’s good health and his own illness.
In 1907, Adler published the ―Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Physical Compensation,‖ which
assumed that physical deficiencies-not sex- formed the foundation for human motivation.
He finished his doctorate in medicine in 1895 from the University of Vienna. He wrote the book ―The
Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology‖. He died at the age of 67 while on a lecture tour in Scotland.
Summary:
 Born in 1870 in a Viennese suburb, a second son of middle - class Jewish parents.
 As a young child he was weak and sickly (he nearly died of pneumonia at the age of 5), a condition that
contrasted sharply with his strong, healthy older brother, Sigmund.
 The death of his younger brother (infant) motivated him to become a physician
 He was interested in social relationships – siblings and peers
 Adler developed a strong rivalry with Sigmund—a rivalry that was similar to his later relationship with
Freud.
 Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became a charter member of the Wednesday
Psychological Society
 However, personal and professional differences between Freud and Adler led to Adler's departure from
the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911.
 Adler soon founded his own group, the Society for Individual Psychology.
  His strengths were his energetic oral presentations and his insightful ability to understand family
dynamics.
 Adler married Raissa Epstein who was a feminist. They had 4 children
 During the last few years of his life, Adler lived in the United States and earned a reputation as a gifted
public speaker. He died in 1937 in Scotland while on a lecture tour.

III. ADLER’S CONTRIBUTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

 People are born with weak and inferior bodies ->feelings of inferiority and dependence to other people -
feelings of unity with others (social interest)

The following represents the final statement (tenets) of individual psychology.

1. the one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority.
2. people’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality
3. personality is unified and self-consistent
4. the value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest
5. the self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life
6. style of life is molded by people’s creative power

1. Striving for Success or Superiority

The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is the striving for success or superiority.
 The sole dynamic force behind all our actions
 Transformation of drive: aggression ->masculine protest ->Striving for Superiority ->Striving for
success (personal superiority/success)

The Final Goal

The final goal of success or superiority toward which all people strive unifies personality and makes all
behavior meaningful.
 Its fictional and has no objective existence
 Product of creative power (age 4 or 5): people’s ability to free shape their behavior and create their
own personality
 Reduces the pain of inferiority feelings and leads the person to either superiority or success
 If children felt neglected or pampered their goals will remain unconscious
 If children experience love and security, they set goals that are largely conscious and clearly understood
 People are not always conscious of their final goal, even though they may be aware of their immediate
subgoals.
 When an individual’s final goal is known, all action is make sense and subgoals takes on new
significance

The Striving Force as Compensation

Because people are born with small, inferior bodies, they feel inferior and attempt to overcome these
feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion. The striving force can take one of
two courses—personal gain (superiority) or community benefit (success).
 the striving force is innate = feelings of inferiority ->goal of superiority
 The goal is to overcome these feelings through their natural tendency to move toward completion.
 The goal may take many forms. It is not necessarily a mirror image of the deficiency even if it is a
compensation for it
 The striving force can take one of two courses— personal gain or community benefit.

Striving for Personal Superiority

Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal superiority with little concern for other people.
Although they may appear to be interested in other people, their basic motivation is personal benefit.
 Goals are personal ones (sometimes with little or no concern for others)
 Largely motivated by exaggerated feelings of inferiority (inferiority complex)
 Others, although they may appear to be interested in others, their basic motivation is personal benefit.

Striving for Success

In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the success of all humanity, but they do so without
losing their personal identity.
2. Subjective Perceptions
People strive for superiority or success to compensate for feelings of inferiority, but the manner in which
they strive is not shaped by reality but by their subjective perceptions of reality, that is, by their fictions,
or expectations of the future.
People's subjective view of the world—not reality—shapes their behavior.

A. Fictionalism
Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because
people act as if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology over causality, or explanations of
behavior in terms of future goals rather than past causes.
 People's beliefs and expectations of the future.
 Adler held that fictions guide behavior, because people act as if these fictions are true.
 Example: a belief in an omnipotent God who rewards good and punishes evil

B. Physical Inferiorities
 All humans are "blessed" with organ inferiorities(physical inferiorities) that stimulate subjective feelings
of inferiority and move people toward perfection or completion
 Deficiencies do not cause a particular style of life; they are motivation for reaching goals
 Because people begin life small, weak, and inferior, they develop a fiction or belief system about
how to overcome these physical deficiencies and become big, strong, and superior. But even after they
attain size, strength, and superiority, they may act as if they are still small, weak, and inferior

3. Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality

Personality is unified and self-consistent.
Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a single purpose. When seen in the light of that
sole purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviors can be seen as operating in a self-consistent manner.
 Adler wished to stress his belief that each person is unique and indivisible. Thus, individual psychology
insists on the fundamental unity of personality and the notion that inconsistent behavior does not exist.

A. Organ Dialect
The disturbance of one part of the body cannot be viewed in isolation; it affects the entire person. In
fact, the deficient organ expresses the direction of the individual’s goal (organ dialect).
People often use a physical disorder to express style of life, a condition Adler called organ dialect, or
organ jargon.
 A boy wetting his bed sends a message that he does not wish to obey his parents

B. Conscious and Unconscious

Conscious and unconscious processes are unified and operate to achieve a single goal. The part of
our goal that is not clearly understood is unconscious(thoughts that are not helpful)
; that part of our goal we fully comprehend is conscious. (helpful in striving for success)

4. Social Interest Gemeinschaftsgefϋhl = a feeling of oneness with all of humanity

The value of all human activity must be seen from the viewpoint of social interest.
Human behavior has value to the extent that it is motivated by social interest. Natural condion of
human. It binds society

A. Origins of Social Interest

Although social interest exists as potentiality in all people, it must be fostered in a social environment.
Adler believed that the parent-child relationship can be so strong that it negates the effects of heredity.
 It originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of infancy.
 both mothers and fathers have crucial roles in furthering the social interest of their children and that the
parent/child relationship is so strong that it negates the effects of heredity. (until age 5)

B. Importance of Social Interest

According to Adler, social interest is "the sole criterion of human values," and the worthiness of all
one's actions must be seen by this standard. Without social interest, societies could not exist;
individuals in antiquity could not have survived without cooperating with others to protect themselves
from danger. Even today an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.
 Without social interest, societies could not exist, because individuals could not protect themselves from
danger.
  Social interest was Adler’s yardstick for measuring psychological health. Only gauge to be used in
judging the worth of a person.
 Thus, an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a nurturing person.

C. Three Major Tasks in Life to be able to Develop Social Interest:

1. Occupational Tasks – through constructive work, the person helps to advance
society.
2. Social Tasks – this requires cooperation with fellow humans (division of labor).
3. Love and Marriage Tasks – relationship between this tasks and the continuance of society is
clear.

D. Four types of people according to their degree of Social Interest:

a. Ruling – Dominant Type – attempts to rule or dominate people;
b. Getting – Learning Type – expects everything from others and gets everything he/she can
from them.
c. Avoiding Type – such a person avoids failure by never attempting anything.
d. Socially Useful Type – confronts problems and attempts to solve them in a socially useful way.
The first three types have faulty lifestyles because they lack proper social interest. Only the socially
useful type can cope to live a rich, purposeful life.

5. Style of Life
The self-consistent personality structure develops into a person’s style of life.
The manner of a person's striving is called style of life, a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years
of age. However, Adler believed that healthy individuals are marked by flexible behavior and that they
have some limited ability to change their style of life.
 Style of life is the term Adler used to refer to the flavor of a person’s life. It includes a person’s goal,
self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world.
 Pattern of life developed as we reach for goal
 product of interaction of heredity, environment and person’s creative power
Different types/styles are:
 Ruling Type (Dominating)
 Getting Type (Parasitic)
 Avoiding Type (Denial; Avoidant)
 Socially useful type (Ideal) – appropriate actions to problems, accept weaknesses, willing to change

- Parenting
(Too protective = personal superiority
(Uninvolved = inferiority/unwantedness

Creative Self
-Freedom to create own style of life
-Individual is product of environment and heredity
- Individual influences environment

6. Creative Power
Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
Style of life is partially a product of heredity and environment—the building blocks of personality—but
ultimately style of life is shaped by people's creative power, that is, by their ability to freely choose a
course of action.
 freedom of choice
  Their creative power places them in control of their own lives, is responsible for their final goal,
determines their method of striving for that goal, and contributes to the development of social interest
 Ultimately style of life is shaped by our creative power; that is, by our ability to freely choose which
building materials to use and how to use them.
 People have considerable ability to freely choose their actions and their personality.

IV. Adler’s Concept of Abnormal Development

A. General Description
According to Adler, the one factor underlying all types of maladjustments is underdeveloped social
interest. Besides lacking social interest, neurotics tend to 1. set their goals too high, 2. live in their own private
world, and 3. have a rigid and dogmatic style of life.

 Creative power is not limited to healthy people; unhealthy individuals also create their own
personalities.
 The most important factor in abnormal development is underdeveloped social interest.

B. External Factors in Maladjustment

Adler also recognized three external factors, anyone of which is sufficient to contribute to abnormality.
The following are the external factors which tend to create a faulty lifestyle:
1. Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies- people with exaggerated physical deficiencies sometimes develop
exaggerated feelings of inferiority because they overcompensate for their inadequacy. They tend to be overly
concerned with themselves and lack consideration for others.
 Severe physical defects do not by themselves cause abnormal development, but they may contribute to it
by generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of inferiority.

2. Pampered Style of Life- pampered people have a weak social interest but a strong desire to perpetuate
the pampered, parasitic relationship they originally had with one or both of their parents. They expect others to
look after them, overprotect them, and satisfy their needs.
 develop low levels of social interest
 continue to have an overriding drive to establish a permanent parasitic relationship with their mother or
a mother substitute.
 They believe they are entitled to be first in everything
 They have not received too much love rather they feel unloved (parents doing too much for them)

3. Neglected Style of Life- children who feel unloved and unwanted are likely to borrow heavily from
these feelings in creating a neglected style of life. These children are distrustful of other people and are unable
to cooperate for the common welfare.
 Children who feel neglected often use these feelings as building material for a useless style of life—one
characterized by distrust of other people.

TERMS TO BE REMEMBERED:
Inferiority Feelings
- Compensate for inferiorities

Sources of Inferiorities:
- Physical Appearance
- Parenting
- Socioeconomic status
- Psychological Mentality

Complexes
- Negative coping to inferiorities

Inferiority Complex
- Incompetent self
- Justify Failure
Superiority Complex
- Develop when a person over compensates for normal inferiority feelings
- Believes he is greater than others

Compensate – process of developing one’s abilities in order to overcome real or imagine inferiorities
 Overcompensate may lead to inferiority and superiority complex

Striving for Superiority

- Man’s Ultimate goal
- Psychologically Healthy

Ways Developing superiority:

- Be aggressive – actively seek opportunities to improved
- Be powerful (positive) - apply skills
- Be superior – mastery of skills

Direction
•Negative – take advantage of others
•Positive – help other

C. Safeguarding Tendencies- patterns of behavior to protect exaggerated sense of self-esteem against

public disgrace. These protective devices enable people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their
current style of life. The following are the common safeguarding tendencies:
 Safeguarding tendencies are largely conscious, Means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These
safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic status quo and protect a person from public disgrace.
 Safeguarding tendencies only with reference to the construction of neurotic symptoms.
1. Excuses- in this protective device, people first state what they claim they would like to do- something
that sounds good to others- then they follow with an excuse. Excuses are typically expresses in the ―Yes, but‖ or
―If only‖ format. Examples of excuses:

―Yes, I would like to go to college, but my children demand too much of my attention.‖
―Yes, I agree with your proposal, but company policy will not allow it.‖
―If only, my husband were more supportive, I would have advanced faster in my profession.‖
 Frequently take the form of "Yes, but" or "If only." By making excuses for their shortcomings, people
can preserve their inflated sense of personal worth.

2. Aggression- this protective device is used to safeguard the exaggerated superiority complex, that is, to
protect their fragile self-esteem. Safeguarding through aggression may take the form of depreciation,
accusation, or self-accusation.
 Behaving aggressively toward themselves or others.
 May take the form of depreciating others' accomplishments, accusing others of being responsible for
one's own failures, and accusing self as a means of inflicting suffering on others.
Depreciation- this is the tendency to undervalue other people’s achievements and to overvalue one’s own.
Accusation- this is the tendency to blame others for one’s failure and to seek revenge, thereby safeguarding
one’s own tenuous self-esteem.
Self-accusation- this safeguarding tendency is marked by self-torture, including masochism, depression,
and suicide, as means of hurting people who are close to them.

3. Withdrawal-the style of running away from difficulties. This is a safeguarding through distance. Adler
recognized the following four modes of safeguarding through withdrawal:
Moving backward- this is the tendency to safeguard one’s fictional goal or superiority by psychologically
reverting to a more secure period of life.
 Standing still- people who stand still simply do not move in any direction; thus, they avoid all
responsibility by ensuring themselves against any threat of failure.
Hesitating- this includes procrastinations which eventually give them the excuse ―It’s too late now.‖
Constructing obstacles- people using this safeguarding tendency creates problem and showing people that
they are capable of overcoming the problem or obstacle they created.
 Try to escape from life's problems by running away from them; maintaining distance.
 People can withdraw psychologically by moving backward, standing still, hesitating, or constructing
obstacles.

D. Masculine Protest
Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the desirability of being manly, a condition Adler called
the masculine protest. The frequently found inferior status of women is not based on physiology but on
historical developments and social learning.

V. APPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

The applications of Adler’s individual psychology are divided into the following four areas:
A. Family Constellation- this includes birth order, the gender of siblings, and the age spread between them.
Although people’s perception of the situation into which they were born is more important than numerical rank,
Adler did form some general hypotheses about birth order.
Firstborn children (eldest) are most likely to have intensified feelings of power and superiority, high
anxiety, and overprotective tendencies. Firstborn children occupy a unique position, being an only child for a
time and then experiencing a traumatic dethronement when a younger sibling is born. This event dramatically
changes the situation and the child’s view of the world.
 First borns are likely to have strong feelings of power and superiority, to be overprotective, and to have
more than their share of anxiety.
 Excessive attention seeker; feels inferior after birth of 2nd child; greatest number of problem; third
parent, achiever

Second born children (middle) begin life in a better situation for developing cooperation and social
interest. Typically, the second born children mature towards moderated competitiveness, having a healthy desire
to overtake the older rival.
 Second borns (like Adler himself) are likely to have strong social interest, provided they do not get
trapped trying to overcome their older sibling.
 Easiest; Tries to dethrones first born; competition; Insecure

Youngest children are often the most pampered and, consequently, run a high risk of being problem
children. They are likely to have strong feelings of inferiority and to lack a sense of independence. They are
often highly motivated to exceed older siblings and to become the fastest runner, the best musician, the most
skilled athlete, or the most ambitious student.
 Youngest children are likely to be pampered and to lack independence, whereas only children may have
even less social interest and tend to expect others to take care of them.
 Least amount of power in family; most pampered and protected
 Only children are in a unique position of competing, not against brothers and sisters, but against father and
mother. Living in an adult world, they often develop an exaggerated sense of superiority an inflated self-
concept.
 Spoiled; Pampered; unsociable (having difficulty)

B. Early Recollections (ERs)- these are the recalled memories which can yield clues for understanding
patients’ style of life. Adler did not consider these memories to have a causal effect to personality.
 Adler believed that ERs are not chance memories but templates on which people project their current
style of life.
 ERs need not be accurate accounts of early events; they have psychological importance because they
reflect our current view of the world.
C. Dream Analysis- is a method wherein a person’s dreams are used to provide a way of dealing with the
person’s life problems. By analyzing how to confront problems and how to plan future events through dream
analysis, a great deal could be learned about the person’s style of life.
 provide clues to solving future problems.
 dreams are disguised to deceive the dreamer and usually require interpretation by another person.
D. Psychotherapy- the chief purpose of Adlerian psychotherapy is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of
inferiority, and encourage social interest. Through the use of humor and warmth, Adler tried to increase the
patient’s courage, self-esteem, and social interest. He believed that a warm, nurturing attitude by the therapist
encourages patients to expand their social interest.
Adler innovated a unique method of therapy with problem children by treating them in front of an
audience of parents, teachers, and health professionals. He believed that this procedure would enhance
children’s social interest by allowing them to feel that they belong to a community of concerned adults.
 create a relationship between therapist and patient that fosters social interest. The therapist adopts both a
maternal and a paternal role.
Criteria for Evaluating a Theory Concept of Humanity
Characteristics Theory Determinism High on Free Choice
vs. Freedom
Capacity to generate Research Above Optimism Vs. High on Optimisim
Average Pessimism
Falsifiability Low Causality Vs. Very Low in Causality
Teology
Ability to Organize Data High Conscious Vs. Moderate on Unconscious
Unconscious Influences
Ability to Guide Action High Biological Vs. High on Social Influences
Social
Influence
Internal Consistency Low Uniqueness High on Uniqueness
Vs. Similarities
Parsimony High
Prepared by:

BAUTISTA, JUNO C. MP-CP, RPm

Psychology Program Head

References:

Feist, Feist & Roberts (2017). Theories of Personality, ninth Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Feist, Feist & Roberts (2013). Theories of Personality, eight Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Bischof, L.J. (1970). Interpreting Personality Theories 2nd Edition. New York: Harper & Rows, Publishers.

Burger, J.M. (1986). Personality Theory and Research. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Feist, J & Feist, F. (2008). Theories of Personality, Seventh Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.J. (editors) (2008). General Psychology for Filipino Students. Manila, Philippines:
Ateneo De Manila University Press.
 Emilio Aguinaldo College
School of Arts and Sciences
PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM
Congressional East Avenue, Brgy.Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite
(+63)046-4164342 loc. 148
www.eac.edu.ph/cavite

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

SIGMUND FREUD’S PYCHOANALYSIS

I. OVERVIEW OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Psychoanalysis is considered as the most interesting, controversial and famous of all personality theories.
This is because Freud believed that people are motivated primarily by drives of which they have little or no
awareness. These drives include SEX and AGGRESSION which are considered as the twin cornerstones of
psychoanalysis.
Freud believed that all human behaviors have a cause. Nothing happened simply by chance- not even an
accident. Freud believed that minor mistakes like slips of the tongue are also manifestations of unconscious
motives. He likewise indicated that through humor a person can express his aggressiveness or sexual desires
without fear of retaliation by either the ego or the superego.
Psychoanalytic theory also place big emphasis on the influence of childhood experiences to the
personality of man.
 Dreams are road to the unconsciousness
 Free Association bypass censorship of Ego employs
 Freudian Slip – Slip of the tongue
 Hypnosis – Ego is put into suspension
II. SIGMUND FREUD’S BIOGRAPHY
Sigmund Freud was born in Freinsberg, Moravia (now Czechoslovakia). He later moved to Vienna where
he lived for nearly 80 years. He died in England one year after his family migrated there.
He was the first of six children by the second wife of his father. He and his mother had a very close and
powerful relationship.
He was an excellent student, graduating as the head of his class. He was accepted in medical school at the
age of 17. Although he was not interested in medicine he saw it as a means by which he can engage in scientific
research.
He had six children one of his daughters, Ana, became a famous child psychiatrist in London.
Freud worked with Joseph Breuer, a successful medical practitioner, who was then developing a new
method of treating hysteria- a disorder with a wide variety of symptoms such as paralysis, loss of sensation,
disturbance of speech and sight. Breuer found out that some of the symptoms of his patients would disappear
temporarily or permanently by encouraging them to express their feelings and emotions. He called this process
catharsis. However, Breuer found that during the course of treatment, the patient responds to the therapy
thinking as if he or she was an important person in the doctor’s life. Breuer called this transference. Likewise
the analyst may also form an emotional attachment to the patient which he termed counter transference. These
can bring about failure in treatment.
Freud later went to France where he studied under Jean Charcot, a French psychiatrist who was using
hypnosis in the treatment of hysteria. From Charcot, Freud learned two (2) things:
1. It is possible to treat hysteria as a psychological disorder rather than as an organic one.
2. The possibility that a patient’s problem has a sexual basis.

Freud first used hypnosis (induction of a state of consciousness in which a person apparently loses the
power of voluntary action and is highly responsive to suggestion or direction) for treating hysteria but later
abandoned it because he found out that not all his patients could be hypnotized. Eventually, he developed the
technique of free association which he called the ―the fundamental rule of psychoanalysis‖. Here the patients
were encouraged to speak freely and to report whatever their thoughts were, regardless of the apparent
relationship or lack of relationship to their symptoms.
 Then he began his self- analysis because he felt that before one can analyze others, he must first undergo
analysis himself.
He also wrote several books. The most successful was ―Interpretation of Dreams‖ which led to the start of
the psychoanalytic movement.
Freud spent his life developing and defending psychoanalysis. He retained control over the psychoanalytic
movement by expelling members who did not agree with his views.

Summary:
 Born in the Czech Republic in 1856 and died (of cancer) in London in 1939, Freud spent nearly 80 years
of his life in Vienna.
 Freud was the first born of his father and mother, although his father already had 2 grown sons
 He was the favorite of his mother over the 7 other siblings (he was not close to any of them)
 His relationship with his father appears to be cold if not occasionally hostile
 When he was 1 ½ year old, his mother gave birth to Julius (who died at 6 months) Freud developed
hostility to his brother and unconsciously wished him dead. He had carried into adulthood the guilt, he
thought he was the cause of his death
 A physician who never intended to practice general medicine, Freud was intensely curious about human
nature.
 Early in his professional career, Freud believed that hysteria was a result of being seduced during
childhood by a sexually mature person, often a parent or other relative. But in 1897, he abandoned his
seduction theory and replaced it with his notion of the Oedipus complex.
 Some scholars have contended that Freud's decision to abandon the seduction theory in favor of the
Oedipus complex was a major error and influenced a generation of psychotherapists to interpret patients'
reports of early sexual abuse as merely childhood fantasies.
 He fell in love with Martha Bernays and marry her in 1886. They had 6 children. The youngest is Anna
Freud who held a special place in his heart
 He was mentored by Jean-Martin Charcot (hypnotic technique for treating hysteria) and Josef Breuer
(catharsis)
 He then gradually discovered free association technique
 Studies of Hysteria: after its publication, Freud and Breuer had a professional disagreement and became
estranged
 Interpretation of Dreams: contains many of Freud’s own dreams. Soon after his publication his
friendship with Fliess began to cool
 Freud and Jung interpreted each other’s dreams that eventually led to the end of their relationship

III. FREUD’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PERSONALITY THEORY

A. Levels of Mental Life/ Parts of the Mind (Topographic Model)

The key starting point in understanding the Freudian approach to personality is the division of the human
mind into three parts. This is not the same as the division of the human brain into physical sections. The three
parts are the following:

1. Conscious. Mental elements in awareness at any given point in time (all that our senses detect). It is the
only level of mental life directly available to us. This material is changing constantly as new thoughts enter
your mind and others pass out of awareness. It plays a relatively minor role in Freudian theory.
 Contains we are thinking about or experiencing at a given moment. It contains the Ego.
 Conscious ideas stem from either the perception of external stimuli; that is, our perceptual conscious
system, or from unconscious and preconscious images after they have evaded censorship.
2. Preconscious. Contains all those elements that are not conscious but can become conscious either quite
readily or with some difficulty. Or, contains images that are not in awareness but that can become conscious
either quite easily or with some level of difficulty.
 Contains memories that are not part of current thoughts but can readily be available to mind if need
arises (equivalent to our memories). It contains Superego
 Experiences that are forgotten are in the preconscious.
 2 sources:
1. Conscious perception. when the focus of attention shifts to another idea (usually free from
anxiety)
2. Unconscious. ideas can slip past the vigilant censor and enter into the preconscious in a disguised
form
3. Unconscious. Contains all those drives, urges, or instincts that are beyond our awareness but that
nevertheless motivate most of our words, feelings, and actions. Or, the unconscious consists of drives and
instincts that are beyond awareness, yet they motivate many of our behaviors. (unaware)
 Unconscious drives can become conscious only in disguised or distorted form, such as dream images,
slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms. It where the ID resides.
 Most unconscious thoughts were conspicuous but has been actively repressed-driven from
consciousness because they were too anxiety provoking
 Unconscious processes originate from two sources:
(1) repression, or the blocking out of anxiety -filled experiences and
(2) phylogenetic endowment, or inherited experiences that lie beyond an individual's personal
experience. (only as last resort in explaining behavior)
 The unconscious mind of one person can communicate with the unconscious of another without either
person being aware of the process
 Unconscious forces constantly strive to become conscious

B. Provinces of the Mind/ Structures of the Personality (Structural Model)

According to Freud, personality consists of three interacting forces: a. the Id, b. Ego and c. Superego.
1. Id (das Es)
 Completely unconscious
 serves the pleasure principle and seeks constant and immediate satisfaction of instinctual needs
 not altered by the passage of time or by experiences of the person.
 It is illogical and entertain incompatible ideas
 Operates on Primary process (basic drives). Biological instinctive drive
It is concerned only with satisfying personal desires, regardless of the physical or social limitations that might
prevent us from getting whatever we want. The actions taken by the id are based on the pleasure principle.
Freud maintained that at birth, id is the only part of the human personality. For example, when babies see
something they want, they reach for it; it doesn’t matter whether the object belongs to someone else or may be
harmful.
In addition, said Freud, the id uses wish fulfillment to satisfy its needs: If a baby is hungry and doesn’t see
food nearby, the id imagines the food and thereby at least temporarily satisfies the need.

2. Ego (das Ich)

 Secondary process, is governed by the reality principle;
 partly conscious, preconscious and unconscious
 responsible for reconciling the unrealistic demands of both the id and the superego with the demands of
the real world. (decision-making branch)
 It becomes anxious and would use defense mechanisms as protect itself
 It has no energy of its own but borrows from id
 Psychologically healthy people have a well-developed ego.
The primary job of the ego is to mediate/ balanced the demands of the Id and the outer forces of reality. Because
the Id impulses are unacceptable and therefore threatening for the individual, it is the ego’s job to keep these
impulses in the unconscious. It is important to emphasize that the ego’s job is not to frustrate the aims of the id.
Ego gradually develops during the first two years of life as the child interacts with his or her environment.

3. Superego (Uber Ich)

 Serves the idealistic principle, has two subsystems— the conscience and the ego-ideal
 The conscience results from punishment for improper behavior (guilt),
 whereas the ego-ideal stems from rewards for socially acceptable behavior (inferiority feelings – when
the ego fails to meet the standards of perfection)
 operate on morality principle. (what is right)
 Neither the id nor the superego is in contact with reality
 Development: Age 5 to 6
The moral arm of the personality, it corresponds to one’s conscience. It represents society’s- and in particular,
the parents’-values and standards. The superego thus place more restrictions on what an individual can and
cannot do. It is formed when a child reach the age of 5 and develops from the internalized patterns of reward
and punishment received from the parents.
But the superego does not merely punish the individual for moral violations. It also provides the ideals the
ego uses to determine if a behavior is virtuous and therefore worthy of praise. Because of poor child-rearing
practices, some children fail to fully develop the superego. Here the person could suffer from anxiety-an ever-
present feeling of shame and guilt- for failing to reach standards no human can meet.

C. Dynamics of Personality
Freud postulated a dynamic, or motivational principle, to explain the driving forces behind people’s
actions. To Freud, people are motivated to seek pleasure and to reduce tension and anxiety.
 The term dynamics of personality refers to those forces that motivate people. The concept includes
both instincts and anxiety.

1. Drives (instinct or impulse) – a stimulus within an individual.

Freud used the German word Trieb to refer to a drive or a stimulus within the person. It operates as a constant
motivational force. This includes sex drive (libido) and aggression drive.
 They cannot be avoided through flight response
 Every basic drive is characterized by:
 Impetus: amt. of force it exerts
 Source: region of the body in tension
 Aim: seek pleasure by removing tension
 Object: person or thing where the aim is satisfied

2 primary instincts—sex (Eros) and aggression (Thanatos, or the destructive instinct).

a. Sex (Eros) *libido

The aim of this drive is pleasure, but this pleasure is not limited to genital satisfaction. Freud believed that the
entire body is invested with libido. Besides the genitals, the mouth and anus are especially capable of producing
sexual pleasure and are called erogenous zone.
 Aim: to seek pleasure, through the erogenous zones = mouth, anus, and genitals.
 Object: any person or thing that brings sexual pleasure.
Sex can take many forms, including narcissism, love, sadism, and masochism and all possess large components
of the sexual drive even though they may appear to be nonsexual. The latter two also possess generous
components of the aggressive drive.

i. Narcissism. It is manifested during the infant who are primarily self-centered, with their libido invested
almost exclusively on their own ego.
 All infants possess primary narcissism, or self-centeredness, but the secondary narcissism (moderate
degree of self-love) of adolescence and adulthood is not universal
ii. Love. Develops when people invest their libido on an object or person other than themselves.
iii. Sadism. The need for sexual pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation on another person.
 Sadism, which is the reception of sexual pleasure from inflicting pain on another,
iv. Masochism. The need for sexual pleasure from suffering pain and humiliation inflicted either by
themselves or by others.
 Masochism, which is the reception of sexual pleasure from painful experiences, satisfies both sexual and
aggressive drives.

If carried to an extreme, sadism and masochism is considered a sexual perversion but in moderation is a
common need

b. Aggression (Thanatos, or the destructive instinct).

This is considered as the destructive drive, according to Freud the aim of this drive is to return the organism to
an inorganic state. The ultimate inorganic condition is death, thus, the final aim of the aggressive drive is self-
destruction.
 As with the sexual drive, aggression is flexible and can take a number of forms, such as teasing, gossip,
sarcasm, humiliation, humor, and the enjoyment of other people’s suffering. The aggressive tendency is present
in everyone and is the explanation for wars, violence, and religious persecution.
 The destructive instinct aims to return the person to an inorganic state, but it is ordinarily directed
against other people and is called aggression.
 It can take a number of form like teasing, gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor & enjoyment of other
people’s suffering
 Commandments such as ―Love thy neighbor as thyself‖ is a way of inhibiting the strong drive to inflict
pain to others. These are reaction formations

2. Freud’s Concept of Anxiety

Sex and aggression share the center of Freudian dynamic theory with the concept of anxiety. In defining
anxiety, Freud emphasized that is a felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that
warns the person against impending danger. The unpleasantness is often vague and hard to pinpoint, but the
anxiety itself is always felt.
 Anxiety happens when ID and SUPEREGO contradicts each other
 Only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and outside world can each be a source of anxiety.

Three Kinds of Anxiety

1. Neurotic anxiety- apprehension about an unknown danger. People may experience neurotic anxiety in the
presence of a teacher, employer, or some other authority figure because they previously experienced
unconscious feelings of destruction against one or both parents.
 Neurotic anxiety is apprehension about an unknown danger and stems from the ego's relation with the
id;
2. Moral anxiety- stems from the conflict between the ego and superego. After children establish a superego-
usually by the age of 5 or 6- they may experience anxiety as an outgrowth of the conflict between realistic needs
and the dictates of their superego. For example, a failure to behave consistently with what they regard as
morally right, for example, failing to care for aging parents.
 Moral anxiety is similar to guilt and results from the ego's relation with the superego; and
3. Realistic anxiety- this kind of anxiety is defined as an unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a possible
danger. It is closely related to fear.
 Realistic anxiety is similar to fear and is produced by the ego's relation with the real world.

D. Defense Mechanisms (help us adapt/adjust) – a process used by the ego to distort reality and protect a
person from anxiety.
The ego is attempting to reduce or avoid anxiety- an unpleasant emotional experience similar but not
identical to feelings of nervousness, worry, agitation, or panic. Awareness of certain unacceptable material
creates anxiety. The feeling that unacceptable unconscious thoughts are about express themselves into
consciousness also can create vague feelings of anxiety.
How does the ego deal with anxiety-provoking material? The ego has at its disposal many different
techniques, known collectively as defense mechanisms, which can be used to deal with unwanted thoughts and
desires. The principal defense mechanisms are:
1. Repression- is a mechanism by which the ego prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts from being entertained in
the conscious level. Freud believed that all of us use repression, for we all have material in our unconscious
minds we would rather not bring into awareness.
According to Freud, repression is ―the cornerstone on which the whole structure of psychoanalysis rests‖.
In essence, repression is an active effort by the ego to push unwanted material out of consciousness or to keep
such material from ever reaching consciousness.
Repressed wishes can find unconscious outlet is through one’s dreams or through unconscious expressive
gestures. Example, Freud regarded certain dream contents as disguised representations of the sex act. Or typical
mannerisms like swinging one’s legs while sitting, is a manifestation of a repressed wish.
 Forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded experiences into the unconscious, or push conscious unpleasant
thoughts to the unconscious. ―what you don’t know won’t hurt you‖
 Causes of phobias
 It is the most basic of all defense mechanisms because it is an active process in each of the others.
  Many repressed experiences remain unconscious for a lifetime but others become conscious in a
disguised form or in an unaltered form
2. Sublimation- channelling or substituting of negative id impulses into socially acceptable actions. For
example, our aggressive impulses can get us into trouble if directed at the people we might want to express
them to. But if these impulses are sublimated into, say, boxing or football, that is acceptable, because in our
society aggressive athletes are considered heroes and rewarded for their actions. Freud called this sublimation
whereby the unconscious process of the libido or the sex instinct is transformed into a more acceptable form as
artistic, scientific, social work, religious activities and the like. According to Freud, sublimation is truly
successful defense mechanism, in that the more we use it, the more productive we become.
 Contribute to the welfare of society
 They involve elevating the aim of the sexual instinct to a higher level and are manifested in cultural
accomplishments, such as art, music, and other socially beneficial activities.
3. Displacement- channelling or substituting our impulses from an original target to another person or object.
For example, a woman whose boss yells at her might want to strike back at the employer, but a functioning ego
will keep that impulse out of her consciousness. Instead, she might express her aggression by yelling at her
husband or children. Although doing so could create other problems, it’s probably less threatening than losing
her job. Freud noted that many of our apparently irrational fears, or phobias, are merely symbolic
displacements. For example, a fear of one’s father might be displaced to something that symbolically represents
the father, such as strong and powerful horses.
 Redirecting of unacceptable urges and feelings onto people and objects in order to disguise or conceal
their true nature.
 Unlike, reaction formation, it does not exaggerate or overdo the disguised behavior
4. Denial-when we use denial, we simply state that certain facts do not exist. This is more than saying we do not
remember, as in repression. Rather, we are insisting that something is not true, despite all evidence to the
contrary. A widower who loved his wife deeply may act as if she were still alive long after her death. He may
set a place for her at the table, or tell friends that she is just away visiting a relative. To the widower, this
charade is more acceptable than admitting consciously that his wife has died. Obviously, denial is an extreme
form of defense. The more we use it, the less we are in touch with reality, and the less likely are we able to
function fully.
 Refusing to accept reality. ―TRUTH HURTS‖
5. Reaction Formation- is concealing a motive by giving strong expression to the opposite. For example, a
young woman who cannot tell enough people how much she loves her mother could be masking strong
unconscious hatred for the mother. People who militantly get involved with anti-pornography crusades could,
according to the Freudian view, unconsciously hold a strong interest in these matters.
 Repression of one impulse and the pretentious expression of its exact opposite, or doing the opposite of
what you really feels
6. Projection- attributing an unconscious impulse to other people instead of to oneself. Here we are projecting
the impulse onto another person, for example hatred in oneself can be projected onto someone else.
 Seeing in others those unacceptable feelings or behaviors that actually reside in one's own unconscious.
 Transferring unacceptable thoughts to other. ―Look who’s talking‖
 When carried to extreme, projection can become paranoia, which is characterized by delusions of
persecution.
7. Rationalization- the process of justifying one’s conduct by offering socially acceptable reasons in place of
real reasons. The excuses are made up to hide or disguise the true motive. Rationalization may take two forms:
a. Sour Grape- pretending to dislike what one really likes (taken from Aesop fable about the fox, who, unable
to reach the grapes, said that they were probably sour anyway). Example, a girl is very excited to attend the
debut party of her friend but unfortunately she is not invited so she may rationalize by saying that she is not
really interested to attend. ―We broke up but it’s okay, she wasn’t even cute‖
b. Sweet-lemon- pretending to like what one really dislikes. Example, a student who has shift to another course,
say business, because of failure to make the grade in a medicine course, may rationalize by saying that he is
really interested in the business course. Creating a bogus ―brighter side‖.
8. Compensation- The process of engaging in substitutive behaviour in order to cover up or make up social or
physical frustration or a lack of ability in a certain area of personality. Example, the parents who wish their
children to enjoy advantages denied them are compensating for achievements denied them. This covers the
anxiety by focusing attention on other forms of behaviour.
 Overcompensate to hide insecurity, Narcissistic behaviors
9. Regression- is a mechanism in which a person turns to an earlier stage of development when he or she
experience stress. It is a way of alleviating anxiety by withdrawing from realistic thinking into behaviours that
have, in earlier years, reduced anxiety. Just like an old woman who is unconsciously showing her anxiety by
wearing clothes for teenagers.
 When a person reverts to earlier, more infantile modes of behavior
 Going back to childhood behaviors when faced with anxiety, crying, tantrums, etc.
 Usually, temporary
10. Introjection- defense mechanism is a defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive qualities of
another person into their own ego. Example, a teen-ager who identifies with favorite movie star. In children,
introjection is a normal part of growing up, as in trying to be like superman, or Batman, etc. but in an adult with
established life patterns, this is a cover up for unexpressed motives.
 Incorporation of positive qualities of another person in order to reduce feelings of inadequacy.
 Hero worship might be a good example.
11. Undoing- ―cancel out‖ or ―make-up‖ for a bad act by doing good. An example of undoing would be
excessively praising someone after having insulted.
12. Identification – ―If you can’t beat them, join them!‖
13. Fixation
 When psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development, making psychological change difficult.
 Permanent attachment of the libido to an earlier stage of development
 They are universal
Note:
 Too much use – lead to mental disorders
 Too little use - problems in life

E. Stages of Psychosexual Development

One of the most controversial contributions Freud made to psychology is his theory of personality
development. Freud believed that “The child is the father of man” which means that our personality was due
to our childhood experiences. In addition, Freud believed that every child goes through a sequence of
developmental stages and that the child’s experiences during these stages determine adult personality
characteristics.

Freud had a tendency to interpret most psychological phenomena within a sexual framework.
Consequently, his explanation of early personality development largely centered on sexual themes.
According to him, each of us progresses through a series of developmental stages during childhood. Each
stage has an erogenous zone or the part or area of one’s body that will satisfy the activity. In order to make a
smooth transition from one psychosexual stage to the next, the child must not be overgratified or
undergratified because it can lead to either fixation or regression. Freud uses the term fixation to an arrest
on the development on which the person does not progress normally from stage to stage but remains overly
involved with a particular stage. Table 1 shows the stages of psychosexual development formulated by Sigmund
Freud.
 Differences in personalities: originate in childhood sexual experiences
 Childhood greatly influence personality in adulthood
 If child goes through a stage properly he/she will progress to the next stage
 Failure to achieve this lead to fixation->cause of personality disorders
 Fixation – inability to proceed to the next stage due to frustration (under gratification) or over indulgence
(over gratification).
 Libido – sexual and aggressive urge that transfer to one erogenous zone to another
 Erogenous zone – part of the body where the libido is centered; part of the body that needs stimulation by
engaging him/her in gratifying activities
 Regression – coping with anxiety by manifesting a childhood behaviour that was learned from the
previous stages.
 Table 1. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Stage Age range Erogenous Activities (Physical Personality characteristics/
(approx.) zone expressions) Fixations
1. Oral Birth- 2 yr. Mouth -Sucking Oral personalities:
-Biting Oral receptive (dependent )
-Licking - too much stimulation=child may
become very dependent,
Nursing – submissive
responsive Oral sadistic (aggressive
nurturing is the key personality
-too little gratification = child will
be very aggressive and get what
he/she wants through force.
- Emergence of teeth as a defence
against environment is called oral
sadistic

Symptoms of Oral Fixation

- Over-eating
- Excessive drinking
- Biting pencils
- Smoking
- Putting some objects to their
mouth.
- Too much talking
- Nail biting, sarcasm, and verbal
hostility
2. Anal (sadistic-anal 2- 3 years Anus Toilet training Anal Personalities:
phase) - Urge control Anal retentive personalities:
- satisfaction gained - excessive pressure = take
through aggressive pleasure in being able to withhold
behavior and excretory (obsessively clean and orderly)
function (sadistic-anal)
- Orderly, organize and tidy.
- occurs at about the
-Vein, meticulous/perfectionist
second year of life,
when toilet training is - Stinginess
the child's chief source Anal expulsive personalities:
of frustration. - too lenient= child will derive
- If parents use pleasure and success from the
disciplinary training expulsion (reckless, careless)
methods, a child may - Messy, untidy
develop the anal triad
of orderliness, - Disorganize
stinginess, and - Stubborn
obstinacy, all of which - Generous
mark the anal
character. Anal Triad (orderliness,
stinginess, and obstinacy)
3. Phallic 3-6 years Genital Play with genitals; Male Oedipus complex
- boys and girls begin area sexuality - Castration anxiety, fear of father
to have differing identification c
psychosexual Feeling of -penis envy, fear of mother
development, which
attraction towards
occurs around ages 3
or 4 years. the parent of Success = control envy and
- For both genders, opposite sex->envy hostility –> identify with the same-
suppression of and fear of the sex parent
masturbation is the same-sex parent. Failure = mama’s boy; flirty girls
principle source of with commitment issues
frustration. -Sexual desire to
- young children opposite sex parent. - Sexual deviances (overindulging
experience the
and avoidance)
Oedipus complex =
having sexual feelings - Confused or weak sexual identity
for one parent and
hostile feelings for the
other.
- The male castration
complex breaks up the
male Oedipus complex
and results in a well-
formed male superego.
- For girls, the
castration complex, in
the form of penis
envy, precedes the
female Oedipus
complex, a situation
that leads to only a
gradual and
incomplete shattering
of the female Oedipus
complex and a weaker,
more flexible female
superego.
4. Latency 6- puberty - Socialization
Time of learning ,
―sublimation stage‖ adjusting to social
- From about age 5 environment, form
years until puberty—in beliefs and values
which the sexual
instinct is partially
Developing same-
suppressed.
sex friendship
- It is believed that this
may have roots in our
phylogenetic
endowment
5. Genital Puberty Genital Sexual intercourse
- Begins with puberty onward area
when adolescents - Masturbation and
experience a heterosexual
reawakening of the
relationship
genital aim of Eros,
and it continues
throughout adulthood. - Renewed sexual
interest desire
- pursuit of
relationships
Maturity
- Freud hinted at a
stage of psychological
maturity in which the
ego would be in
control of the id and
superego and in which
consciousness would
play a more important
role in behavior.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Since the major assumption of Freud is that unconscious materials influence most behavior, then he
employed several techniques or methods to determine the contents of the unconscious mind as follows:

 Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique

- Freud used a very aggressive technique whereby he strongly suggested to patients that they had been sexually
seduced as children.
- He later abandoned this technique, with a belief that he may have elicited memories of seduction from his
patients and that he lacked clear evidence that these memories were real.

 Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique

- Goal: uncover repressed memories through the free association and dream analysis = to strengthen the ego
- Transference: strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or negative, that patients develop towards the
analyst during the course of treatment
- Negative transference: form of hostility must be explained to the client to overcome resistance to treatment

1. Dream Analysis
According to Freud, dreams are the ―royal road to the unconscious‖. In 1900 he published The
Interpretation of Dreams, presenting for the first time a psychological theory of what our dreams really mean.
Freud said that dreams provide the id impulses with a stage for expression. They are a type of wish fulfilment,
that is, a representation of what the individual would like to have.
An exception to the rule that dreams are wish fulfillments is found in patient suffering from a traumatic
experience. Dreams of these people follow the principle of repetition compulsion rather than wish fulfilment.
The dreams are frequently found in people with PTSD who repeatedly dream of frightening or traumatic
experiences.

2 Contents of Dream
a. Manifest Content- what the dreamer sees and remembers.
b. Latent Content- the meaning of the manifest content, what is the unconscious interpretation of the said
dream.
The key to Freudian interpretation of dreams lies in understanding that many of our unconscious thoughts
and desires are presented symbolically in the dream.

Examples:
House- human body
King and Queen- parent
Small animals- children
Water- birth
Train journey- dying
Clothes and uniforms- nakedness
Snake, Sticks, umbrellas, trees, knives, rifles, pencils and hammers- male genitals
Cave, Bottles, boxes, rooms, doors and ships- female genitals
Dancing, riding and climbing- sexual intercourse
 manifest content (conscious description)
 latent content (unconscious meaning of the dream that lies hidden from the dreamer).
 Nearly all dreams are wish-fulfillments, although the wish is usually unconscious and can be known
only through dream interpretation.
 Dreams that are not wish-fulfillments follow the principle of repetition compulsion and often occur after
people have had a traumatic experience, now called a post-traumatic stress disorder.
 To interpret dreams Freud used both dream symbols and the dreamer's associations to the dream content.

2. Projective test
A subject is presented with ambiguous stimuli and asks the person to respond with a story, the
identification of objects, or perhaps a drawing. As with the cloud formations, there are no right or wrong
answers. Rather, responses are individual and indicative of something going on deep inside the mind, something
the person may not be aware of.

3. Free Association
Spend a few minutes to clear your mind of thoughts. Then allow whatever comes into your mind to enter.
Say whatever you feel like saying, even if it is not what you expect and even if you are a little surprised for
embarrassed by what comes out. If you are successful in allowing these free-flowing ideas into your awareness,
you have experienced what some call the fundamental rule of psychoanalysis: free association.

4. Freudian Slips (Parapraxes)

These are the commonly called slips of the tongue or pen, misreading, incorrect hearing, misplacing
objects, and temporarily forgetting names or intentions that are not chance accidents but reveal a person’s
unconscious intentions. A husband might refer to his wife by her maiden name may unconsciously wish he’d
never married this woman. Although the statement sounds innocent- an accidental slip- it may be loaded with
underlying feelings.
 slips of the tongue or pen, misreadings, incorrect hearings, misplacing of objects, and temporary
forgetting of names or intentions are not chance accidents but reveal a person's unconscious intentions.

5. Hypnosis
Early experiences with hypnosis helped Freud to understand that there was more to the human mind than
what one can bring into awareness. He argued late in his career that hypnosis provided proof for the existence of
the unconscious.
6. Humor
According to Freud, for a joke to be funny, it must contain anxiety provoking material. We laugh only at
the things that bother us. Most often, sex and death are favorite topics. According to Freud, if you want to know
what has been repressed in a person’s mind, examine what he or she finds humorous.

7. Symbolic Behavior
Just as our dreams are interpreted by Freudian psychologists as symbolic representations of our
unconscious desires, so too can many of our daily behaviors be taken as symbolic gestures of these unconscious
thoughts.
Example:
A patient who unconsciously held a great deal of hostility toward his mother was expressed through an
interesting doormat the patient purchased for his home. On the doormat was a design of several daisies. Daisy is
the favorite flower of her mother, thus the son enjoyed rubbing his feet and stomping on the daisies-
symbolically acting out his hostility toward his mother.

Criteria for Evaluating a Theory

Characteristics Freud Theory
Capacity to generate Research Average
Falsifiability Low
Ability to Organize Data Moderate
Ability to Guide Action Low
Internal Consistency High Internal, but many terms not operational defined
Parsimony Low

Concept of Humanity
Determinism vs. Freedom Deterministic
Optimism Vs. Pessimism Pessimistic
Causality Vs. Teleology Causality
Conscious Vs. Unconscious Unconscious
Biological Vs. Social Influence Biological
Uniqueness Vs. Similarities Equal (middle)
Prepared by:

BAUTISTA, JUNO C. MP-CP, RPm

Psychology Program Head

References:

Feist, Feist & Roberts (2017). Theories of Personality, 9th Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Feist, Feist & Roberts (2013). Theories of Personality, eight Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Bischof, L.J. (1970). Interpreting Personality Theories 2nd Edition. New York: Harper & Rows, Publishers.

Burger, J.M. (1986). Personality Theory and Research. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Feist, J & Feist, F. (2008). Theories of Personality, Seventh Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill

Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.J. (editors) (2008). General Psychology for Filipino Students. Manila, Philippines:
Ateneo De Manila University Press.
 Emilio Aguinaldo College
School of Arts and Sciences
PSYCHOLOGY PROGRAM
Congressional East Avenue, Brgy.Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite
(+63)046-4164342 loc. 148
www.eac.edu.ph/cavite

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Commission on Higher Education

Technical Committee for Psychology (TCP)
Resolution No. 01-2014

Agreed Weights of Board Exam Subjects for Psychometricians

Subject Weight No. of Items
1. Psychological Assessment 40% 150
2. Theories of Personality 20% 100
3. Abnormal Psychology 20% 100
4. Industrial Psychology 20% 100
100% 450

Professional Regulatory Board of Psychology

Resolution No.19
Series of 2014
Table of Specifications: Board Licensure Examination for Psychometricians
Theories of Personality
Outcome Weight No. of Items
1. Recognize and differentiate the basic 80% 80
theories and perspective of personality
2. Identify the socio-cultural and 10% 10
environmental factors that may impact
personality.
3. Identify relevant Filipino/ indigenous 10% 10
concepts in understanding personality
100% 100
Theories of Personality

INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY

Introduction
The subject Theories of Personality is a survey of the major theories of personality and the theoretical
and practical issues involved in the scientific study and understanding of personality formation and dynamics
(CMO No. 34, Series of 2017). Specifically, it deals with the salient features, concepts, designs or structures,
principles and explanations of personality formation.

The intended outcome of the course is to understand and apply the major facets of the personality theory
in understanding human behavior. The theories are usually categorized into five (5) approaches namely
psychodynamic, behavioral/social learning, humanistic, trait, and cognitive approach.

I. What is Personality?
Etymologically speaking, the term personality was derived from the Latin word “persona” which means
a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek drama. This surface view of personality, of course, is not an
acceptable definition. When psychologists use the term “personality,” they are referring to something more than
the role people play.
 Personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both
consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior.
 Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of behavior over time, and stability
of behavior across situations. It may be unique, common to some group, or shared by the entire species
BUT the pattern is different for each individual (consistency & stability of behavior over time)
 Characteristics are unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperament,
physique, and intelligence.
 Behavior is any action/ response to internal and external stimuli.
 Note: No Exact Definition

II. What about a Theory?

 Theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to
formulate testable hypotheses.
 Set. A single assumption can never fill all the requirements of a good theory
 Related. Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypotheses nor possess internal
consistency
 Assumptions. not proven facts but accepted as if they were true
 Logical Deductive Reasoning. to deduce a clearly stated hypothesis
 Testable. must suggest the possibility that scientists

III. Theory and Its Relatives

 Philosophy. Theory is related to philosophy, but it is a much narrower term. Philosophy encompasses
several branches, one of which is epistemology, or the nature of knowledge.
 Speculation. Theories rely on speculation, but they are much more than mere armchair speculation.
(Must be tied to empirical data and science), Science is the branch of study concerned with observation
and classification of data and with the verification of general laws through the testing of hypotheses.
Theories are useful tools employed by scientists to give meaning and organization to observations. In
addition, theories provide fertile ground for producing testable hypotheses
 Hypothesis. Although theory is a narrower concept than philosophy, it is a broader term than
hypothesis. (Specific guess that can be tested using scientific method), A hypothesis is an educated
guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to be tested through the use of the scientific method.
A theory is too general to lend itself to direct verification, but a single comprehensive theory is capable
of generating thousands of hypotheses.
 Hypotheses, then, are more specific than the theories that give them birth. The offspring, however,
should not be confused with the parent.
o Using deductive reasoning (going from the general to the specific), a scientific investigator can
derive testable hypotheses from a useful theory and then test these hypotheses.
o Using inductive reasoning (going from the specific to the general), the investigator then alters
the theory to reflect these results.
  A taxonomy is a classification of things according to their natural relationships. Taxonomies are
essential to the development of a science because without classification of data science could not grow.
o Mere classification does not constitute a theory. However, taxonomies can evolve into theories
when they begin to generate testable hypotheses and to explain research findings.
 Relationship between theory and science. Theories are useful tools employed by scientists to give
meaning and organization to observations. In addition, theories provide fertile ground for producing
testable hypotheses.

IV. Why Different Theories?

There are different theories because of the following differences of the theorists:
 Personal background
 Childhood experiences
 Interpersonal relationships
 Philosophical orientations
 Unique ways of looking at the world
 Data chosen to observe
 Personalities
 Theories are built not on proven facts but on assumptions (assumed to be true) that are subject to
individual interpretations
 Reflection of their personal background, their philosophical orientation, and the data they chose to
observe
 Its usefulness depends on its ability to generate research and to explain research data and other
observations

Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories of Personality

 Psychology of science
- The empirical study of scientific thought and behavior (including theory construction) of the scientist.
- The personalities and psychology of different theorists influence the kinds of theories that they develop.
 the psychology of science examines how scientists’ personalities, cognitive processes, developmental
histories, and social experience affect the kind of science they conduct and the theories they create.
 An understanding of theories of personality rests on information regarding the historical, social, and
psychological worlds of each theorist at the time of his or her theorizing.
 distinguished between science as process and science as product.
 The scientific process may be influenced by the personal characteristics of the scientist, but the ultimate
usefulness of the scientific product is and must be evaluated independently of the process.

(summarize)
Psychology of science is the empirical study of the personal traits of scientists (theorists). The
psychology of science studies both science and the behavior of scientists; that is, it investigates the impact of an
individual scientist’s psychological processes and personal characteristics on the development of her or his
scientific theories and research.

V. What Makes a Theory Useful?

 It generates a number of hypotheses that
can be investigated through research,
thus yielding research data
 Organizes research data into a
meaningful structure and provides
explanation for the results
1. Generates Research -
 A useful theory will stimulate both
descriptive research and hypothesis
testing.
 Descriptive research provides a
framework for an evolving theory
 whereas hypothesis testing expands our knowledge of a scientific discipline.
2. Is falsifiable
 It must generate research that can either confirm or disconfirm its major tenets.
 A negative result will contradict the theory and force the theorist to either discard it or modify it
 A theory that can explain everything explains nothing
3. Organizes data
 It should be able to fit current research data into an intelligible framework and to integrate new
information into its structure.
4. Guides action
 Practical tools that guide a road map for making day-to-day decisions.
Example: what kind of psychotherapy technique is going to be used to the client?
5. Is internally consistent
 Includes operational definitions that define concepts in terms of specific operations to be carried out by
the observer. (logically compatible)
6. Is parsimonious
 When two theories are equal on the first five criteria, the simpler one is preferred. (straightforward
theories)

VI. Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity

Personality theories differ on basic issues concerning the nature of humanity. Each personality theory
reflects its author’s assumptions about humanity. These assumptions rest on several broad dimensions that
separate the various personality theorists.
The following are the six dimensions as a framework for viewing each theorist’s concept of humanity.
Determinism people’s behaviors are determined by forces over which they have no control
vs. Free choice people choose to be what they wish to be
Pessimism people doomed to live miserable, conflicted, and troubled lives
v s . O p t i m i s m people grow into psychologically healthy, happy, fully functioning human
beings
Causality behavior is a function of past experiences
vs. Teleology explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purposes
Conscious people are ordinarily aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it
vs. Unconscious people act without awareness of underlying forces
Biological personal characteristics are result of heredity (Nature)
vs. personal characteristics are environmentally determined (Nurture)
Social influences
Uniqueness focus on the individuality of the person
vs. Similarities focus on the common characteristics of people

 determinism versus free choice

o Are people’s behaviors determined by forces over which they have no control, or can people
choose to be. Can behavior be partially free and partially determined at the same time?
o Some personality theorists take extreme positions on this issue. Others express more moderate
views, arguing that some behavior are determined by past events and some can be spontaneous
and under our control

 pessimism versus optimism.

o Are people doomed to live miserable, conflicted, and troubled lives, or can they change and grow
into psychologically healthy, happy, fully functioning human beings? In general, personality
theorists who believe in determinism tend to be pessimistic (Skinner was a notable exception),
whereas those who believe in free choice are usually optimistic.
o Are we basically good or evil?

 Causality versus teleology

o causality holds that behavior is a function of past experiences, whereas teleology is an
explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purposes. Do people act as they do
because of what has happened to them in the past, or do they act as they do because they have
certain expectations of what will happen in the future?
o Past/Present/future
 o Historical determinism: the view that personality is basically fixed in the early years of life and
subject to little change thereafter

 conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior.

o Are people ordinarily aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it, or do unconscious
forces impinge on them and drive them to act without awareness of these underlying forces?

 biological versus social influences on personality.

o Are people mostly creatures of biology, or are their personalities shaped largely by their social
relationships? A more specific element of this issue is heredity versus environment; that is, are
personal characteristics more the result of heredity, or are they environmentally determined?
o Nature vs Nurture

 uniqueness versus similarities.

o Is the salient feature of people their individuality, or is it their common characteristics? Should
the study of personality concentrate on those traits that make people alike, or should it look at
those traits that make people different?

VII. Research in Personality Theory

 The reliability of a measuring instrument is the extent to which it yields consistent results
 Validity is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure.
 Case Studies and Clinical Research – Interview, Case Histories
 Laboratory studies and Experimental Research – Experiments, Observation
 Personality Questionnaires, Assessment Tools and Correlation Research – Standardization,
statistical tools.

Approaches of Personality Theories

Theories of personality cover a wide range, from those providing a broad application to many different
behaviors to those limited to certain types of behavior. Each theory possesses some ability to explain a certain
aspects of personality, and each explanation is at least somewhat accurate.
For convenience, the various personality theories covered in this course have been placed into five (5)
categories. Each of these categories, or approaches to personality, is distinguished from the others largely by its
assumptions and its focus, as well as by the methods it uses to assess personality, and treat problem behaviors.

1.Psychodynamic - this approach holds that behaviors are influenced by unconscious processes. According
to this approach, we are victims of unconscious sexual and aggressive instinct that constantly influence
our behavior. Likewise, this approach assumed that childhood experiences shape our personality later in
life.
2.Behavioral/ Social learning - this approach holds that behaviors are influenced by rewards, punishments,
and models by means of imitation. According to this approach, we act the way we do because of our
environment, not because of our personal choice or direction.
3.Humanistic - in this approach, people are assumed to have a great deal of responsibility for their actions.
This approach stresses that although we sometimes respond automatically to events in the environment
and may at times be motivated by unconscious impulses, we have the power to determine our own
destiny and to decide our actions at almost any given moment. We have free will. Likewise, this
approach explained that a behavior is in response to the frustration of some basic needs.
4.Trait approach - the focus of this approach is to identify types or categories of traits that describe a large
number of people and that can be used to predict behavior. It assumes that all people fit into one of the
categories, that all people within a category are basically alike, and that the behavior of people in one
category is distinct from that of people in the other categories.
5.Cognitive approach - this approach describes differences in personality as differences in the way people
process information. When people demonstrate noticeable different patterns of behavior it is the result
of differences in the way they perceive the world and in the way they organize and utilize this
information.
Prepared by:

BAUTISTA, JUNO C. MP-CP, RPm

BS Psychology Program Head

References
Feist, Feist & Roberts (2017). Theories of Personality, ninth Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill
Feist, J & Feist, F. (2013). Theories of Personality, Seventh Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill
Bischof, L.J. (1970). Interpreting Personality Theories 2nd Edition. New York: Harper & Rows, Publishers.
Burger, J.M. (1986). Personality Theory and Research. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Key Terms and Concepts

 The term “personality” comes from the Latin persona, or the mask that people present to the outside
world, but psychologists see personality as much more than outward appearances.
 Personality includes all those relatively permanent traits or characteristics that render some consistency
to a person’s behavior.
 A theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to formulate testable hypotheses.
 Theory should not be confused with philosophy, speculation, hypothesis, or taxonomy, although it is
related to each of these terms.
 Personality theories cover certain distinct perspectives: psychodynamic, humanistic, trait/dispositional,
behavioral/learning/social-cognitive
 Six criteria determine the usefulness of a scientific theory:
(1) Does the theory generate research?
(2) Is it falsifiable?
(3) Does it organize and explain knowledge?
(4) Does it suggest practical solutions to everyday problems?
(5) Is it internally consistent? and
(6) Is it simple or parsimonious?
 Each personality theorist has had either an implicit or explicit concept of humanity.
 Concepts of human nature can be discussed from six perspectives:
(1) determinism versus free choice,
(2) pessimism versus optimism,
(3) causality versus teleology,
(4) conscious versus unconscious determinants,
(5) biological versus social factors, and
(6) uniqueness versus similarities in people.

Outline of Theories

Psychodynamic Theories
Sigmund Freud : Psychoanalysis
Alfred Adler : Individual Psychology
Carl Jung : Analytical Psychology
Melanie Klein : Object Relations Theory
Karen Horney : Psychoanalytic Social Theory
Eric Fromm : Humanistic Psychoanalysis
Harry stack Sullivan : Interpersonal Theory
Erik Erikson : Post−Freudian Theory

Humanistic/Existential Theories
Abraham Maslow : Holistic Dynamic Theory
Carl Rogers : Person-Centered Theory
Rollo May : Existential Psychology
Dispositional/Trait Theories
Gordon Allport : Psychology of the Individual
*Hans Eysenck, McCrae, and Costa’s Trait and Factor Theories
Raymond Cattell : 16 personality Factors
Learning/Cognitive Theories
Burhuss Frederic Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
Albert Bandura : Social Cognitive Theory
Rotter and Mischel : Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Kelly : Psychology of Personal Constructs

Alternative outline

Trait Theories
Gordon Allport : Psychology of the Individual
Raymond Cattell : 16 personality Factors
*Hans Eysenck : Biological Based Factor Theory
McCrae, and Costa’s : Five Factor Trait Theory

Psychodynamic Theories
Sigmund Freud : Psychoanalysis
Alfred Adler : Individual Psychology
Carl Jung : Analytical Psychology
Karen Horney : Psychoanalytic Social Theory
Erik Erikson : Post−Freudian Theory

Behavioral Theory
Burhuss Frederic Skinner: Behavioral Analysis

Humanistic
Abraham Maslow : Holistic Dynamic Theory
Carl Rogers : Person-Centered Theory
Eric Fromm : Humanistic Psychoanalysis

Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura : Social Cognitive Theory
Rotter and Mischel : Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Kelly : Psychology of Personal Constructs

Object Relations Theory

Melanie Klein : Object Relations Theory
Margaret Mahler : Security To Autonomy
Heinz Kohut : Development of the Self
John Bowlby : Separation Anxiety
Mary Ainsworth : Attachment Anxiety

*Peris : Gestalt Therapy

*Rollo May : Existential Psychology