University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

Alubijid | Cagayan de Oro | Claveria | Jasaan | Oroquieta | Panaon

College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Electrical Engineering

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in Final Term for the subject

Differential Equation

Submitted to: Engr. Lorenz Jan Crujido

Instructor

Submitted by: PATILANO, Eduardo Jr.

BSEE 2B_E2
Homogeneous Higher Order Differential Equation

If f(x) = 0, it is said to be homogeneous, otherwise (i.e. f(x) ≠ 0), it said to be

nonhomogeneous.

Examples:

2
d y dy
1. −7 +12 y=0 → is a Homogeneous Higher Order Differential Equation
dx 2
dx
2. y ' ' +5 y ' −9 y =x2 → is a Nonhomogeneous Higher Order Differential Equation

Characteristic Polynomial

'' '
a y + b y + cy=0

d
2
a D y+ bDy+cy =0 where D=
dx

And where a , b , c … are constants

We factored out y to obtain the Quadratic Equation

( a D2 +bD+ c ) y =0 → Quadratic Equation

To absorb it easier let us substitute D to obtain back the equation

2
d y dy '' '
a +b + cy=0 ¿ a y + b y + cy=0
dx dx

Characteristic Equation

To obtain Auxiliary Equation the denoted D above will be change into r to find its roots.

( a D2 +bD+ c ) y =0 → 2
a r +br + c=0 → Auxiliary Equation
There will be two roots of the Auxiliary Equation which will be denoted as r 1∧r 2. Let us now
differentiate all the Auxiliary Equations which later will be form on the final answer as
General Solution.

Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients

A. The Auxiliary Equation: Real and Distinct

2
b −4 ac> 0

y=C 1 Y 1+C 2 Y 2 where: Y 1=er 1 x

r2x
Y 2=e

y=C 1 er x + C2 e r x → General Solution

1 2

Example:

1. Solve 2 y ’ ’+3 y ’−2 y =0

First thing to do is we have to obtain this equation a D 2 y+ bDy+cy =0.

2
2 D y +3 Dy−2 y=0

After we obtained the equation above, we must factor out y to obtain the Quadratic Equation.

( 2 D2 +3 D−2 ) y=0

The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation

2
2 r +3 r−2=0

Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots cannot be the same
since it is Real and Distinct.

1
r 1= ∧r 2=−2
2

Last thing to do is to write its General Solution and to check if it can still be simplified.

1
x
y=c1 e 2 + c 2 e−2 x
 B. The Auxiliary Equation: Repeated Roots

b 2−4 ac=0

r 1=r 2=r

r1x r2 x
y=C 1 e + C2 x e → General Solution

Example:

1. Solve y ' ' −2 y ' + y=0

First thing to do is we have to obtain this equation a D 2 y+ bDy+cy =0.

2
D y−2 Dy+ y=0

After we obtained the equation above, we must factor out y to obtain the Quadratic Equation.

( D2−2 D+1 ) y=0

The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation

r 2−2r +1=0

Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots are equal since it is
Repeated Roots.

r 1=r 2=1

Last thing to do is to write its General Solution and to check if it can still be simplified.

y=C 1 e x +C 2 x e x
 C. The Auxiliary Equation: Conjugate Complex Roots or Imaginary Roots

b 2−4 ac< 0

r =a ± jb

Equation has conjugate complex number where a∧b are real numbers.

ax ax
y=C 1 e cos bx +C2 e sin bx

ax
y=e ( C1 cos bx +C 2 sin bx ) → General Solution

Example:

1. Solve 36 y ' ' −36 y ' +13 y =0

First thing to do is we have to obtain this equation a D 2 y+ bDy+cy =0.

2
36 D y−36 Dy+13 y=0

After we obtained the equation above, we must factor out y to obtain the Quadratic Equation.

( 36 D2−36 D+13 ) y =0

The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation

36 r 2−36 r+ 13=0

Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots contains an Imaginary i .

1 1
r= ± i
2 3

Last thing to do is to write its General Solution and to check if it can still be simplified.

(C cos 13 x+C sin 13 x )

1
x
2
y=e 1 2
Let us now move to Homogeneous Higher Order Differential Equation with Initial Value
Problem or IVP.

Homogeneous Higher Order Differential Equation with Initial Value Problem

Example:

1. Solve y ' ' +6 y ' +13 y=0 ; y ( 0 ) =0∧ y ' ( 0 )=2

First thing to do is we have to obtain this equation a D 2 y+ bDy+cy =0.

2
D y+ 6 Dy+13 y=0

After we obtained the equation above, we must factor out y to obtain the Quadratic Equation.

( D2 +6 D+13 ) y=0

The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation

2
r +6 r +13=0

Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots contains an Imaginary i .

r =−3 ±2 i

Write its General Solution and derive it once to satisfy the given initial conditions.

y=e−3 x ( C 1 cos 2 x +C 2 sin 2 x )

We should consider that we have two terms on the general solution the e−3 x and
( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ), therefore we have to execute product rule. And in this term
( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) we must do chain rule.

u=e−3 x v=( C 1 cos 2 x+ C2 sin 2 x )

Product Rule: udv +vdu and Chain Rule: f ' ( g(x )) g ' (x)
 y ' =(e¿ ¿−3 x ) (−2C 1 sin 2 x+ 2C 2 cos 2 x ) + ( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) (−3 e−3 x ) ¿

Simplify, we have

y ' =(e¿ ¿−3 x ) (−2C 1 sin 2 x+ 2C 2 cos 2 x ) + ( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) (−3 e−3 x ) ¿

Using the initial conditions given in the problem y ( 0 )=0∧ y ' ( 0 )=2

@ y =0 , x=0

−3 x
y=e ( C 1 cos 2 x +C 2 sin 2 x )
−3 ( 0 )
0=e ( C 1 cos 2(0)+ C2 sin 2(0))

0=( 1 ) ¿ → C 1=0

'
@ y =2, x=0

y =(e¿ ¿−3 x ) (−2C 1 sin 2 x+ 2C 2 cos 2 x ) + ( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) (−3 e )¿

' −3 x

[
2=[(e ¿ ¿−3(0)) ( −2C 1 sin2( 0)+2 C 2 cos 2( 0) ) ]+ ( C 1 cos 2 ( 0 )+ C2 sin 2 ( 0 )) ( −3 e−3( 0) ) ¿ ]
2=¿ → C 2=2.5

Therefore, the particular solution is

y=2.5sin 2 x
 2. Solve y ' ' +6 y ' +13 y=0 ; y ( 0 ) =2∧ y ' ( 0 )=1

First thing to do is we have to obtain this equation a D 2 y+ bDy+cy =0.

2
D y+ 6 Dy+13 y=0

After we obtained the equation above, we must factor out y to obtain the Quadratic Equation.

( D2 +6 D+13 ) y=0

The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation

2
r +6 r +13=0

Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots contains an Imaginary i .

r =−3 ±2 i

Write its General Solution and derive it once to satisfy the given initial conditions.

−3 x
y=e ( C 1 cos 2 x +C 2 sin 2 x )

We have the same problem as number 1 but now we consider a different initial condition and
still we should consider that we have two terms on the general solution the e−3 x and
( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ), therefore we have to execute product rule. And in this term
( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) we must do chain rule.

u=e
−3 x
v=( C 1 cos 2 x+ C2 sin 2 x )
Product Rule: udv +vdu and Chain Rule: f ' ( g(x )) g ' (x)

y =(e¿ ¿−3 x )[−2C 1 sin 2 x+ 2C 2 cos 2 x ]+ ( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) (−3 e )¿

' −3 x

Simplify, we have

y ' =(e¿ ¿−3 x ) (−2C 1 sin 2 x+ 2C 2 cos 2 x ) + ( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) (−3 e−3 x ) ¿

Using the initial conditions given in the problem y ( 0 )=2∧ y ' ( 0 )=1

@ y =2 , x=0

y=e−3 x ( C 1 cos 2 x +C 2 sin 2 x )

−3( 0)
2=e ( C1 cos 2(0)+C 2 sin 2(0))

2= (1 ) ¿ → C 1=2

'
@ y =1 , x=0

y =(e¿ ¿−3 x ) (−4 C 1 sin 2 x+ 4 C 2 cos 2 x ) + ( C 1 cos 2 x +C2 sin 2 x ) (−3 e )¿

' −3 x

[
1=[(e ¿ ¿−3(0)) ( −2C 1 sin 2( 0)+2 C 2 cos 2( 0) ) ]+ ( C 1 cos 2 ( 0 )+C 2 sin2 ( 0 ) ) (−3 e−3 ( 0) ) ¿ ]
1=¿ → C 2=3.5

Therefore, the particular solution is

y=2cos 2 x +3.5 sin 2 x

Nonhomogeneous Higher Order Differential Equation
Method of Undetermined Coefficients:

d2 y dy
a +b + cy=f ( x)
dx 2
dx

Here are few steps to be used in obtaining the Nonhomogeneous Higher Order Differential
Equation.
1. Find the general solution of the homogeneous equation

2
d y dy
a 2
+b + cy=0
dx dx
2. Find a particular solution of the full equation

f (x) Form of Y p
k ( a constant ) C
linear ∈ x Cx+ D
quadratic ∈ x 2
C x + Dx+ E
k sin px C cos px
k cos px D sin px
k e px C e px
∑ of the above=¿
product of theabove=¿

Where p is constant and for the solution of Nonhomogeneous Equation Y =Y c +Y p .

So, in order for us to absorb and learn on how to obtain the Nonhomogeneous Higher Order
Differential Equation, let us solve some problems from the exercises above.

Example:
1. Solve y ' '' +3 y ' ' +3 y ' + y=e x −x−1

As we see on the problem it is now on the 3 rd order and we can set the equation
2 3 2
a D y+ bDy+cy =0 to a D y +b D y + cDy+dy =0. So, we have to use that equation on the
problem.

D 3 y+ 3 D 2 y +3 Dy+ y =0
After that we have to factor out y term, we obtain:

( D 3 +3 D2 +3 D+1 ) y=0
The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation
3 2
r +3 r +3 r +1=0
Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots are equal, and it is under
Repeated Roots.
r 1=r 2=r 3=−1

Write its General Solution Y c .

−x −x 2 −x
Y c =C 1 e + C2 x e +C 3 x e

Going back to the problem to solve for the Nonhomogeneous Equation Y p.

' '' '' ' x
y +3 y +3 y + y=e −x−1
We have two terms here e x and −x−1 to solve for the Y p. First, we have to solve Y p . So, we 1

have Y p=Y p +Y p 1 2

For the Y p : 1

' '' '' ' x

y +3 y +3 y + y=e

Let us take a look on the list of the form of Y p table above to obtain for the equivalent form
of e x .
x
We have to derive Y p =C e thrice since the problem is on third order equation.
1

Y p =C e x
1
Y ' ' p =C e x
1

Y ' p =C e x
1
Y ' '' p =C e x
1

x
After we derived Y p =C e we have to substitute the obtained value to the equation and
1

simplify if needed.
' '' '' ' x
y +3 y +3 y + y=e
x x x x x
C e +3 C e +3 C e +C e =e
x x
e ( C+3 C+ 3C +C )=e
x x
8 C e =e
We can now get the value of C which is equal to
8 C=1
1
C=
8

And go back to Y p to substitute the obtained value

1

Y p =C e x1

1 x
Yp= e
8 1

Now, we will move to the 2nd term −x−1 and find its Y p . 2

For the Y p : 2

y ' ' ' +3 y ' ' +3 y ' + y=−x−1

Let us take a look on the list of the form of Y p table above to obtain for the equivalent form
of −x−1. It is in the form of linear in x , therefore, the form to be use will be Y p =Cx + D. 2

We have to derive Y p =Cx + D thrice since the problem is on third order equation.
2
 ''
Y p =Cx + D
2
Y p2 =0

Y ' p =C
2
Y ' '' p =0 2

After we derived Y p =Cx + D we have to substitute the obtained value to the equation and
2

simplify if needed.

y ' ' ' +3 y ' ' +3 y ' + y=−x−1

0+3 ( 0 )+ 3C +Cx+ D=−x−1
In x terms:
Cx=−x−1
C=−1
Without x terms:
3 C+ D=−1
3(−1)+ D=−1
D=2

And go back to Y p to substitute the obtained value

2

Y p =Cx + D
2

Y p = (−1 ) x +2
2

Y p =−x+2
2

Combining the Y p and Y p

1 2

Y p=Y p +Y p 1 2

1 x
Y p= e −x +2
8
For the Nonhomogeneous Equation Y =Y c +Y p , we have:
−x −x 2 −x 1 x
Y =C 1 e +C2 x e + C3 x e + e −x+ 2
8

2. Solve y ' '' +2 y ' ' − y ' −2 y=1−4 x3

As we see on the problem it is now on the 3 rd order and we can set the equation
a D 2 y+ bDy+cy =0 to a D 3 y +b D2 y + cDy+dy =0. So, we have to use that equation on the
problem.

D 3 y+ 2 D 2 y−Dy−2 y=0
After that we have to factor out y term, we obtain:
 ( D 3 +2 D2−D−2 ) y =0
The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation

r 3 +2 r 2−r −2=0
Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots are different and
considered Real and Distinct.
r 1=1 , r 2=−1, r 3 =−2

Write its General Solution Y c .

x −x −2 x
Y c =C 1 e +C 2 e +C3 e

Going back to the problem to solve for the Nonhomogeneous Equation Y p.

' '' '' ' 3
y +2 y − y −2 y=1−4 x
In this problem we only have one term 1−4 x 3
For the Y p :
' '' '' ' 3
y +2 y − y −2 y=1−4 x
Let us take a look on the list of the form of Y p table above to obtain for the equivalent form
of 1−4 x 3.

We have to derive Y p=C x3 + D x 2+ Ex+ F thrice since the problem is on third order equation.
3 2
Y p=C x + D x + Ex+ F Y ' ' p =6 Cx+2 D
2
Y ' p =3C x +2 Dx+ E Y ' ' ' p =6 C

3 2
After we derived Y p=C x + D x + Ex+ F we have to substitute the obtained value to the
equation and simplify if needed.
' '' '' ' 3
y +2 y − y −2 y=1−4 x

6 C+ 2 ( 6 Cx +2 D ) −( 3 C x + 2 Dx+ E )−2 ( C x + D x + Ex+ F ) =1−4 x

2 3 2 3

After substituting the derived values, we can now distribute the constant values.
2 3 2 3
6 C+ 12Cx+ 4 D−3 C x −2 Dx−E−2C x −2 D x −2 Ex−2 F=1−4 x
3 2 2 3
−2 C x −3 C x −2 D x +12Cx−2 Dx−2 Ex+ 6 C+ 4 D−E−2 F=1−4 x

We have to factor the similar terms

 3 2 3
−2 C x + x (−3 C−2 D ) + x ( 12C−2 D−2 E ) +6 C +4 D−E−2 F=1−4 x

In x 3 terms:
3 3
−2 C x =1−4 x
−2 C=−4
C=2
In x 2 terms:
−3 C−2 D=0
−3 (−2 )−2 D=0
D=−3
In x terms:
12 C−2 D−2 E=0
12 ( 2 )−2 (−3 )−2 E=0
E=15
Without x terms:
6 C+ 4 D−E−2 F=1
6 ( 2 ) +4 (−3 )−15−2 F=1
F=−8
Combining the values obtained to have Y p:

Y p=C x3 + D x 2+ Ex+ F
3 2
Y p=2 x −3 x + 15 x−8

For the Nonhomogeneous Equation Y =Y c +Y p , we have:

x −x −2 x 3 2
Y =C 1 e + C2 e +C 3 e +2 x −3 x +15 x−8

'' ' −3 x
3. Solve y + 8 y +17 y=2 e ; y ( 0 )=2∧ y ( π2 )=0
First thing to do is we have to obtain this equation a D 2 y+ bDy+cy =0.
2
D y+ 8 Dy +17 y=0
After we obtained the equation above, we must factor out y to obtain the Quadratic Equation.
 ( D2 +8 D+17 ) y =0
The next step is to change D into r to obtain the Auxiliary Equation

r 2 +8 r +17=0
Time to get the roots of the Auxiliary Equation, in this case the roots contains an Imaginary i .
r =−4 ±i

Write its General Solution Y c .

−4 x
Y c =e ¿

Going back to the problem to solve for the Nonhomogeneous Equation Y p.

'' ' −3 x
y + 8 y +17 y=2 e
In this problem we only have one term 2 e−3 x
For the Y p :
'' ' −3 x
y + 8 y +17 y=2 e
Let us take a look on the list of the form of Y p table above to obtain for the equivalent form
of 2 e−3 x .

We have to derive Y p=C e−3 x twice since the problem is on second order equation.
−3 x −3 x
Y p=C e Y ' ' p =9 C e
−3 x
Y ' p =−3 C e

After we derived Y p=C e−3 x we have to substitute the obtained value to the equation and
simplify if needed.
'' ' −3 x
y + 8 y +17 y=2 e

9 C e−3 x + 8 ( −3C e−3 x ) +17 ( C e−3 x )=2 e−3 x

After substituting the derived values, we can now distribute the constant values.

9 C e−3 x −24 C e−3 x +17 C e−3 x =2 e−3 x

−3 x −3 x
2Ce =2e
2 C=2
C=1
From the value obtained:

Y p=e−3 x

For the Nonhomogeneous Equation Y =Y c +Y p , we have:

Y =e−4 x ¿

Since this is an initial value problem, we will now be going to use the given initial conditions
in the problem.
@ y ( 0 ) =2
−4 (0 )
2=e ¿
2= (1 ) ( C 1 ( 1 ) +C 2 ( 0 )) + 1

2=C 1 +1
C 1=1

@y ( π2 )=0
−4 ( π2 )
0=e ¿
−3 π
−2 π
0=e ( 2 ( 0 )+C 2 ( 1 ) ) + e 2

−π
2
C 2=−e

After we have done getting the values for C 1 and C 2 using the initial conditions, we can now
obtain for our final answer.
−4 x
Y =e ¿
Since I had already discussed about the Method of Undetermined Coefficients above, also
had its table of the form of Y p. Let us know about Variation of Parameters.

Variation of Parameters
Variation of Parameters is also another method on solving nonhomogeneous linear
differential equations, it can be second order a y ' ' + b y ' + cy=g, third order
a y ' ' ' +b y ' ' + c y ' +dy=g , or even higher order differential equations
N N−1
a o y + a1 y +·· ·+a n−1 y ' +a n y=g .
Particular Solution of the Nonhomogeneous Differential Equation is
y2 g ( x ) y1 g ( x )
y p ( x ) =− y 1∫ dx+ y 2∫ dx
W ( y1 , y2 ) W ( y1 , y2 )

where W ( y 1 , y 2 ) is the Wronskian – a determinant where it can sometimes show linear

independence in a set of two solutions (in this case, y 1 and y 2).

To solve for the Variation of Parameters, first,

'' '
a y + b y + cy=g
After obtaining the homogeneous equation you have to find the pair ( y 1 , y 2) . For example, we
have:

Y c =C 1 e3 x +C 2 e5 x
3x
y 1=e

y 2=e5 x

Then we will be going to solve for the Wronskian W . After obtaining the value for W we will
then solve for u1andu2 using the equation.
y 2 g (x)
For u1: u1=−∫ dx
W ( y 1 , y 2)

y 1 g ( x)
For u2 : u2=∫ dx
W ( y1 , y 2)

Then to solve for the Y p with the equation Y p=u1 y 1 +u2 y 2

Lastly, when we already obtain the Y p is to go back to its General Solution. The obtained Y
will be the final solution.

Example for Method of Undetermined Coefficients

y ' ' −4 y' −12 y=3 e5 x

2
D y−4 Dy−12 y=0
( D 2−4 D−12 ) y =0
2
r −4 r −12=0
r 1=6andr 2=−2
 6x −2 x
Y c =C 1 e +C 2 e

Since we have e 5 x , we have to derive the function twice.

5x
Y p=C e
5x
Y p '=5C e
5x
Y p ' '=25C e

Substituting back to the equation

'' ' 5x
y −4 y −12 y=3 e

25 C e 5 x −4 ( 5 C e 5 x ) −12 ( C e5 x )=3 e 5 x

Simplify,
5x 5x 5x 5x
25 C e −20 C e −12C e =3 e
5x 5x
−7 C e =3 e
−7 C=3
−3
C=
7
−3 5 x
Y p= e
7
6x −2 x 3 5x
Y =Y c +Y p =C1 e +C 2 e − e
7

Example for Variation of Parameters

'' ' 5x
y −4 y −12 y=3 e
2
D y−4 Dy−12 y=0
( D 2−4 D−12 ) y =0
2
r −4 r −12=0
r 1=6andr 2=−2
6x −2 x
Y c =C 1 e +C 2 e

Let
 6x −2 x
y 1=e and y 2=e

Find the Wronskian W ( y 1 , y 2 )

[ ]
6x −2 x
W= e e
6x −2 x
6 e −2e
4x 4x 4x
¿−2 e −6 e =−8 e

The equation for Y p

Y p=u1 y 1 +u2 y 2

Solving for u1andu2

y 2 g (x)
u1=−∫ dx
W ( y 1 , y 2)

e−2 x ( 3 e 5 x )
u1=−∫ dx
−8 e 4 x
3
u1 =
8
∫ e−x dx

−3 −x
u1 = e +C
8
y 1 g ( x)
u2=∫ dx
W ( y1 , y 2)
e6x (3 e5x )
u2=∫ dx
−8 e4 x
−3
8 ∫
7x
u2 = e dx

−3 7 x
u2 = e +C
56

Solve for Y p
Y p=u1 y 1 +u2 y 2

Y p=
[ −3 − x
8
e +C [ e ]+
6x

56] [
−3 7 x
e +C [ e ]
]
−2 x

−3 5 x 3
Y p= e + C e 6 x − e5 x +C e−2 x
8 56
We can take out C e 6 x and C e−2 x because they are part of homogeneous solution, we obtain,
−3 5 x 3 5 x
Y p= e − e
8 56
−3 5 x
Y p= e
7
6x −2 x 3 5x
Y =Y c +Y p =C1 e +C 2 e − e
7

As we can see we obtain the same nonhomogeneous differential equation in a different way
of solving by using the Method of Undetermined Coefficients and the Variation of
Parameters.
Method of Undetermined Coefficients
Advantage
According to the source I have
tutorial.math.lamar.edu, that one of the
main advantages of this method is that it
reduces the problem down to an algebra
problem. The algebra can get messy on
occasion, but for most of the problems it
will not be terribly difficult. Another nice
thing about this method is that the
complementary solution will not be
explicitly required, although as we will see
knowledge of the complementary solution
will be needed in some cases and so we
will generally find that as well.
Disadvantage
There are two disadvantages to this
method. First, it will only work for a fairly
small class of g(t )’ s. The class of g(t )’ s
for which the method works, does include
some of the more common functions,
however, there are many functions out
there for which undetermined coefficients
simply will not work. Second, it is
generally only useful for constant
coefficient differential equations.
Variation of Parameters
Advantage
The advantage of this method
Variation of Parameters is that it can be
used to solve for more functions compare
to the Method of Undetermined
Coefficients. And it is also more on
general, safe, and more advantage to use in
solving higher order differential equations.
Disadvantage
The method of Variation of
Parameters is a much more general method
that can be used in many more cases.
However, there are two disadvantages to
the method. First, the complementary
solution is absolutely required to do the
problem. This is in contrast to the method
of undetermined coefficients where it was
advisable to have the complementary
solution on hand but was not required.
Second, as we will see, in order to
complete the method, we will be doing a
couple of integrals and there is no
guarantee that we will be able to do the
integrals. So, while it will always be
possible to write down a formula to get the
particular solution, we may not be able to
actually find it if the integrals are too
difficult or if we are unable to find the
complementary solution.